TYPE Perspective
PUBLISHED 03 April 2023
DOI 10.3389/fspas.2023.1165254
Agile collaboration: Citizen
OPEN ACCESS science as a transdisciplinary
EDITED BY
Xochitl Blanco-Cano, approach to heliophysics
National Autonomous University of
Mexico, Mexico
REVIEWED BY Vincent Ledvina1,2*, Laura Brandt2,3, Elizabeth MacDonald2,3,
Simone Di Matteo, 4 5,6
The Catholic University of America, Nathaniel Frissell , Justin Anderson , Thomas Y. Chen7,
United States Ryan J. French8, Francesca Di Mare2,3, Andrea Grover9,
*CORRESPONDENCE Karl Battams10, Kristine Sigsbee11, Bea Gallardo-Lacourt3,12,
Vincent Ledvina,
vledvina@alaska.edu Donna Lach6, Joseph A. Shaw13, Michael Hunnekuhl6,
SPECIALTY SECTION Burcu Kosar3,12, Wayne Barkhouse14, Tim Young14,
This article was submitted to Space
Physics, a section of the journal Chandresh Kedhambadi6, Dogacan S. Ozturk1,
Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Seth G. Claudepierre15, Chuanfei Dong16,17, Andy Witteman1,
Sciences
6,18
13 February 2023 Jeremy Kuzub and Gunjan Sinha6
RECEIVED
ACCEPTED 21 March 2023 1Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska-Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, United States, 2Aurorasaurus, New
PUBLISHED 03 April 2023
Mexico Consortium, Los Alamos, NM, United States, 3NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt,
CITATION MD, United States, 4Physics and Engineering Department, University of Scranton, Scranton, PA, United
Ledvina V, Brandt L, MacDonald E, States, 5High Hopes Aurora, Brandon, MB, Canada, 6Citizen Scientist, Osnabrück, Germany, 7School of
Frissell N, Anderson J, Chen TY, French Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States, 8National Solar
RJ, Di Mare F, Grover A, Battams K, Observatory, Boulder, CO, United States, 9College of Information Science and Technology, University
10
Sigsbee K, Gallardo-Lacourt B, Lach D, of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States, U.S.Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC,
Shaw JA, Hunnekuhl M, Kosar B, United States, 11Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States,
12
Barkhouse W, Young T, Kedhambadi C, Department of Physics, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, United States,
13
Ozturk DS, Claudepierre SG, Dong C, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Montana State University Bozeman, Bozeman,
14
Witteman A, Kuzub J and Sinha G (2023), MT, United States, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks,
15
Agile collaboration: Citizen science as a ND, United States, Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences Department, University of California, Los
transdisciplinary approach to Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States, 16Astronomy Department, Boston University, Boston, MA,
United States, 17heliophysics. Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United
18
Front. Astron. Space Sci. 10:1165254. States, Jufa Intermedia-Capture North, Ottawa, ON, Canada
doi: 10.3389/fspas.2023.1165254
COPYRIGHT
© 2023 Ledvina, Brandt, MacDonald,
Frissell, Anderson, Chen, French, Di Citizen science connects scientists with the public to enable discovery, engaging
Mare, Grover, Battams, Sigsbee, broad audiences across the world. There are many attributes that make citizen
Gallardo-Lacourt, Lach, Shaw,
Hunnekuhl, Kosar, Barkhouse, Young, science an asset to the field of heliophysics, including agile collaboration.
Kedhambadi, Ozturk, Claudepierre, Agility is the extent to which a person, group of people, technology, or
Dong, Witteman, Kuzub and Sinha. This project can work efficiently, pivot, and adapt to adversity. Citizen scientists are
is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative agile; they are adaptable and responsive. Citizen science projects and their
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). underlying technology platforms are also agile in the software development
The use, distribution or reproduction in sense, by utilizing beta testing and short timeframes to pivot in response to
other forums is permitted, provided the
original author(s) and the copyright community needs. As they capture scientifically valuable data, citizen scientists
owner(s) are credited and that the can bring expertise from other fields to scientific teams. The impact of
original publication in this journal is citizen science projects and communities means citizen scientists are a bridge
cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution between scientists and the public, facilitating the exchange of information. These
or reproduction is permitted which does attributes of citizen scientists form the framework of agile collaboration. In
not comply with these terms. this paper, we contextualize agile collaboration primarily for aurora chasers, a
group of citizen scientists actively engaged in projects and independent data
gathering. Nevertheless, these insights scale across other domains and projects.
