Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

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The mission of the Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Department is to serve the State of Montana, the region, and the nation by providing outstanding leadership and contributions in knowledge discovery, student learning, innovation and entrepreneurship, and service to community and profession.

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Reducing Rework by Applying Set-Based Practices Early in the Systems Engineering Process
(2013-05) Kennedy, Brian; Sobek, Durward; Kennedy, Michael
Rework that occurs late in the product life cycle is dramatically more expensive than design work performed early in the cycle. However, shifting traditional design work earlier in the design process so as to avoid rework later is difficult. A number of product development practices that have been characterized as a shift from developing a single-point design to developing a set of possible designs have proven effective at reducing development rework. This paper refines the definitions of such “set-based” development practices, which are aimed at early development phases, and shows how they can be applied to the systems engineering process in order to reduce or eliminate the root causes of rework. Examples from the Wright Brothers, Toyota, and several other companies are presented.
Linked decreases in liver kinase B1 and AMP-activated protein kinase activity modulatematrix catabolic responses to biomechanical injury in chondrocytes
(2013-07) Petursson, F.; Husa, M.; June, Ronald K.; Lotz, Martin K.; Terkeltaub, R.; Liu-Bryan, R.
Introduction: AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) maintains cultured chondrocyte matrix homeostasis in response to inflammatory cytokines. AMPK activity is decreased in human knee osteoarthritis (OA) chondrocytes. Liver kinase B1 (LKB1) is one of the upstream activators of AMPK. Hence, we examined the relationship between LKB1 and AMPK activity in OA and aging cartilages, and in chondrocytes subjected to inflammatory cytokine treatment and biomechanical compression injury, and performed translational studies of AMPK pharmacologic activation. Methods: We assessed activity (phosphorylation) of LKB1 and AMPKα in mouse knee OA cartilage, in aging mouse cartilage (6 to 24 months), and in chondrocytes after mechanical injury by dynamic compression, via immunohistochemistry or western blot. We knocked down LKB1 by siRNA transfection. Nitric oxide, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3, and MMP-13 release were measured by Griess reaction and ELISA, respectively. Results Knockdown of LKB1 attenuated chondrocyte AMPK activity, and increased nitric oxide, MMP-3 and MMP-13 release (P <0.05) in response to IL-1β and TNFα. Both LKB1 and AMPK activity were decreased in mouse knee OA and aged knee cartilage, and in bovine chondrocytes after biomechanical injury. Pretreatment of bovine chondrocytes with AMPK activators AICAR and A-769662 inhibited both AMPKα dephosphorylation and catabolic responses after biomechanical injury. Conclusion: LKB1 is required for chondrocyte AMPK activity, thereby inhibiting matrix catabolic responses to inflammatory cytokines. Concurrent loss of LKB1 and AMPK activity in articular chondrocytes is associated with OA, aging and biomechanical injury. Conversely, pharmacologic AMPK activation attenuates catabolic responses to biomechanical injury, suggesting a potentially novel approach to inhibit OA development and progression.
A Novel Method for Curvefitting the Stretched Exponential Function to Experimental Data
(2013-12) June, Ronald K.; Cunningham, J. P.; Fyhrie, D. P.
The stretched exponential function has many applications in modeling numerous types of experimental relaxation data. However, problems arise when using standard algorithms to fit this function: we have observed that different initializations result in distinct fitted parameters. To avoid this problem, we developed a novel algorithm for fitting the stretched exponential model to relaxation data. This method is advantageous both because it requires only a single adjustable parameter and because it does not require initialization in the solution space. We tested this method on simulated data and experimental stress-relaxation data from bone and cartilage and found favorable results compared to a commonly-used Quasi-Newton method. For the simulated data, strong correlations were found between the simulated and fitted parameters suggesting that this method can accurately determine stretched exponential parameters. When this method was tested on experimental data, high quality fits were observed for both bone and cartilage stress-relaxation data that were significantly better than those determined with the Quasi-Newton algorithm.
Hydrodynamic Delivery of Cre Proteins to Lineage-Mark or Time-Stamp Hepatocytes In Situ
(2014-03) Sonsteng, K. M.; Prigge, Justin R.; June, Ronald K.; Schmidt, Edward E.
