A Comprehensive Review of Phenolic Compounds in Chia Seeds and Their Applications in the Food Industry Gayathri Balakrishnan, Sumedha Garg, Bharathi Ramesh, Emi Grace Mary Gowshika Rajendran, Kaavya Rathnakumar This version of the article has been accepted for publication, after peer review (when applicable) and is subject to Springer Nature’s AM terms of use, but is not the Version of Record and does not reflect post-acceptance improvements, or any corrections. The Version of Record is available online at: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11130-024-01248-w Accessibility Disclaimer: For a more accessible version of this document, please submit an accessibility request form through the Montana State University Library website. Made available through Montana State University’s ScholarWorks B_ MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Vol.:(0123456789) Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-024-01248-w REVIEW A Comprehensive Review of Phenolic Compounds in Chia Seeds and Their Applications in the Food Industry Gayathri Balakrishnan1 · Sumedha Garg2 · Bharathi Ramesh3 · Emi Grace Mary Gowshika Rajendran4 · Kaavya Rathnakumar5 Accepted: 30 October 2024 / Published online: 24 January 2025 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2025 Abstract Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) have emerged as a significant focus in the food industry due to their rich nutritional profile and health-promoting attributes. They are a major powerhouse of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tocopherols that have been shown to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-cholesterol functions, enhance cog- nitive performance, and improve heart health. This article provides an in-depth review of the phenolic compounds in chia seeds and various fractions such as oil, and chia meal, their bioaccessibility, along with unique applications in food products. Additionally, ‘green techniques’ for extracting chia oil, as a sustainable alternative to conventional methods, have also been discussed. The findings presented in this review suggest that chia seeds, due to their bioactive components and versatile functional properties, are well-positioned to be a valuable ingredient in the development of novel foods, contributing to better health outcomes and innovation in food processing. Keywords Health promoting · Bioactive · Food applications · Green extraction · Sustainability Introduction Consumption of foods for health-promoting attributes that go beyond basic nutrition, and taste has become the norm in the food industry. Such a change is driven mainly because of the widespread consumer knowledge of foods and their abil- ity to fight various disease conditions. As a result, the cate- gory of functional foods using novel ingredients that provide additional physiological benefits has evolved into an impor- tant segment of the food industry. Among functional foods, new products using ancient grains are gaining momentum due to the presence of various bioactive compounds. While there is no official definition for ancient grains, the term refers to cereal-like crops that have remained genetically unchanged for several hundred years [1]. One such grain that has created significant interest among food scientists and consumers alike is chia seeds. A systematic analysis of pub- lished research and review articles in between 2013–2023 using the Web of Science search engine yielded 339 results for the term ‘chia’; it was observed there has been almost a 10-fold increase just in the last decade pertinent to chia seed research. Overview of Chia Seeds Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica), an annual herbaceous plant that belongs to the Lamiacea family, have been traditionally consumed by Mesoamericans for several centuries. Seeds from chia plants are generally small, flat, oval-shaped, 2 mm in length and 1–1.5 mm in width. The seed coat color varies as black and white, with black variety being more popular for various food applications. Although the initial cultivation of chia was predominantly in the tropical and subtropical • Gayathri Balakrishnan gayathrib.phd@gmail.com 1 Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA 2 Sustainable Food Systems Program, Department of Health and Human Development, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA 3 Department of Behavioral Health and Nutrition, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19711, USA 4 Department of Home Science, Women’s Christian College, Chennai 600006, TN, India 5 Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA Springer http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11130-024-01248-w&domain=pdf mailto:gayathrib.phd@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-024-01248-w Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 46 Page 2 of 10 regions of Northern Guatemala and Southern Mexico, in recent decades it has spread worldwide to other countries and continents such as Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Colom- bia, Peru, Australia, Africa, and Europe [2]. The macronu- trient composition of chia seeds is well-established in the literature [3]. The nutritional profile of seeds varies based on regions they are grown, soil conditions, climatic factors, and seed morphology such as seed coat color [4–6]. Despite such differences, the overall composition of chia has shown to be significantly better than other oil seeds and cereals. Because of the nutritional superiority of chia and its adapt- ability to various pedoclimatic cultivation conditions, chia is considered an important crop to address food insecurity and climate change [7]. The chia seed market is expected to grow by 6.5% each year for the next 5 years. The increase is mainly due to the status of a ‘superfood’ owing to its nutritional properties [8]. Since chia is an oilseed plant, it serves as an important plant source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Chia seeds possess a significant amount of oil (30–40%) that is composed of omega-3 linolenic (55–65%) acid (ALA) and omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) (12–20%) [9]. The concentration of alpha-linolenic acid is the highest known among plant-based oils, with a ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 providing a good equilibrium between the two essential fatty acids [10]. Besides its fatty acid profile, chia oil also serves as an important source of antioxidants. Byproducts obtained from the oil extraction process are a key source of fiber, and bioactive phenolic compounds that have become innovative ingredients for the development of new functional foods. The objectives of this review are to discuss (a) recent research advancements in understanding phenolic com- pounds in chia (b) functionality and applications of chia in various food categories. Flavonoids, Phenolic Acids in Chia Seed, Chia Oil, and Defatted Chia Meal Chia seeds are a reservoir of various phenolic compounds such as caffeic, rosmarinic, chlorogenic, protocatechinic, gallic, cinnamic acids, and flavonoids including quercetin, myricetin, and kaempferol (Fig. 1) [11]. They also contain daidzein and genistein isoflavones [12]. Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites synthesized by plants during development, as a defense mechanism against stressful cli- matic conditions, infections, and pests among others. They comprise a large group of heterogeneous compounds widely distributed among various plant species. Extraction and uti- lization of phenolic compounds are of primary interest to the food and pharmaceutical industry due to their benefits Caffeic acid Rosmarinic acid Ferulic acidSalvianolic acid Gallic acid Chlorogenic acid Quercetin Daidzein Kaempferol ˜-sitosterol Campesterol Stigmasterol °-tocopherol ˛-tocopherol Phenolic acids Tocopherols Flavonoids Phytosterols Chia seed, flour, oil Fig. 1 Key phenolic compounds identified in chia seed, chia oil, and chia meal ~ OH HOY OH r'rfro o HO~ O.J._OH'<:::: OH OH fl Springer "°-t-z~: b---1<>< <>< <>< 0 HO~OH HO~ OH HO * OH A I HO 0 ,oefo" 1,, I " 0 H,C Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 Page 3 of 10 46 such as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents. Regular dietary intake of phenolic compounds is associated with the reduc- tion of cardiovascular disease, oxidative stress, and obesity- related disease conditions. In previous studies, chia seeds were found to contain 27 phenolic compounds that belong to flavonoids, phenolic acids, and proanthocyanidins [13]. Rosmarinic, caffeic, fer- ulic, quercetin, rutin, and daidzein were some of the major compounds reported in the study. These compounds act as antioxidants by neutralizing free radicals; they also pos- sess antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. The same study [13] also reported the presence of procyanidin dimers A, B1, B2, and B3 for the first time. Similar results were reported by other research teams for extracts derived from chia seeds, chia oil, and chia fiber meal [11]. The total phenolic contents were found to be similar between seed extract (1.15–2.25 mg GAE/g) and fiber meal (1.09–2.16 mg GAE/g), while they were lower in chia oil (0.02–0.08 mg GAE/g). Along with the identification of phenolic com- pounds, many studies have utilized techniques such as DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), ABTS+ (ABTS diammonium salt-derived monocationic radical), FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching), and ORAC (Oxygen Reducing Antioxidant Capacity) for assessing the antioxidant potential of chia seeds. TEAC (Trolox Equiva- lent Antioxidant Capacity) measured using different solvents showed that the antioxidant capacity of chia seeds ranged from 78 ± 5 µM TEAC/g to 85 ± 4 µM TEAC/g [14], and DPPH radical scavenging activity was between 10.10 and 380.53 µmol TE/g [15]. Another study [16] that explored the antioxidant activ- ity of chia showed that the seeds effectively neutralized ABTS + cation radicals (2.56 ± 0.03 mmol/g), reduced iron ions, and scavenged synthetic DPPH radicals (1.72 ± 0.09 mmol/g) indicating their strong antioxidant potential, find- ings that were consistent with the research by other teams [17, 18]. Chia seeds have also exhibited antioxidant activ- ity in a study that employed ABTS + radical scavenging method, as well as phospholipid liposome peroxidation and β-carotene linoleic acid principles [18]. Using these meth- ods, chia samples from Jalisco and Sinaloa regions in Mex- ico were investigated. The results showed that the percentage of inhibition in the β-carotene linoleic acid model system was 79.3% in Jalisco and 73.5% in Sinaloa. The percent- age of lipid peroxidation inhibition was 89.4 and 88.26% in Jalisco and Sinaloa respectively. The presence of compounds such as ferulic acid, caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, chloro- genic acid, and flavonoids like kaempferol, quercetin, and daidzein has been extensively examined using techniques such as HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography), and UPLC (ultra-performance liquid chromatography) following solvent extraction of chia products. These com- pounds have been shown to exhibit a range of biological activities, from anti-aging, antioxidative, anti-cancer, anti- inflammatory properties, and anti-hypertensive effects. Most studies that have assessed phenolic compounds in chia have adopted simple extraction using chemical sol- vents with or without the use of acid/alkaline hydrolysis. Different methods cause variation in the final yield and the type of phenolic compounds extracted. A study from 2019 optimized the solvent mixture for the best yield of phenolic compounds using safe solvents namely water, ethanol, and acetone. The authors concluded that binary and ternary mix- tures using water increased the solvent polarity leading to efficient extraction of phenolics compared to single solvents [15]. Flavonoids, hydroxybenzoic acid, and hydroxycin- namic acid were the three classes of compounds that were reported. Particularly, rosmarinic, caffeic, salicylic, protocat- echuic, gentisic acids, and flavonoids myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol were the compounds found to be responsible for in vitro antioxidant activity. In addition to solvents, the inclusion of acid/alkaline hydrolysis has also been shown to impact phenolic extrac- tion. Hydrolysis during extraction helps with the release of bound phenolics that are attached to cell wall polysac- charides and may not be accessible through direct solvent extraction. The hydrolyzed chia extract was found to have 21 phenolic compounds compared to 14 compounds that were present in crude extracts [11]. The additional com- pounds that were identified were hydroxycinnamic acid com- pounds such as ferulic, glucosides of caffeic, rosmarinic, and coumaric acid. Similar observations were made recently in another study [19], where caffeic acid was reported as the abundant bound phenolics along with flavonoid gly- cosides such as apigenin, kaempferol, and myricetin. The same study also showed higher extraction yields using 70% methanol and 70% ethanol than their pure solvent counter- parts. Despite the variation among factors such as solvent polarity, composition, and extraction conditions, previous studies have consistently reported the presence of antioxi- dant compounds with high activity using in vitro assays such as DPPH, FRAP, ABTS, and TEAC. Conventional solvent extraction is the widely investigated method for the characterization of phenolic compounds; however, a few studies have also reported phenolic com- pounds obtained using enzymatic hydrolysis under physio- logical conditions [20, 21]. The compounds identified in the study are considered bioaccessible as they are found to be stable after hydrolysis by gastrointestinal enzymes for fur- ther absorption within the body. Bioaccessibility refers to the fraction of phenolic compounds that can be released from the food matrix by digestive enzymes for further absorption in the intestine. While chemical characterization is promis- ing, further determination of bioaccessibility is critical for understanding the actual health benefits of any food ingre- dient [22]. Limited studies have evaluated such criteria by 'fl Springer Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 46 Page 4 of 10 adopting in vitro models to simulate the gastrointestinal digestion of phenolic compounds from chia seeds and their by-products. A study that measured the bioaccessibility of defatted and non-defatted chia seeds after oral, gastric, and intestinal digestion noted that acid and alkaline hydrolysis of the products by digestive enzymes increased the release of phenolic compounds from the chia seed matrix [20]. Par- ticularly, the authors reported the impact of fat on flavo- noid bioaccessibility as the defatted chia seeds (50%) had a higher recovery than the non-defatted sample (23%). While the reason for fat interference with flavonoid bioaccessibility was not fully understood, the study sheds light on the use of defatted chia meal, a byproduct of chia oil production, as a source of bioaccessible antioxidant phenolic compounds. Bioaccessibility of chia seeds is also impacted by process- ing techniques such as milling and subsequent particle size reduction from seed to flour. Preliminary evidence has dem- onstrated improved bioaccessibility from finely milled chia flour