Citizen science is an emerging yet proven way of enhancing the current research
Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences 01 frontiersin.org
Ledvina et al. 10.3389/fspas.2023.1165254
landscape. To tackle the next-generation’s biggest research problems, agile
collaboration with citizen scientists will become necessary.
KEYWORDS
citizen science, crowdsourced science, aurora, space weather, heliophysics
1 Introduction (MacDonald et al., 2015), the Ham Radio Citizen Science
Investigation HamSCI (HamSCI; Frissell et al., 2022a; Frissell et al.,
Citizen science is a rapidly growing and newly formalized 2022b; Frissell et al., 2018), ScintPi (Rodrigues and Moraes, 2019),
field that focuses on enabling the public to contribute to scientific Solar Stormwatch (Barnard et al., 2014), sonification techniques
discovery; small amounts of volunteered time by many people can (e.g., Archer et al., 2022), Solar Jet Hunter (Musset et al., 2021)
contribute to a larger scientific goal (Shirky, 2010). A working have proven that citizen scientists can contribute to new scientific
definition of citizen science is “organized research inwhichmembers discoveries in aurora physics, ionospheric science, and solar
of the public engage in the processes of scientific investigations physics.
by asking questions, collecting data, and/or interpreting results” While the focus of science is usually on the projects and
(Citizen Science Central). We note that the term “citizen science” their outcomes, the citizen scientists themselves ultimately drive
is itself an unnecessary barrier to entry and is in the process of discovery. As heliophysics explores new ways to use technology,
changing (Fuller, 2020). As consensus on a more appropriate term collaborative teams, and innovative research methods to solve the
has not yet been reached (Cooper et al., 2021), we will use “citizen field’s biggest questions, citizen science emerges as a versatile way to
science” in this paper as a temporary measure. Citizen science leverage and connect with the public to drive the field forward.
encompasses multifaceted approaches, goals, and formats that span In this paper, we show how citizen scientists demonstrate
a broad spectrum of projects. qualities that make them valuable assets to modern heliophysics.
For example, the European Citizen Science Association (ECSA, In Section 2, we explain how citizen scientists are highly
2015) defines ten principles of citizen science. With a broad range agile. In Section 3, we show that citizen scientists can produce
of attributes, as well as disparities in funding and support, the scientifically valuable data. In Section 4, we explain how citizen
realization of citizen science ideals varies widely from project to scientists are “contributory experts” and “experiential experts” with
project. In this paper, we define values for citizen science to consider transdisciplinary capabilities. In Section 5, we present ways citizen
in the future and use aurora chasers as a “case study” example. In scientists can act as science “translators” to engage the broader
many instances, funding must be allocated for projects to realize public. Finally, in Section 6, we offer concluding remarks.
these ideas. Ideally, citizen science projects engage members of
the public who may act as contributors, collaborators, or project
leaders and have meaningful roles in the project (principle 1).These
citizen scientists can participate in multiple stages of a research 2 Citizen scientists are highly agile
project (principle 4), and are properly acknowledged when results
are shared and published (principle 8). Citizen science projects have Citizen scientists maximize success and minimize expended
genuine scientific outcomes. These outcomes may be answering a time, leading naturally to agility and efficiency in creating science
research question or informing conservation action, management results.
decisions or environmental policy (principle 2). In citizen science Agility is an important aspect of a person’s scientific capability:
projects, feedback and communication are provided to participants the ability to think and understand quickly. In science, results-
(e.g., how their data are being used and what the research, policy, oriented outcomes can have many metrics, such as the frequency
or societal outcomes are; principle 5). The “democratization” of of publishing refereed journal articles. However, while they can be
science (principle 6) is a key principle of these projects, and produced collaboratively, direct outcomes are not the only evidence
data and methods are made open source and available to the of agility (our context of agility in science is adapted from Buffone,
public barring any privacy concerns (principle 7). The leaders of 2021).
citizen science projects take into consideration legal and ethical The human brain has a remarkable ability to spot differences
issues surrounding copyright, intellectual property, data sharing in a continuum (Eysenck and Keane, 2015). In citizen science, this
agreements, confidentiality, attribution, and the environmental talent can be applied to data-generating identification projects such
impact of any activities (principle 10). Finally, citizen science as Aurora Zoo (Whiter et al., 2021) on the Zooniverse platform
projects are evaluated at many stages for their scientific output, data (Simpson et al., 2014), in which citizen scientists categorize small-
quality, participant experience, and wider societal or policy impact scale aurora features. In instances where data are generated by the
(principle 9; Brandt et al., 2022). citizen scientists themselves, this quality is even more important.