Cre-responsive fluorescent marker alleles are powerful tools for cell lineage tracing in mice; however their utility is limited by regulation of Cre activity. When targeting hepatocytes, hydrodynamic delivery of a Cre-expression plasmid can convert Cre-responsive alleles without inducing the intracellular or systemic antiviral responses often associated with viral-derived Cre-expression vectors. In this method, rapid high-volume intravenous inoculation induces hepatocyte-targeted uptake of extracellular molecules. Here we tested whether hydrodynamic delivery of Cre protein or Cre fused to the HIV-TAT cell-penetrating peptide could convert Cre-responsive reporters in hepatocytes of mice. Hydrodynamic delivery of 2 nmol of either Cre or TAT-Cre protein converted the reporter allele in 5 to 20% of hepatocytes. Neither protein gave detectable Cre activity in endothelia, non-liver organs, or non-hepatocyte cells in liver. Using mice homozygous for a Cre-responsive marker that directs red- (Cre-naïve) or green- (Cre-converted) fluorescent proteins to the nucleus, we assessed sub-saturation Cre-activity. One month after hydrodynamic inoculation with Cre protein, 58% of hepatocyte nuclei that were green were also red, indicating that less than half of the hepatocytes that had obtained enough Cre to convert one marker allele to green were able to convert all alleles. For comparison, one month after hydrodynamic delivery of a Cre-expression plasmid with a weak promoter, only 26% of the green nuclei were also red. Our results show that hydrodynamic delivery of Cre protein allows rapid allelic conversion in hepatocytes, but Cre-activity is sub-saturating so many cells will not convert multiple Cre-responsive alleles.
Ergonomics Service Learning Project: Implementing an Alternative Educational Method in an Industrial Engineering Undergraduate Ergonomics Course
(2014-07) Page, Lenore T.; Stanley, Laura M.
The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) and the Engineer of 2020, an engineering education initiative, have recommended that engineering students be provided with opportunities to participate in real-world projects to supply them with the skills they will need in the workplace. Service learning is a pedagogical approach where students apply skills they learn in a classroom to a real-world problem identified by a community organization. In 2009, a service learning project was introduced in an undergraduate Ergonomics Industrial Engineering course composed of engineering and nonengineering students at Montana State University (MSU). Its integration and development in the existing course required creating a detailed project description and finding a partner organization. Students worked with clients or staff at the partner organization to develop ergonomic solutions for workplace health and safety issues and manufacturing productivity. At the end-of-semester presentations, the community partners, instructor, and other students assessed each solution's effectiveness. These assessments found that students, compared to the partner's feedback, undervalued their prototypes with regard to how they improved worker and process efficiency, and they overvalued their solution's creativity, cost, and implementation feasibility. In addition, the service learning course's technical and professional skills ranked above the average ABET course outcomes of MSU's Industrial Engineering fall courses. This demonstrates how the service learning project and the intended goals from ABET and Engineer 2020 come together—service learning exposes students to real-world situations that better prepare and inform them of the skills that will be needed after graduation.
Selective Activation of Intrinsic Cohesive Elements.
(2014-12) Kyeongsik, W.; Peterson, William Matthew; Cairns, Douglas S.
In this paper, a selective activation strategy is studied in order to alleviate the issue of added compliance in the intrinsic cohesive zone model applied to arbitrary crack propagation. This strategy proceeds by first inserting cohesive elements between bulk elements and subsequently tying the duplicated nodes across the interface using controllable multi-point constraints before the analysis begins. Then, during the analysis, a part of the multi-point constraints are selectively released, thereby reactivating the corresponding cohesive elements and allowing cracks to initiate and propagate along the bulk element boundaries. The strategy is implemented in Abaqus/Standard using a user-defined multi-point constraint subroutine. Analysis results indicate that the strategy significantly alleviates the added compliance problem and reduces the computation time.