than whole seed extract [21]. The authors compared whole seed and flour milled to three different particle sizes using a laboratory coffee grinder. All samples were sub- jected to simulated gastrointestinal digestion and total phe- nolics were measured using Folin Ciocalteau method. Since the study reported only the spectrometric quantification of total phenolic content, further investigation is necessary to characterize the individual compounds that were found after gastrointestinal digestion of the milled sample. Based on the available evidence, the current knowledge of bioaccessibility is very limited. Therefore, additional studies investigating individual compounds and their changes after various phases of gastrointestinal digestion would advance understanding in this area. Although chia seeds can be ingested in raw form with- out further processing, several processing strategies have become popular in recent years to improve their nutritional and sensory quality. Germination, roasting, and fermenta- tion are some of the techniques that have been investigated for their impact on phenolic compounds along with signifi- cant changes to macronutrient composition. The following studies have documented the effect of sprouting on phenolic profile of chia. Egyptian sourced chia seeds were analyzed for  their phenolic profile during a ten-day germination period at room temperature 25–30 °C with or without light [23]. The authors reported an approximately six-to-ten-fold increase in total phenolics and flavonoids after seven days of germination. However, there was a mild decline in the contents after seven days, possibly due to the conversion of free phenolics to bound/conjugated compounds that attach to the cell wall. The same study also showed the synthesis of new compounds during germination where the research team identified p-coumaric acid and kaempferol that weren’t present in non-germinated samples. Another study meas- ured free and bound phenolics in raw vs. germinated chia seeds [24]. Most phenolic acids were identified in the bound fraction, where they were released from cell wall structural components, such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, and pectin through alkaline hydrolysis. The study reported a more than 50% increase in bound phenolics after sprouting, mainly caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and glycosides of kaemp- ferol and quercetin. A comparison of three different processing conditions, namely, roasting, germination, and boiling of chia seeds, showed that all three treatments improved the amounts of phenolic compounds in the final product [25]. The study investigated three treatments: roasting at 120 °C for 6 min, germination for 4 days while maintaining the temperature at 20 °C or boiling at 100 °C for 20 min. Samples from the three methods were then compared against raw chia seeds for phenolic profile, total flavonoids, and total phenolic con- tent. Of the three processing conditions, roasted chia seeds showed the highest increase, particularly in catechin, rutin, kaempferol, and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. Germinated and boiled chia seeds were also higher in identified phenolic compounds than raw chia seeds. A comprehensive analysis of the antioxidant properties of chia seed flour roasted at 160 and 180 °C for various periods such as 15, 25, and 35 min demonstrated that roasting at 160 °C for a longer duration had minimal impact on antioxidant properties. However, a significant increase in DPPH scavenging activity was seen when increasing the time from 15 min to 25 min at 180 °C [26]. Overall, common processing methods have shown pos- itive changes in chia seeds by increasing the presence of key phenolic compounds through mechanisms such as release of bound phenolics, synthesis through maillard reaction, and enzymatic changes during germination. Tocopherols in Chia Oil Chia oil extracted from seeds is an important ingredient in food and nutraceutical applications. The major constituents of chia seed oil are essential unsaturated fatty acids namely omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and omega-6 linoleic acid (LA); both these fatty acids account for 80% of the fatty acid composition making chia oil one of the healthi- est oils [27]. Chia seed oil is also rich in lipid antioxidants such as tocopherols, carotenoids, squalene, and phytosterols. Among tocopherols, γ-tocopherol is the most abundant in chia seeds followed by α-tocopherol. The consumption of these tocopherols protects cells from inflammatory damage [28]. Additionally, β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmas- terol have also been reported in chia oil [12]. The presence of these compounds significantly increases the stability of the oil against lipid oxidation during storage [29]. The con- tent of the above-mentioned compounds varies based on extraction techniques as discussed further below. Springer Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 Page 5 of 10 46 Oil from chia seeds can be obtained by different tech- niques such as solvent extraction [30, 31], cold pressing [32] and emerging novel techniques such as pressurized liq- uid extraction [33], supercritical fluid extraction [34, 35], and ultrasound assisted extraction [36]. The process con- ditions influence the quality and quantity of the extracted oil. Soxhlet extraction using nonpolar solvents is the most frequently used method to produce chia oil. The resultant oil has superior functional characteristics such as emulsifica- tion stability and absorption capacity [37]. The method has also been found favorable for the extraction of total lipids, phenolic compounds and carotenoids compared to evolving methods such as SCFE and cold press [31]. However, the oil produced by this method often contains residual solvents that aren’t suitable for food industry applications. Moreover, there may be a loss of lipid antioxidants due to the extrac- tion parameters involved during processing. Compared to conventional techniques, novel methods require less energy, use limited toxic solvents, and are time efficient. Hence, they are considered ‘green’ extraction techniques, sustainable for oil development [38]. Cold press extraction of oil is a simple process that involves mechanical steps such as pressing/expelling the oil followed by filtering to remove impurities. The process is receiving attention due to its low cost, absence of heat and toxic solvents. The process optimization for mechanical screw pressing of chia oil showed seed moisture, restric- tion die, screw press speed, and barrel temperature, were the main parameters to improve the yield using cold press tech- nique [32]. The fatty acid profile of Soxhlet vs. cold pressed chia oil showed no significant differences in omega-3 fatty acids between the extraction methods, however, cold pressed oil was found to have directionally higher amounts compared to Soxhlet extraction [39]. Tocopherols were also higher in cold pressed oil than in the traditional method. Specifi- cally, the combined amount of β + γ tocopherol was 100 mg more in cold pressed oil (901.6 ± 5.49 mg/kg) than Soxhlet method (795.6 ± 4.86 mg/kg) [39]. Another evolving procedure is the supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE), which uses solvents such as carbon dioxide at subcritical conditions to obtain the oil fraction. Due to low temperature, heat sensitive bioactive compounds are preserved and there is minimal fatty acid degradation during the process. The effectiveness of SCFE on oil yield is dependent upon several processing conditions such as extraction time, temperature, sample particle size and other matrix components. In Mexican and Argentinean chia seeds, earlier studies