Citizen science projects are well established and common in Aurora chasers are a diverse group of photographers, amateur
fields such as astronomy (e.g., Globe at Night; Garmany et al., astronomers, and enthusiasts bound by a passion to witness and
2008), and biology (Wiggins and Wilbanks, 2019), and the capture views of the aurora and auroral phenomena. In the field,
field of solar–terrestrial physics is finally seeing a growing aurora chasers are highly sensitive to the aurora and its appearance,
number (Knipp, 2015). Initiatives such as Aurorasaurus recognizing when a deviation from natural patterns emerges.
Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences 02 frontiersin.org
Ledvina et al. 10.3389/fspas.2023.1165254
An example of this capability was the citizen scientist repeatedly demonstrating that the quality of citizen science data
identification of STEVE (Strong Thermal Emission Velocity is correlated with the quality of its parent project’s design to ask
Enhancement). Aurora chasers, particularly in the Alberta Aurora and answer appropriate scientific questions. Projects often train
Chasers Facebook group, noticed an unusual aurora-type feature participants and include rigorous quality assurance and quality
appearing equatorward of the main auroral oval. This revelation is control practices for their data. For example, the Aurorasaurus
described in MacDonald et al. (2018). The identification of STEVE project crowdsources aurora sightings from Twitter using specific
led to increased scientific interest, and in particular, the involvement keywords and metadata, sightings arevoted on in real-time for
of aurora chasers in formal research projects (e.g., Archer et al., initial confirmation per training guidelines, and the Twitter data
2019; Martinis et al., 2022; Nishimura et al., 2022). One of the are then cleaned by project volunteers to create more robust datasets
simplest ways aurora chasers can directly contribute to discovery is (Case et al., 2016).
through the submission of their photos, which can then be analyzed However, in instances where the data come directly from citizen
by scientists (e.g., Hunnekuhl et al., 2021). These citizen scientists scientists, as in the case of aurora chasers’ photographs (see, e.g.,
are highly experienced at recognizing abnormal conditions, and Figure 1), conscious decisions by the citizen scientists must be
thus frequently document previously unknown or understudied documented to make the data scientifically useful. Metadata like
auroral phenomena (e.g., Dunes Aurora; Palmroth et al., 2019). exact camera location, time of capture, aperture, shutter speed,
Aurora chasers are also not pre-tuned to scientific assumptions ISO, and white balance are critical information for scientists. Many
about importance, meaning that as they pursue their own goals studies involving citizen scientist contributions rely on triangulation
and motivations as skilled photographers, they capture unforeseen methods that utilizemultiple cameras andRAWphotomanipulation
data. Aurora chasers have developed personalized workflows to to extract qualities of auroral features, such as true color, brightness,
gather their data, responding to changing conditions with sets of and spatial extent (e.g., Chu et al., 2020; Semeter et al., 2020). Other
steps and decisions to track aurora and adjust camera settings.Their data quality controls are built into the data collection platforms
adaptability maximizes their capability to pivot rapidly and capture (MacDonald et al., 2015).