Safety Effects of Fixed Automated Spray Technology Systems
(2015) Veneziano, David; Muthumani, Anburaj; She, Xianming
Fixed automated spray technology (FAST) has emerged as a solution to provide quick, effective service delivery to high-risk locations prone to icy conditions or with high traffic volumes. The Colorado Department of Transportation has installed and used FAST on bridges since 1998, with 32 units currently installed on bridges around the state. There is some concern regarding the effectiveness of FAST in reducing accidents during winter weather. Previous studies of FAST have considered the changes to crash occurrence following deployment, but these studies were basic and compared seasonal figures or rates without accounting for site conditions. To address this shortcoming, an observational before–after study with the empirical Bayes technique was used to determine the effect of FAST systems on crash frequencies. The results revealed that at sites where crashes were reduced, FAST systems contributed to an annual reduction of 2% on multilane rural highways, 16% to 70% on urban Interstates, 31% to 57% on rural Interstates, and 19% to 40% on interchange ramps between Interstates. However, at some sites, safety deteriorated with an increase in crashes. Although the precise causes of such increases are not completely clear, they may have been the result of increased traffic, systems not being maintained properly, or systems applying fluids in improper amounts or at the wrong time. On the basis of the collective results, high-traffic, high-crash severity locations are most suitable for FAST deployment.
Combining Targeted Metabolomic Data with a Model of Glucose Metabolism: Toward Progress in Chondrocyte Mechanotransduction
(2016-01) Salinas, Daniel; Minor, Cody A.; Carlson, Ross P.; McCutchen, Carley N.; Mumey, Brendan M.; June, Ronald K.
Osteoarthritis is a debilitating disease likely involving altered metabolism of the chondrocytes in articular cartilage. Chondrocytes can respond metabolically to mechanical loads via cellular mechanotransduction, and metabolic changes are significant because they produce the precursors to the tissue matrix necessary for cartilage health. However, a comprehensive understanding of how energy metabolism changes with loading remains elusive. To improve our understanding of chondrocyte mechanotransduction, we developed a computational model to calculate the rate of reactions (i.e. flux) across multiple components of central energy metabolism based on experimental data. We calculated average reaction flux profiles of central metabolism for SW1353 human chondrocytes subjected to dynamic compression for 30 minutes. The profiles were obtained solving a bounded variable linear least squares problem, representing the stoichiometry of human central energy metabolism. Compression synchronized chondrocyte energy metabolism. These data are consistent with dynamic compression inducing early time changes in central energy metabolism geared towards more active protein synthesis. Furthermore, this analysis demonstrates the utility of combining targeted metabolomic data with a computational model to enable rapid analysis of cellular energy utilization.
High-Temperature (550-700 degrees C) Chlorosilane Interactions with Iron
(2016-08) Aller, Josh; Mason, Ryan; Walls, Kelly; Tatar, Greg; Jacobson, Nathan; Gannon, Paul
Chlorosilane species are commonly used at high temperatures in the manufacture and refinement of ultra-high purity silicon and silicon materials. The chlorosilane species are often highly corrosive in these processes, necessitating the use of expensive, corrosion resistant alloys for the construction of reactors, pipes, and vessels required to handle and produce them. In this study, iron, the primary alloying component of low cost metals, was exposed to a silicon tetrachloride-hydrogen vapor stream at industrially-relevant times (0-100 hours), temperatures (550-700 degrees C), and vapor stream compositions. Post exposure analyses including FE-SEM, EDS, XRD, and gravimetric analysis revealed formation and growth of stratified iron silicide surface layers, which vary as a function of time and temperature. The most common stratification after exposure was a thin FeSi layer on the surface followed by a thick stoichiometric Fe3Si layer, a silicon activity gradient in an iron lattice, and finally, unreacted iron. Speculated mechanisms to explain these observations were supported by thermodynamic equilibrium simulations of experimental conditions. This study furthers the understanding of metals in chlorosilane environments, which is critically important for manufacturing the high purity silicon required for silicon-based electronic and photovoltaic devices.
Emerging role of metabolic signaling in synovial joint remodeling and osteoarthritis
(2016-12) June, Ronald K.; Liu-Bryan, Ru; Long, Fanxing; Griffin, Timothy M.