have reported SCFE -CO2 extraction at tem- peratures from 40 °C to 80 °C, up to 450 bar pressure, was a good alternative to conventional techniques due to satis- factory yield (85–90%) and a similar fatty acid composi- tion [10, 40, 41]. Chia oil produced using pure SCFE- CO2 vs. SCFE-CO2 enriched with acetone between 2 and 10%, showed that the acetone enriched solvent lowered the total phytochemicals particularly tocopherol, squalene, carot- enoids, and phytosterols [30]. Campesterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol were the main phytosterols found in chia oil, and lutein and β-carotene were the main carotenoids. While squalene and tocopherols were higher in pure SCFE-CO2 extract, carotenoids were higher in the acetone enriched solvent. Hence polarity of the solvent was found to have an impact on extraction due to differences in the compound’s affinity for different solvents. Similar to CO2, propane is another solvent used for super- critical extraction, where the best yield has been obtained at an operating pressure of 300 bar and temperatures between 40 and 60 °C [12]. The authors noted that pressure was an important parameter that impacted extraction kinetics; at a constant temperature the extraction yield increased from 15 to 20% by changing the pressure from 100 to 300 bar. Such an improvement was due to an increase in density at higher pressure that led to better solubility of fatty acids. Addition- ally, the study provided insights into the similarity of the fatty acid composition between black and white chia seeds; the amount of linolenic acid present in the oil from both varieties was > 60% after extraction using propane. While the study demonstrated the use of propane for omega-3 fatty acid extraction, its suitability for lipid antioxidants and oil stability needs further investigation. Preliminary experiments using ‘green’ technologies have thus far shown promising results; they are a growing area of research that promotes sustainable alternatives to con- ventional techniques. Hence, further understanding of these processes in a large scale setting is necessary for their imple- mentation in the oil industry. Food Applications of Chia Chia in the form of seed, meal, oil, or mucilage is applicable for the development of new products [42]. The use of chia has been successfully incorporated in numerous food and beverage applications – including meat and meat products, sports drinks, baked goods, ice-cream & frozen dessert, baked snacks, dairy products, functional beverages & foods, and gluten-free products. The nutritional and processing benefits of chia vary from improving the fatty acid-profile [43, 44], enhancing the antioxidant activity [45], acting as a fat-replacement [46], improving the overall nutritional con- tent [47, 48]. As discussed in the previous sections, chia seeds are known to have a very high lipid and polyphenol content. In a recent study [43], beef patties formulated with 2.5 or 5% chia seeds improved the fatty acid profile of the prod- uct, and satisfied EU regulations n° 116/2010, to make the claim, “source of omega-3 fatty acids,” and “high omega-3 fatty acids.” These claims are applicable if the product 'fl Springer Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 46 Page 6 of 10 contains at least 0.3–0.6  g α-linolenic acid (ALA) per 100 g, respectively. The formulation with 2.5% and 5% chia seeds contained 0.49 g ALA/100 g and 0.91 g ALA/100 g, respectively. This type of fatty acid helps maintain normal blood cholesterol levels. The formulation of chia seeds in beef patties also improved the contents of phenolic com- pounds. The polyphenol content of the control patty was 20.9 mg/100 g, but this increased to 25 and 29 mg/100 g when chia seeds were added to the formulation at 2.5% and 5%, respectively. The presence of antioxidants also helped to counteract lipid peroxidation, a phenomenon that is com- mon in meat products due to the vulnerability of unsaturated fatty acids. Lipid peroxidation is identified by color change, off-flavors and odors, and can also be measured by malon- dialdehyde (MDA) formation. In control beef patties, the MDA value was significantly higher (0.66 mg MDA/100 g), than in the formulation with 2.5 and 5% chia seeds (0.30 mg MDA/100 g for both). Chia seeds have also been successfully used in the pro- cessing of restructured ham-like products [46]. Low-fat meat products have a harder texture, lower juiciness and often unacceptable flavor. With the addition of 1% chia seed in a ham-like product, the overall acceptance score improved, and the product received a similar rating to that of a prod- uct with an added 5.0% pork fat. This can be owed to chia seed’s high fatty acid profile, as well as its high water hold- ing capacity (WHC) [46]. Moreover, it was also believed that the polyphenols in chia seeds helped extend the shelf life of this ham-like product, as upon storage at 4 °C, the lipid and protein oxidation levels were lower for formulations with 1% chia seeds than the control product. Another application of chia seeds was in the development of a sports drink to replenish electrolytes for athletes after physical activity [47]. The product which had 4 g of chia seeds in a 200 mL serving was most acceptable among the trained subjects who evaluated the sensory profile of the provided formulations. The acceptable drink provided 0.6 g of protein, 3.38 g of carbohydrate, 44.58 mg of potassium and 101.75 mg of sodium, per 200 ml serving size. Sodium and potassium are two major nutrients that are lost upon sweating; therefore, by the incorporation of chia seeds, the nutrient content was significantly increased, in comparison to the control formulation. Chia meal (or chia seed flour) was also utilized to improve the nutritional profile of kulfi (a frozen Indian dessert made from dairy products) [48]. Chia seed flour was added in increasing dosage from 1.2 to 9.0% in the formulation. The incremental addition improved the con- tent of protein, fiber, calcium, iron and omega-3 fatty acids in the formulations. Traditionally, in kulfi the smooth texture is achieved with the use of custard powder. The powder makes for a good binding agent, however by par- tially replacing this ingredient with chia seed flour, the nutritional profile of the product was enhanced without severely impacting the sensory profile. Chia flour was also used to develop high protein, high die- tary fiber, gluten free, and omega-3 rich chips [45]. For the suggested formulation with 5% chia flour, it was shared that a 50 g portion would provide almost half the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) of omega-3 fatty acid among healthy women and slightly more than a quarter among healthy men, as per the guidelines of Australia New Zealand Food Authority, 1995. The study also reported that antioxidant activity increased with the addition of chia flour. The high antioxidant content is especially beneficial for the shelf-life extension of foods that are high in unsaturated fatty acids, such as omega-3. Chips formulated with 5% chia flour had almost four times the antioxidant activity (5.55%) than the formulation without chia flour (1.32%). Likewise, crackers made using partially defatted chia flour, along with other non-traditional ingredients (such as wheat germ, quinoa seeds, and oats) had significantly greater antioxidant activ- ity and polyphenol content than crackers made with wheat flour. These crackers using non-traditional ingredients also had a lower ratio of omega-6/omega-3, which is beneficial in reducing the risk of chronic diseases [49]. The olein fraction of chia oil was used at varying concen- trations of 5, 10, 15 and 20% to enhance the concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in