various atmospheric phenomena, tangential to the aurora itself (e.g., Online social media groups become nexuses for aurora chasers
noctilucent clouds, meteors, satellites, subauroral phenomena, etc.). during geomagnetic storms, when photographers report conditions
This leads to discoveries, particularly at disciplinary boundaries, in real time. Standard practice in these communities is to include the
as with STEVE in the subauroral region between high and middle location, time, and a general description of the activity (e.g., “naked-
latitudes. eye visible”). These metadata become valuable when submitting
The concept of agility also applies to software development to validated platforms (e.g., Aurorasaurus) where data can be
and the processes of building citizen science projects. In software archived and curated for research (see Figure 2). Furthermore, in
development, agile practices require discovery and solutions the photographic community, it is advised standard practice to shoot
improvement through the collaborative effort of cross-functional in RAW picture mode. In this format, important camera settings
teams with their end user(s), adaptive planning, continual are recorded in the image file. Color, brightness, and tonal data
refinement, and flexible responses to changes in requirements, can not only be manipulated by the photographer to create a more
capacity, andunderstanding of the problems to be solved (Beck et al., pleasing aesthetic, but can also be analyzed by scientists. Aurora
2001). This conceptualization of agility refers to projects using photographers in the field, then, are already capturing data that are
the latest technology, a short timeframe to pivot, and a lean scientifically useful. As the technological gap between consumer and
production team that are agile themselves. An example of an agile scientific-grade cameras narrows, the role of the citizen scientist in
citizen science project is the North Dakota Dual Aurora Cameras photographic analysis of aurora andnight-sky phenomena increases.
(NoDDAC; Ledvina et al., 2021), which provides live views of the Communities of aurora chasers are ready to step up to the plate, and
aurora to the public, including aurora chasers. The aurora data are often utilize the latest commercial-off-the-shelf technologies they
also archived and made open source, abiding by FAIR data use can access.
principles (Wilkinson et al., 2016; Halford et al., 2022). NoDDAC In the broader Heliophysics community, low-cost science-grade
is a responsive community resource that can be adapted quickly to instruments are becoming available to the public. For example,
integrate with other citizen science projects or scientific efforts—the ScintPi (Rodrigues and Moraes, 2019) or magnetometers (Beggan
project is agile. The agility of citizen scientists and citizen science and Marple, 2018). Even native sensors in smartphones can enable
projects allow for scientific discovery that can keep pace with the citizen science projects (e.g., Crowdmag; Nair et al., 2014).
advancing research landscape.
4 Citizen scientists have both
3 Citizen scientists produce contributory and experiential
scientifically valuable data expertise
Citizen scientists are extremely capable in terms of identifying Citizen scientists provide areas of expertise and perspectives that
scientifically valuable data. complement subject matter expert (SME) specialization.
Skeptics and critics of citizen science often mention concerns Science as a field is trending toward large collaborative teams
about the quality of data generated by citizen scientists. Numerous (Cheruvelil et al., 2014; National Research Council, 2015; Wang
articles and studies have been published addressing these arguments and Hicks, 2015) to accomplish research goals. The American
(e.g., Specht and Lewandowski, 2018; Kosmala et al., 2016), Psychological Association notes: “Collaborative groups conducting
Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences 03 frontiersin.org
Ledvina et al. 10.3389/fspas.2023.1165254
FIGURE 1
STEVE photographed by aurora chaser and Aurorasaurus citizen scientist Justin Anderson on 13 March 2021 in southern Manitoba.
Frissell et al. (2022b) Others seek more generalized skills such as
pattern recognition. In aurora citizen science, advances in the
study of the subauroral phenomenon STEVE (MacDonald et al.,
2018; Semeter et al., 2020) could not have occurred without
citizen scientists’ contributory and experiential expertise in
astrophotography. We note that at Aurorasaurus Ambassador
meetings, aurora chasers draw on experiential, groundtruth
knowledge derived from many nights of observation. The patterns
they notice in STEVE events are consistent with scientific studies
(e.g., Gallardo-Lacourt et al., 2018).
Participants with skills in other fields can bring highly-
applicable knowledge. Those with contributory expertise in history
draw attention to rich archival resources (e.g., Hunnekuhl and
MacDonald, 2020). Educators skilled in translating scientific
concepts for public audiences help broaden participation. Data
visualization professionals and engineers create tools to enhance
FIGURE 2 data gathering (e.g., Kuzub, 2021). In addition, Traditional
An example of how information flows through aurora chasing Knowledges (TKs) can engage with traditional, Western science
communities. Subject matter experts (SMEs) and citizen scientists
collaborate to identify scientific interests which can benefit from with the consent and agency of knowledge holders. For example,
aurora chasers’ observations. participants from Indigenous communities may choose to share
cultural and spiritual knowledge about auroras, passed down over
generations (e.g., Alaska Geophysical Institute). When shared
voluntarily and within appropriate reciprocal, mutually beneficial
team science researchmay include […] not only researchers, but also relationships, TKs provide important insights (Carr and Ranco,
community members and policymakers (Calhoun, 2013). Through 2017; Tengö et al., 2021; Bhawra, 2022).When citizen scientists with
the process of sharing and expanding domains of expertise, research knowledge in other fields engage with SMEs on projects, the citizen
endeavors are informed by qualitatively rich discussions and possess scientists develop additional skill sets, enhancing their experience.