Obesity and associated metabolic diseases collectively referred to as the metabolic syndrome increase the risk of skeletal and synovial joint diseases, including osteoarthritis (OA). The relationship between obesity and musculoskeletal diseases is complex, involving biomechanical, dietary, genetic, inflammatory, and metabolic factors. Recent findings illustrate how changes in cellular metabolism and metabolic signaling pathways alter skeletal development, remodeling, and homeostasis, especially in response to biomechanical and inflammatory stressors. Consequently, a better understanding of the energy metabolism of diarthrodial joint cells and tissues, including bone, cartilage, and synovium, may lead to new strategies to treat or prevent synovial joint diseases such as OA. This rationale was the basis of a workshop presented at the 2016 Annual ORS Meeting in Orlando, FL on the emerging role of metabolic signaling in synovial joint remodeling and OA. The topics we covered included (i) the relationship between metabolic syndrome and OA in clinical and pre-clinical studies; (ii) the effect of biomechanical loading on chondrocyte metabolism; (iii) the effect of Wnt signaling on osteoblast carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism with respect to bone anabolism; and (iv) the role of AMP-activated protein kinase in chondrocyte energetic and biomechanical stress responses in the context of cartilage injury, aging, and OA. Although challenges exist for measuring in vivo changes in synovial joint tissue metabolism, the findings presented herein provide multiple lines of evidence to support a central role for disrupted cellular energy metabolism in the pathogenesis of OA.
A simulation of variability-oriented sequencing rules on block surgical scheduling
(2016-12) Nino, Luisa; Harris, Sean; Claudio, David
Surgery scheduling has received considerable attention in recent years. Block schedules, in which surgeon groups utilize the OR for whatever surgeries they have scheduled for the day, present additional challenges to schedulers. While mean operation times are often used as the primary factor in scheduling strategies, the variability of these operations is not. Recent research suggests that sequencing surgeries based on their variation may decrease the number of late surgery starts. This article builds upon this emerging methodology of variability-oriented sequencing rules for block schedules. Discrete event simulation was used to examine the effectiveness of different sequencing algorithms in reducing the number of behind schedule surgeries and their magnitude. The number and magnitude of tardy surgeries and the patient waiting time were significantly improved by an average of 40% with the proposed scheduling strategies. Additional simulations explored several variations of the variability-based scheduling methodology.
Influence of silicon on high-temperature (600 degrees C) chlorosilane interactions with iron
(2017-02) Aller, Josh; Swain, Nolan; Baber, Michael; Tatar, Greg; Jacobson, Nathan; Gannon, Paul E.
High-temperature (>500 Â°C) chlorosilane gas streams are prevalent in the manufacture of polycrystalline silicon, the feedstock for silicon-based solar panels and electronics. This study investigated the influence of metallurgical grade silicon on the corrosion behavior of pure iron in these types of environments. The experiment included exposing pure iron samples at 600 Â°C to a silicon tetrachloride/hydrogen input gas mixture with and without embedding the samples in silicon. The samples in a packed bed of silicon had significantly higher mass gains compared to samples not in a packed bed. Comparison to diffusion studies suggest that the increase in mass gain of embedded samples is due to a higher silicon activity from the gas phase reaction with silicon. The experimental results were supported by chemical equilibrium calculations which showed that more-active trichlorosilane and dichlorosilane species are formed from silicon tetrachloride in silicon packed bed conditions.
A mass and momentum conserving unsplit semi-Lagrangian framework for simulating multiphase flows
(2017-03) Owkes, Mark; Desjardins, Olivier
In this work, we present a computational methodology for convection and advection that handles discontinuities with second order accuracy and maintains conservation to machine precision. This method can transport a variety of discontinuous quantities and is used in the context of an incompressible gasâ€“liquid flow to transport the phase interface, momentum, and scalars. The proposed method provides a modification to the three-dimensional, unsplit, second-order semi-Lagrangian flux method of Owkes & Desjardins (JCP, 2014). The modification adds a refined grid that provides consistent fluxes of mass and momentum defined on a staggered grid and discrete conservation of mass and momentum, even for flows with large density ratios. Additionally, the refined grid doubles the resolution of the interface without significantly increasing the computational cost over previous non-conservative schemes. This is possible due to a novel partitioning of the semi-Lagrangian fluxes into a small number of simplices. The proposed scheme is tested using canonical verification tests, rising bubbles, and an atomizing liquid jet.
Assessment of models for anaerobic biodegradation of a model bioplastic: Poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate)
(2017-03) Ryan, Cecily A.; Billington, Sarah L.; Criddle, Craig S.