ice-cream [44]. The results concluded by this study suggest that both omega-3 fatty acids and anti- oxidant levels of ice cream could be enhanced with the use of chia oil. After 60 days of storage, formulations with chia oil maintained an acceptable shelf-life. This was tested by the measurement of the peroxide value, which was recorded to be 1.84 (MeqO2/kg) in the 20% chia oil concentrated for- mulation. Since this was much less than the allowable limit of 10 (MeqO2/kg) in 60-day stored ice-cream, the shelf-life was regarded as acceptable. The sensory results also agreed with this conclusion, as the peroxide value and taste scores were strongly correlated (R2 = 0.998). Another research depicted how partial replacement of milk fat in cheddar cheese with chia oil led to higher concen- trations of ω−3 fatty acids, while the amount of short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids decreased [50]. Supplement- ing chia oil in cheese-making also significantly increased phenolic content. The control formulation (without chia oil  supplementation) had only one phenolic compound detected (chlorogenic acid), and at a very low concentra- tion (0.04 mg/mL) whereas all other formulations (supple- mented with chia oil) had four more phenolic compounds detected (caffeic acid, quercetin, phenolic glycoside-K, and phenolic glycoside-Q). The concentration of these phenolic compounds increased with the incremental addition of chia oil to the cheese. These phenolic compounds also enhanced the antioxidant profile of the product. Springer Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 Page 7 of 10 46 Another study aimed at determining the effectiveness of chia seed oil fabrication as a nano-emulsion for develop- ing water-based liquid food or beverages. Adding chia oil directly poses challenges, owing to the highly hydrophobic nature of the molecules, resulting in poor water-solubility [51]. Therefore, the study used a nano emulsion system to deliver lipophilic compounds that assisted with dispersing smaller-size particles that won’t scatter light strongly and blend into the product with mild or no turbidity. The authors concluded that the chia seed oil nano emulsion made with sucrose monopalmitate had the best transparency with the smallest droplet diameter (around 47 nm). The methods of micro fluidization and spontaneous emulsification were both used in the study, however micro fluidization proved to be more versatile for the application of polyunsaturated fatty acids due to finer droplet size and distribution [51]. Research on edible chia oil blends revealed that combin- ing chia oil with other specialty oils (walnut, almond, virgin and roasted sesame) can improve shelf-life and reduce oxida- tive deterioration. When chia oil was blended with almond, virgin, and roasted sesame oils, the final peroxide value (PV) was less than 3 meq O2/kg oil after 12 days of storage. In contrast, the PV of pure chia oil exceeded 15 meq O2/kg oil. The study demonstrated that blending chia oil with specialty oils could significantly lower oxidation and enhance stabil- ity [52]. The second study on edible oil blends demonstrated that incorporating antioxidants such as rosemary and ascorbyl palmitate to chia-sunflower oil blend effectively achieved a PV of ≤ 10.0 meq O2/kg oil. The inclusion of these antioxi- dants extended the induction time and reduced the Arrhenius rate constant, signifying enhanced oxidative stability for oil blends using these antioxidants [53]. The hydration of dry fruits from chia (seeds) releases mucilage, a highly hygroscopic fluid, which can boost the sense of satiety [54]. The term ‘mucilage’ refers to a water- soluble polysaccharide and is composed of large molecules of sugars and uronic acids that are linked by glycosidic bonds [55]. Chia mucilage (CM) has shown to be a promis- ing nutritional and functional ingredient for the development of innovative products in the food industry. A 2017 study explored how CM can successfully be used as a thickening agent to formulate gluten-free pasta made with rice flour [56]. The study used 5 and 10% of CM in the formulation of gluten-free pasta and found that pasta made with 10% CM achieved a significantly more nutritious and healthy pasta than a commercial gluten-free product. After cooking, the total phenolic acid (TPA) was highest in the formulation made with 10% CM. The slowly digestible starch fraction of rice flour was also higher by adding chia. Rice flour relatively has a high glycemic index (GI); hence the addition of chia lowered the GI with positive effects on blood glucose levels. A separate study found the use of CM to reduce fat in cake formulations [57]. A ready-made cake mix was developed using CM to replace fat and be prepared with the addition of only water to the mix. This formulation had 60.4% lesser lipid content than when margarine was added to the mix. Cakes made with CM also had a higher protein and carbohydrate content, as CM mainly consists of fibers [57]. The use of chia mucilage was found to be an effec- tive substitute to replace oil or egg yolk in mayonnaise to reduce the lipid content [58]. When oil in the mayonnaise was substituted with chia mucilage, the mayonnaise had increased stability and textural parameters. When egg yolk was replaced with chia mucilage, the mayonnaise maintained similar stability and texture to traditional mayonnaise, but it achieved a higher sensory score compared to mayonnaise made with chia mucilage as a partial replacement for oil. The protein level in the mayonnaise with 15% oil substitution with chia mucilage (4.19 g/100 g) was 1.5 times more than in commercial mayonnaise. Substituting oil in the mayon- naise also reduced the caloric value of the product, as the lipid content in the mayonnaise was less by replacing the oil with chia mucilage. The study elucidated the successful use of chia mucilage in developing low-fat food products, while not deteriorating the sensory characteristics. Further- more, the incorporation of chia mucilage not only enhanced the sensory and nutritional profile by increasing the protein content but also contributed to reducing the caloric value of the product by replacing oil. These findings underscore the potential of chia mucilage as a versatile ingredient for devel- oping healthier, low-fat food options without compromising sensory attributes. Conclusion and Future Recommendations Salvia hispanica L., has long been recognized for its sig- nificance in ancient civilizations, where its seeds served as a fundamental dietary staple. Chia seeds are an excellent source of macronutrients and various bioactive compounds. Numerous reports have shown their beneficial effects on human health due to their chemical composition. The seeds boast a substantial content of polyphenols that contribute to potent antioxidant properties. Furthermore, chia seeds serve as a versatile ingredient for various food applications. Functional foods are experiencing a surge in popular- ity, particularly in advanced economies, driven by evolving lifestyles and an increased interest in the benefits of bioac- tive dietary components. Often called “novel foods,” these products find widespread utilization in the food industry. Incorporating chia seeds into food formulations could help in the development of such products by introducing addi- tional dietary fiber, antioxidant phenolic compounds, and even plant-based protein. Chia seeds exhibit promising 'fl Springer Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 46 Page 8 of 10 potential as a functional ingredient in food manufacturing, owing to their exceptional nutritional profile. The processing of chia seed into oil and defatted meal also yields valuable antioxidant