greater potential for advancing science towards achieving desired SMEs also report reciprocal, synergistic relationships.
outcomes.” Perrault (2013) defines four kinds of expertise, two Spasiano et al. (2021) describe transdisciplinary citizen science
of which are especially relevant to citizen science. Contributory as integrating a variety of scientific backgrounds and stakeholder
expertise is the capability of contributing to what is known about a perspectives to solve scientific problems. At its best, citizen
topic, either in theory or practice. Experiential expertise is developed science affirms generalists and knowledge holders with co-creative,
directly through personal experience. transdisciplinary frameworks that equitably share power between
Citizen scientists display varying types and degrees of these various types of expertise (Bonney et al., 2009; Wilder Foundation,
forms of expertise as they leverage preexisting skill sets for a 2018). This necessitates actively engaging the goals and motivations
project. Some projects, like HamSCI deliberately engage advanced- that citizen scientists themselves bring to a project. It also requires
level, licensed amateur radio operators for their studies, who have recognizing and working to dismantle harmful power structures,
their own technical journals and conferences (see The National as well as respecting and affirming data sovereignty, ownership of
Association for Amateur Radio, Serra 2022,; Frissell et al. (2022a); traditional knowledge, and knowledge holders’ agency. Broadening
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Ledvina et al. 10.3389/fspas.2023.1165254
participation means recognizing and affirming that there is an HamSCI’s personal space weather station is an effort led
important place in scientific research for people who do not fit by a team of professional scientists but beta tested and
the “traditional” scientific roadmap. Far from “unskilled labor” validated with the help of volunteers from the amateur radio
(Blair et al., 2021), even while performing ostensibly simple tasks community (e.g., Hobart et al., 2021; Joshi et al., 2021; Kim et al.,
citizen scientists bring to a project a wealth of advanced knowledge 2022).
spanning not only multiple academic fields, but also multiple types Solar Jet Hunter, a solar physics citizen science project hosted
of knowledge. on the Zooniverse platform, recruits volunteers to identify jets of
As collaborators across disciplines, citizen scientists deserve plasma from extreme ultraviolet images of the Sun. Built into the
reciprocity for all that they invest in a project. As with other project itself are educational tutorials explaining the datasets, the
forms of volunteerism, citizen science inherently functions as a solar jet phenomena, and why they are important to scientists.
social and psychological contract that exchanges social capital An interactive forum allows participants to ask questions, discuss
for labor and knowledge (Jones et al., 2006; Vantilborgh et al., findings, report bugs and enhancements, and communicate directly
2012). Such reciprocity facilitates lasting participation (Hetland, with SMEs. Projects like Solar Jet Hunter engage are targeted at
2020), but what this capital entails may vary and in many anyone with a scientific interest, not just those in the space science
cases is best defined by the citizen scientists and communities community. Asmentioned in Section 4, engaging a diverse audience
themselves through relationship-building (Chitnis, 2018; Erickson, is important for leveraging multiple perspectives.
2021; Yua et al., 2022). Many forms require funding, either directly Citizen scientists who are part of online communities can
(as in community compensation or individual honoraria) or then share their knowledge with a passionate and receptive
indirectly (for example, funding relationship-building, community group. In online aurora chasing communities, citizen scientists can
expert liaisons, in-kind gifts, programmers to create rewarding communicate directly with SMEs and discuss findings in their
user interfaces, or project managers to support participants). data. This discussion helps inspire new science questions and more
Funding for relationship-building and reciprocity is critical to the targeted observations, creating a positive feedback loop that sees
future success of scientific collaboration, including citizen science citizen scientists as stakeholders and active participants in the
(Tachera, 2021). research process. One analogy represents citizen science as a three-
legged stool: the public, SMEs, and project infrastructures act as the
legs supporting the mission of advancing science through discovery
5 Citizen scientists bridge professional and education.
science and the public
Citizen Scientists connect highly-specialized subject matter 6 Conclusion
experts with the general public.