Kinetic models of anaerobic digestion (AD) are widely applied to soluble and particulate substrates, but have not been systematically evaluated for bioplastics. Here, five models are evaluated to determine their suitability for modeling of anaerobic biodegradation of the bioplastic poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV): (1) first-order kinetics with and without a lag phase, (2) two-step first-order, (3) Monod (4) Contois, and (5) Gompertz. Three models that couple biomass growth with substrate hydrolysis (Monod, Contois, and Gompertz) gave the best overall fits for the data , with reasonable estimates of ultimate CH4 production. The particle size limits of these models were then evaluated. Below a particle size of 0.8 mm, rates of hydrolysis and acetogenesis exceeded rates of methanogenesis with accumulation of intermediates leading to a temporary inhibition of CH4 production. Based on model fit and simplicity, the Gompertz model is recommended for applications in which particle size is greater than 0.8 mm.
Methodology to assess end-of-life anaerobic biodegradation kinetics and methane production potential for composite materials
(2017-04) Ryan, Cecily A.; Billington, Sarah L.; Criddle, Craig S.
Composites made with bio-based resins are promising candidates for replacement of conventional plastic composites made with petroleum-based resins in many applications (e.g., decking, paneling, furniture, molded automotive parts). For any such applications, end-of-life management needs consideration. Here, we describe a methodology to assess end-of-life anaerobic degradation to methane (CH4) within landfills or anaerobic digestion (AD) facilities in batch anaerobic microcosms. The core methodology combines stoichiometric considerations, chemical oxygen demand (COD) analysis, a CH4 production assay, and modeling. Additional analyses, such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), can complement this core set of analyses. We apply the methodology to injection molded poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) composites with wood fiber (WF) (0%, 20%, 40%) and two fiber-matrix compatibilization treatments that enhance in-service performance: (1) hydrophobic silane treatment of the WF and (2) grafting of hydrophilic maleic anhydride groups to the PHBV matrix. The methodology successfully quantifies process kinetics, ultimate CH4 production capacity, and biodegradability, and allows comparison to reference materials (positive controls).
Biocomposite Fiber-Matrix Treatments that Enhance In-Service Performance Can Also Accelerate End-of-Life Fragmentation and Anaerobic Biodegradation to Methane
(2017-07) Ryan, Cecily A.; Billington, Sarah L.; Criddle, Craig S.
Biodegradable resins can enhance the environmental sustainability of wood-plastic composites (WPCs) by enabling methane (CH4) recovery via anaerobic digestion (AD). An under appreciated step in biocomposite AD is the role of cracking and fragmentation due to moisture uptake by the wood fiber (WF) fraction. Here, we use batch microcosms to simulate AD at end-of-life and to assess the effects of fiber-matrix treatments used to retard in-service moisture uptake. The composites evaluated were injection molded poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) with WF (0, 20%) using two fiber-matrix compatibilization treatments: (1) hydrophobic silane treatment of the wood fiber and (2) grafting of hydrophilic maleic anhydride groups to the PHBV matrix. Both treatments accelerated rates of mass loss and CH4 production by a factor of 1.2-2.3 compared to neat PHBV. The fragmentation rate, as measured by mass loss, increased significantly for treated samples compared to untreated samples. A ranking of test samples from lowest to highest rates of mass loss gave the following sequence: neat PHBV ~ maleated PHBV < PHBV plus untreated WF < maleated PHBV plus untreated WF < PHBV plus silane-treated WF. Compared to the untreated samples, maleic anhydride treatment increased the mass loss rate by 30%, and silane treatment increased the mass loss rate by 92%. Onset of cracking in silane-treated composites was observed at 2 weeks (using X-ray micro-computed tomography). At the same time, solid mass loss and CH4 production peaked, implicating cracking and physical disintegration as the rate-limiting step for accelerated anaerobic degradation. When modified to account for bioplastic matrix degradation, a previously derived moisture-induced damage model could predict the onset of composite fragmentation at end-of-life. These results are significant for design of bio-WPCs and demonstrate that treatments designed to improve in-service performance can also improve end-of-life options.
Physiological dynamic compression regulates central energy metabolism in primary human chondrocytes
(2018-02) Salinas, Daniel; Mumey, Brendan M.; June, Ronald K.