fractions that have favorable functional applica- tions. The comprehensive utilization of chia, encompass- ing its seeds and various fractions, emphasizes the myriad advantageous attributes for its inclusion into formulations for both nutritional and functional reasons. Although many studies have investigated the phenolic profile of chia seeds, a research gap exists in understanding their bioaccessibility and bioavailability. With green tech- nologies gaining significance in the industry, there is also an opportunity to evaluate innovative technologies to increase the bioavailability and functionality of phenolic compounds found in chia seeds. Lastly, from a product and processing perspective, the interaction of chia seeds with other food ingredients remains an unexplored research area. Investi- gating how chia’s techno-functional attributes influence and interact with various components could reveal favorable and unfavorable effects, offering valuable insights for optimizing future product formulations. Author Contributions GB and KR: Conceptualization and Editing; BR and ER wrote the main manuscript for phenolic compounds; SG wrote the main manuscript for food applications; GB and KR wrote the main text for tocopherols, introduction, conclusions, abstract, and prepared Fig. 1. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Funding No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript. Data Availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. Declarations Ethical Approval Not applicable. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests. References 1. Balakrishnan G, Schneider RG (2022) The role of Amaranth, Qui- noa, and millets for the development of healthy, sustainable food products—A concise review. Foods 11(16):2442. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/foods11162442 2. Bochicchio R, Philips TD, Lovelli S, Labella R, Galgano F, Di Marisco A, Perniola M, Amato M (2015) Innovative crop pro- ductions for healthy food: the case of Chia (salvia hispanica l.). The sustainability of agro-food and natural resource systems in the Mediterranean basin. 29–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-16357-4_3 3. Kulczyński B, Kobus-Cisowska J, Taczanowski M, Kmiecik D, Gramza-Michałowska A (2019) The chemical composition and nutritional value of Chia seeds—current state of knowledge. Nutrients 11(6):1242. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11061242 4. Ayerza R, Coates W (2004) Composition of Chia (salvia hispan- ica) grown in six tropical and subtropical ecosystems of south America. Trop Sci 44(3):131–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/ts.154 5. Ayerza R (2010) Effects of seed color and growing locations on fatty acid content and composition of two Chia (salvia hispanica l.) genotypes. J Am Oil Chem Soc 87:1161–1165. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11746-010-1597-7 6. da Silva Marineli R, Moraes ÉA, Lenquiste SA, Godoy AT, Eber- lin MN, Maróstica MR Jr (2014) Chemical characterization and antioxidant potential of Chilean Chia seeds and oil (salvia his- panica l). LWT-Food Sci Technol 59(2):1304–1310. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.014 7. Grimes SJ, Phillips TD, Hahn V, Capezzone F, Graeff-Hönninger S (2018) Growth, yield performance and quality parameters of three early flowering Chia (salvia hispanica l.) genotypes culti- vated in southwestern Germany. Agriculture 8(10):154. https:// doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8100154 8. Ferreira DM, Nunes MA, Santo LE, Machado S, Costa AS, Álva- rez-Ortí M, Pardo JE, Oliveira MBP, Alves RC (2023) Charac- terization of Chia seeds, cold-pressed oil, and defatted cake: an ancient grain for modern food production. Molecules 28(2):723. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020723 9. Fernandes SS, Tonato D, Mazutti MA, de Abreu BR, da Costa Cabrera D, D’Oca CD, Prentice-Hernández C, de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado M (2019) Yield and quality of chia oil extracted via different methods. J Food Eng 262:200–208. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.06.019 10. Ixtaina VY, Mattea F, Cardarelli DA, Mattea MA, Nolasco SM, Tomás MC (2011) Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and characterization of Argentinean Chia seed oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc 88:289–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-010-1670-2 11. Oliveira-Alves SC, Vendramini-Costa DB, Cazarin CBB, Júnior MRM, Ferreira JPB, Silva AB, Prado MA, Bronze MR (2017) Characterization of phenolic compounds in Chia (salvia hispanica l.) seeds, fiber flour and oil. Food Chem 232:295–305. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.002 12. Knez Hrnčič M, Ivanovski M, Cör D, Knez Ž (2019) Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.): an overview—phytochemical profile, isola- tion methods, and application. Molecules 25(1):11. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/molecules25010011 13. Rahman MJ, de Camargo AC, Shahidi F (2017) Phenolic and polyphenolic profiles of Chia seeds and their in vitro biological activities. J Funct Foods 35:622–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jff.2017.06.044 14. Guindani C, Podestá R, Block JM, Rossi MJ, Mezzomo N, Fer- reira SR (2016) Valorization of Chia (Salvia hispanica) seed cake by means of supercritical fluid extraction. J Supercrit Fluids 112:67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2016.02.010 15. Alcântara MA, Polari ILB, de Albuquerque Meireles BRL, de Lima AEA, da Silva Junior JC, de Andrade Vieira É, Dos Santos NA, de Magalhães Cordeiro AMT (2019) Effect of the solvent composition on the profile of phenolic compounds extracted from Chia seeds. Food Chem 275:489–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. foodchem.2018.09.133 16. Sargi SC, Silva BC, Santos HMC, Montanher PF, Boeing JS, Santos Júnior OO, Souza NE, Visentainer JV (2013) Antioxidant capacity and chemical composition in seeds rich in omega-3: Chia, flax, and perilla. Food Sci Technol 33:541–548. https://doi. org/10.1590/S0101-20612013005000057 17. Coelho MS, Salas-Mellado MDLM (2014) Chemical characteriza- tion of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) for use in food products. J Food Nutr Res 2(5):263–269. https://doi.org/10.12691/jfnr-2-5-9 18. Reyes-Caudillo E, Tecante A, Valdivia-Lopez MA (2008) Die- tary fibre content and antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds Springer https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162442 https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162442 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_3 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16357-4_3 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11061242 https://doi.org/10.1002/ts.154 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-010-1597-7 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-010-1597-7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.014 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.014 https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8100154 https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8100154 https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020723 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.06.019 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.06.019 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-010-1670-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.002 https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25010011 https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25010011 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2017.06.044 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2017.06.044 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2016.02.010 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.133 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.133 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-20612013005000057 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-20612013005000057 https://doi.org/10.12691/jfnr-2-5-9 Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 Page 9 of 10 46 present in Mexican Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds. Food Chem 107(2):656–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.08.062 19. Mitrović J, Nikolić N, Karabegović I, Lazić M, Stojanović G (2021) Characterization of free and insoluble-bound phenolics of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds. Nat Prod Res 36(1):385– 389. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2020.1761357 20. Pellegrini M, Lucas-Gonzalez R, Sayas-Barberá E, Fernández- López J, Pérez-Álvarez JA, Viuda-Martos M (2018) Bioacces- sibility of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of Chia (salvia hispanica l.) seeds. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 73:47–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-017-0649-7 21. Labanca RA, Svelander C, Alminger M, Yildiz F (2019) Effect of particle size of Chia seeds on bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds during in vitro digestion. Cogent Food Agric 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1694775 22. Balakrishnan G, Schneider RG (2020) Quinoa flavonoids and their bioaccessibility during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. J Cereal Sci 95:103070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2020. 103070 23. Abdel-Aty AM, Elsayed AM, Salah HA, Bassuiny RI, Mohamed SA (2021) Egyptian Chia seeds (salvia hispanica l.) during ger- mination: upgrading of phenolic profile, antioxidant, antibacterial properties and relevant enzymes activities. Food Sci Biotechnol 30:723–734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-021-00902-2 24. Pająk P, Socha R, Broniek J, Królikowska K, Fortuna T (2019) Antioxidant properties, phenolic and mineral composition of germinated Chia, golden flax, evening primrose, phacelia and fenugreek. Food Chem 275:69–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodc hem.2018.09.081 25. Ghafoor K, Al Juhaimi F, Özcan MM, Uslu N, Ahmed IAM, Babiker EE (2022) The effect of boiling, germination and roasting on bioactive properties, phenolic compounds, fatty acids and min- erals of Chia seed (salvia hispanica l.) and oils. Int J Gastronomy Food Sci 27:100447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100447 26. Hatamian M, Noshad M, Abdanan-Mehdizadeh S, Barzegar H (2020) Effect of roasting treatment on functional and antioxidant properties of Chia seed flours. NFS J 21:1–8. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.nfs.2020.07.004 27. Timilsena YP, Vongsvivut J, Adhikari R, Adhikari B (2017) Phys- icochemical and thermal characteristics of Australian Chia seed oil. Food Chem 228:394–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem. 2017.02.021 28. Balakrishnan G, Schneider RG (2023) Tocopherol degradation and lipid oxidation during storage of Chenopodium quinoa. J Food Compos Anal 123:105549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2023. 105549 29. Abad A, Shahidi F (2020) Compositional characteristics and oxi- dative stability of Chia seed oil (Salvia hispanica L). Food Prod Process Nutr 2:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-020-00024-y 30. Dąbrowski G, Konopka I, Czaplicki S (2018) Variation in oil qual- ity and content of low molecular lipophilic compounds in Chia seed oils. Int J Food Prop 21(1):2016–2029. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10942912.2018.1501699 31. Dąbrowski G, Konopka I, Czaplicki S, Tańska M (2017) Com- position and oxidative stability of oil from Salvia hispanica L. seeds in relation to extraction method. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 119(5):1600209. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201600209 32. Martínez ML, Marín MA, Faller CM, Revol J, Penci MC, Ribotta PD (2012) Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil extraction: study of pro- cessing parameters. LWT-Food Sci Technol 47(1):78–82. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.12.032 33. Castro-Vázquez L, Rodríguez-Robledo V, Plaza-Oliver M, San- tander-Ortega MJ, Victoria Lozano M, González J, Villaseca N, Marcos P, Mar Arroyo-Jiménez M (2021) Pressurized liquid extraction to obtain Chia seeds oils extracts enriched in tocochro- manols. Nanoemulsions approaches to preserve the antioxidant potential. J Food Sci Technol 1–1. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13197-020-04866-9 34. Ishak I, Hussain N, Coorey R, Abd Ghani M (2021) Optimiza- tion and characterization of Chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) oil extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide. J CO2 Utilization 45:101430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2020.101430 35. Villanueva-Bermejo D, Calvo MV, Castro-Gómez P, Fornari T, Fontecha J (2019) Production of omega 3-rich oils from underu- tilized Chia seeds. Comparison between supercritical fluid and pressurized liquid extraction methods. Food Res Int 115:400–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.10.085 36. de Mello BT, dos Santos Garcia VA, da Silva C (2017) Ultra- sound-assisted extraction of oil from Chia (Salvia hispânica L.) seeds: optimization extraction and fatty acid Profile. J Food Pro- cess Eng 40(1):12298. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12298 37. Ali NM, Yeap SK, Ho WY, Beh BK, Tan SW, Tan SG (2012) The promising future of Chia, Salvia hispanica L. J Biomed Biotechnol 171956. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/171956 38. Picot-Allain C, Mahomoodally MF, Ak G, Zengin G (2021) Conventional versus green extraction techniques—a comparative perspective. Curr Opin Food Sci 40:144–156. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.cofs.2021.02.009 39. Özcan MM, Al-Juhaimi FY, Ahmed IA, Osman MA, Gassem MA (2019) Effect of soxhlet and cold press extractions on the physico- chemical characteristics of roasted and non-roasted Chia seed oils. J Food Meas Charact. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-018-9977-z. .13:648 – 55 40. Uribe JAR, Perez JIN, Kauil HC, Rubio GR, Alcocer CG (2011) Extraction of oil from Chia seeds with supercritical co2. J Super- crit Fluids 56(2):174–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2010. 12.007 41. Ixtaina VY, Vega A, Nolasco SM, Tomás MC, Gimeno M, Bár- zana E, Tecante A (2010) Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of oil from Mexican Chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.): characteriza- tion and process optimization. J Supercrit Fluids 55(1):192–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2010.06.003 42. Marineli RS, Moraes ÉA, Lenquiste SA, Godoy AT, Eberlin MN, Maróstica JMR (2014) Chemical characterization and antioxidant potential of Chilean Chia seeds and oil (Salvia hispanica L). LWT - Food Sci Technol 59(2):1304–1310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. lwt.2014.04.014 43. Antonini E, Torri L, Piochi M, Cabrino G, Meli MA, De Bellis R (2020) Nutritional, antioxidant and sensory properties of func- tional beef burgers formulated with Chia seeds and goji puree, before and after in vitro digestion. Meat Sci 161:108021. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2019.108021 44. Ullah R, Nadeem M, Imran M (2017) Omega-3 fatty acids and oxidative stability of ice cream supplemented with olein fraction of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil. Lipids Health Dis 16(1):34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12944-017-0420-y 45. Coorey R, Grant A, Jayasena V (2012) Effects of Chia Flour incor- poration on the Nutritive Quality and Consumer Acceptance of Chips. J Food Res 1(4):85. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v1n4p85 46. Ding Y, Lin HW, Lin YL, Yang DJ, Yu YS, Chen JW, Wang SY, Chen YC (2018) Nutritional composition in the Chia seed and its processing properties on restructured ham-like products. J Food Drug Anal 26(1):124–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2016.12. 012 47. Bhardwaj S, Saraswat S (2019) Product development, nutrient and sensory analysis of sports drink based on Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L). Int J Physiol Nutr Phys Educ 4(2):187–190. https:// doi.org/10.22271/journalofsport 48. Fathima SS, Kabra S (2017) Effect of incorporating different amounts of Chia to develop a nutritious kulfi. Int J Sci Res (IJSR) 6(1):1411–1413 'fl Springer https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.08.062 https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2020.1761357 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-017-0649-7 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1694775 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2020.103070 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2020.103070 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-021-00902-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.081 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.081 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100447 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nfs.2020.07.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nfs.2020.07.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2023.105549 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2023.105549 https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-020-00024-y https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2018.1501699 https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2018.1501699 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201600209 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.12.032 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2011.12.032 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04866-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04866-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2020.101430 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.10.085 https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12298 https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/171956 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2021.02.009 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2021.02.009 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-018-9977-z https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2010.12.007 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2010.12.007 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2010.06.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.014 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.014 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2019.108021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2019.108021 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12944-017-0420-y https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v1n4p85 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2016.12.012 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2016.12.012 https://doi.org/10.22271/journalofsport https://doi.org/10.22271/journalofsport Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (2025) 80:46 46 Page 10 of 10 49. Meriles SP, Piloni R, Cáceres GV, Penci MC, Marín MA, Ribotta P, Martínez ML (2022) Compositional characteristics, texture, shelf-life and sensory quality of snack crackers produced from non-traditional ingredients. Int J Food Sci Technol 57:4689–4696. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15303 50. Ullah R, Nadeem M, Imran M, Taj Khan I, Shahbaz M, Mahmud A, Tayyab M (2018) Omega fatty acids, phenolic compounds, and lipolysis of cheddar cheese supplemented with Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil. J Food Process Preserv 42(4):e13566. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1967-0 51. Teng J, Hu X, Wang M, Tao N (2018) Fabrication of Chia (Sal- via hispanica L.) seed oil nanoemulsions using different emulsi- fiers. J Food Process Preserv 42:e13416. https://doi.org/10.1111/ jfpp.13416 52. Bordón MG, Meriles SP, Ribotta PD, Martinez ML (2019) Enhancement of composition and oxidative Stability of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed oil by blending with Specialty oils. J Food Sci 84:1035–1044. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841. 14580 53. Guiotto EN, Ixtaina VY, Nolasco SM, Tomás MC (2014) Effect of Storage conditions and antioxidants on the oxidative Stability of sunflower–Chia Oil Blends. J Am Oil Chem Soc 91:767–776. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-014-2410-9 54. Muñoz LA, Cobos A, Diaz O, Aguilera JM (2012) Chia seeds: microstructure, mucilage extraction and hydration. J Food Eng 108(1):216–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.06.037 55. Brütsch L, Stringer FJ, Kuster S, Windhab EJ, Fischer P (2019) Chia seed mucilage – a vegan thickener: isolation, tailoring vis- coelasticity and rehydration. Food Funct 10(8):4854–4860. https:// doi.org/10.1039/C8FO00173A 56. Menga V, Amato M, Phillips TD, Angelino D, Morreale F, Fares C (2017) Gluten-free pasta incorporating Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) as thickening agent: an approach to naturally improve the nutri- tional profile and the in vitro carbohydrate digestibility. Food Chem 221:1954–1961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.11.151 57. Fernandes SS, Filipini G, Salas-Mellado MIM (2021) Develop- ment of cake mix with reduced fat and high practicality by adding Chia mucilage. Food Bioscience 42:101148. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.fbio.2021.101148 58. Fernandes SS, Salas-Mellado MM (2018) Development of mayon- naise with substitution of oil or egg yolk by the Addition of Chia (Salvia Hispânica L.) Mucilage. J Food Sci 83:74–83. https://doi. org/10.1111/1750-3841.13984 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law. Springer https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15303 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1967-0 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-015-1967-0 https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13416 https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13416 https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14580 https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14580 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-014-2410-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.06.037 https://doi.org/10.1039/C8FO00173A https://doi.org/10.1039/C8FO00173A https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.11.151 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101148 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101148 https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13984 https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13984 A Comprehensive Review of Phenolic Compounds in Chia Seeds and Their Applications in the Food Industry Abstract Introduction Overview of Chia Seeds Flavonoids, Phenolic Acids in Chia Seed, Chia Oil, and Defatted Chia Meal Tocopherols in Chia Oil Food Applications of Chia Conclusion and Future Recommendations References Copy Cover Page - USE ME.pdf Blank Page Blank Page