Cultivating relationships between scientists and science Citizen scientists are agile, competent, and skilled. The aurora
organizations is a key step in bringing awareness to science-society chasing community exemplifies these points. Aurora chasers are
issues and helps inspire the public to be interested in science, agile, able to adapt to changing conditions on the fly and
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. While adjust their data gathering processes in response. Through the
many efforts in science aim to engage the public, citizen science collective agility of citizen scientists, projects themselves are more
projects deserve special recognition as they enable a high level of easily able to pivot and evolve. Citizen scientists are also highly
participation from citizen scientists who are connected to both competent in data gathering and analysis, and capable of recognizing
SMEs and the general public. The goals of citizen science projects scientifically significant patterns, as well as deviations from
are not only to use the power of big data to drive science, but to patterns.
provide an educational experience for their users. Because they are not pre-tuned to scientific assumptions about
Using Aurorasaurus as a prime example, on the project’s importance, aurora chasers can capture unforeseen data that can
website are tutorial articles explaining how to submit aurora lead to surprising discoveries. As the gap between science and
reports along with targeted scientific information about the aurora consumer-grade cameras becomes ever smaller, citizen science
and how it is formed. Those who are interested can further data will play an increasing role in photographic analysis of
explore the science behind the aurora and the principles of aurora.
citizen science through blog articles and other content. Founded In addition, citizen scientists serve their communities as science
and run by a space physicist SME (MacDonald et al., 2015), communicators and facilitate scientific experiences for others,
the project provides clear and concise scientific information to introducing new audiences to heliophysics. Online aurora chasing
enhance the citizen science experience, equipping the volunteer communities offer hubs for citizen scientists and SMEs to interact
with accurate knowledge that they can then use in their daily lives. and collaboratively discuss citizen science projects, photography,
This simple yet powerful interaction is happening in hundreds and unusual aurora sightings. These conversations are highly
of citizen science projects across disciplines and in the field of productive; for example, they contributed to a new interest in the
heliophysics. phenomenon known as STEVE.
For example, HamSCI brings together professional scientists An increasingly technology-driven and collaborative research
and amateur radio operators at the annual HamSCI workshop. environment in heliophysics will require novel ways to approach
These types of cross-disciplinary gatherings help forge stronger problems. Citizen science and its myriad benefits can enhance
bonds between SMEs and the science-oriented public. Furthermore, research, increase scientific discovery, and build relationships
Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences 05 frontiersin.org
Ledvina et al. 10.3389/fspas.2023.1165254
between communities. Citizen scientists can gather science data Funding
needed in interdisciplinary collaboration and act as a bridge between
SMEs. Multidisciplinary efforts in heliophysics are important for NF acknowledges the support of NSF AGS-2045755. BG-L
identifying the risk and improving the resiliency of specific is supported by the NASA competed Internal Scientist Funding
industries to space weather (Ledvina et al., 2022a; Ledvina et al., Model on Mesoscale Dynamic. CD was partially supported by
2022b). Over the next decade, citizen science will become integral Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory through the Laboratory
to solving big data challenges, engaging the public with NASA Directed Research and Development (LDRD) Program under
efforts, and cultivating science that bridges disciplines. Over the next DOE Prime Contract No. DE-AC02-09CH11466. Aurorasaurus is
decade and beyond, the agility of citizen science will become an supported by NASA CAN Award 80NSSC19K1609 and by the NSF
important tool in solving grand challenges in heliophysics. Agency- under grant AGS-1821135.
specific recommendations reflecting these sentiments can be found
in the white paper of the same title submitted to the 2024-2033
Heliophysics Decadal Survey (Ledvina et al., 2022a; Ledvina et al., Conflict of interest
2022b).
JK was employed by Jufa Intermedia-Capture North.
The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted
Data availability statement in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that
could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The original contributions presented in the study are included in The reviewer SD declared a shared affiliation with the authors
the article/supplementarymaterial, further inquiries can be directed LB, EM, FD, BG-L, BK to the handling editor at the time of review.
to the corresponding author.
Publisher’s note
Author contributions
All claims expressed in this article are solely those
VL conceived the work, was responsible for the organization of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of
of this article, and contributed to all sections. LB and EM made their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher,
substantial contributions to all sections of this article. JA provided the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be
a photograph of the STEVE phenomenon. All other authors listed evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
helped analyze and contribute to the article before submission. manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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