Chondrocytes use the pathways of central metabolism to synthesize molecular building blocks and energy for cartilage homeostasis. An interesting feature of the in vivo chondrocyte environment is the cyclical loading generated in various activities (e.g., walking). However, it is unknown whether central metabolism is altered by mechanical loading. We hypothesized that physiological dynamic compression alters central metabolism in chondrocytes to promote production of amino acid precursors for matrix synthesis. We measured the expression of central metabolites (e.g., glucose, its derivatives, and relevant co-factors) for primary human osteoarthritic chondrocytes in response to 0â€“30 minutes of compression. To analyze the data, we used principal components analysis and ANOVA-simultaneous components analysis, as well as metabolic flux analysis. Compression-induced metabolic responses consistent with our hypothesis. Additionally, these data show that chondrocyte samples from different patient donors exhibit different sensitivity to compression. Most importantly, we find that grade IV osteoarthritic chondrocytes are capable of synthesizing non-essential amino acids and precursors in response to mechanical loading. These results suggest that further advances in metabolic engineering of chondrocyte mechanotransduction may yield novel translational strategies for cartilage repair.
Quantifying NMR relaxation correlation and exchange in articular cartilage with time domain analysis
(2018-02) Mailhiot, Sarah E.; Zong, Fangrong; Maneval, James E.; June, Ronald K.; Galvosas, Petrik; Seymour, Joseph D.
Measured nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) transverse relaxation data in articular cartilage has been shown to be multi-exponential and correlated to the health of the tissue. The observed relaxation rates are dependent on experimental parameters such as solvent, data acquisition methods, data analysis methods, and alignment to the magnetic field. In this study, we show that diffusive exchange occurs in porcine articular cartilage and impacts the observed relaxation rates in T1-T2 correlation experiments. By using time domain analysis of T2-T2 exchange spectroscopy, the diffusive exchange time can be quantified by measurements that use a single mixing time. Measured characteristic times for exchange are commensurate with T1 in this material and so impacts the observed T1 behavior. The approach used here allows for reliable quantification of NMR relaxation behavior in cartilage in the presence of diffusive fluid exchange between two environments.
Code to calculate interfacial interactions for polymer blends and composites
(Montana State University, 2018-12) Arroyo, Jesse; Ryan, Cecily A.
This code uses the Owens-Wendt theory to calculate surface energies of polymers and fillers from contact angle measurements and predict phase separation and nanofiller localization based on interfacial tensions. This code predicts the morphology of a 2-phase polymer blend and the localization of a nano-particulate using the geometric mean equation, and contact angles of each polymer.
Incorporation of carbon nanofillers tunes mechanical and electrical percolation in PHBV:PLA blends
(2018-12) Arroyo, Jesse; Ryan, Cecily A.
Biobased fillers, such as bio-derived cellulose, lignin byproducts, and biochar, can be used to modify the thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties of polymer composites. Biochar (BioC), in particular, is of interest for enhancing thermal and electrical conductivities in composites, and can potentially serve as a bio-derived graphitic carbon alternative for certain composite applications. In this work, we investigate a blended biopolymer system: poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), and addition of carbon black (CB), a commonly used functional filler as a comparison for Kraft lignin-derived BioC. We present calculations and experimental results for phase-separation and nanofiller phase affinity in this system, indicating that the CB localizes in the PHBV phase of the immiscible PHBV:PLA blends. The addition of BioC led to a deleterious reaction with the biopolymers, as indicated by blend morphology, differential scanning calorimetry showing significant melting peak reduction for the PLA phase, and a reduction in melt viscosity. For the CB nanofilled composites, electrical conductivity and dynamic mechanical analysis supported the ability to use phase separation in these blends to tune the percolation of mechanical and electrical properties, with a minimum percolation threshold found for the 80:20 blends of 1.6 wt.% CB. At 2% BioC (approximately the percolation threshold for CB), the 80:20 BioC nanocomposites had a resistance of 3.43 × 108 Ω as compared to 2.99 × 108 Ω for the CB, indicating that BioC could potentially perform comparably to CB as a conductive nanofiller if the processing challenges can be overcome for higher BioC loadings.