STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO COPY In presenting this paper in partial fulfillment of the require¬ ments for an advanced degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this paper for scholarly purposes may be granted by my major professor, or, in his absence, by the Director of Libraries. It is understood that any copying or pub¬ lication of this paper for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Signature Date 30 / frd PROGRESSIVE CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL FITNESS OF A FEMALE LONG DISTANCE RUNNER IN TRAINING FOR THE WESTERN STATES 100 by A professional paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Physical Education r* DONNA WINNIFRED DEARBORN Approved: Graduate Dean MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana August, 1980 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author is indebted to Dr. Robert Schwarzkopf who made a most substantial contribution to this effort, far beyond what could ever have been expected of a chairman, test administrator, trainer, coach, . . . and friend. The author would like to express her appreciation to Dr. Ellen Kreighbaum and Dr. Gordon McFeters for their valuable input. Special thanks to Dr. Jack Gatlin and Pam Refling of the Veter¬ inary Research Laboratory for their assistance in the blood analysis. Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Robert Haynes for use of his equipment at the Preventative Health and Fitness Clinic. Thank you to Bill for slowing down his fast pace to run the time trial and for his encouragement and understanding. Finally, the author thanks her family for their continued love and support. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES viii CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM ...................... 1 Introduction . . . . . . . ............ 1 Statement of the Problem 2 Specific Objectives . 3 Delimitations ........ ..... 3 Limitations . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 General Terms and Definitions 4 Physical fitness ..... .... 4 Long distance runner ........ 4 Progressive ....... . 4 Training 5 Western States 100 ........ 5 Aerobic . ...... 5 Running . . . . . . . . . . . . • . ' 5 Fartlek . 5 Intervals 5 Stair intervals 5 Bicycle ergometer intervals 5 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............. 6 III. PROCEDURE 16 Research Method . 16 Subject ..... 16 Training Program 17 Daily Log 18 Testing Battery .................. 19 Testing Schedule . 21 Testing Equipment . . . 21 Ergometers . . 21 Oxygen Consumption . . 23 Blood chemistry 23 V CHAPTER Page Heart rate 23 Skinfolds 24 Girths 24 Strength .................. 25 Testing Procedures . 25 Maximal oxygen consumption ......... 25 Basal metabolic rate 26 Blood chemistry ............... 26 Heart rate 27 Body composition .............. 27 Girths . . 29 Bicycle ride to exhaustion ......... 29 Time trial . ... . . ... . . 29 Strength . 30 Analysis of the Data 30 IV. RESULTS 31 Maximal Oxygen Consumption (VOp max) 31 Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation (VE max) 37 Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen (VE/VO2) ... 38 Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) 42 Blood Chemistry . . 46 Heart Rate (HR) 49 Resting 49 Maximal . 52 Submaximal . . 53 Recovery 58 BodyComposition ........ 59 Girths 66 Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion 68 Time Trial ....... 70 Strength 72 V. DISCUSSION . . 75 Maximal Oxygen Consumption 75 Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation . . . 77 VI CHAPTER Page Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen ........ 78 Basal Metabolic Rate . . 79 Blood Chemistry . . .... . . 80 Heart Rate . 82 Resting . Maximal . Submaximal Recovery 85 Body Composition . 86 Girths . . .............. 88 Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion ........... 89 Time Trial . 90 Strength . ...... 90 One Hundred-Mile Run . . 91 VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 94 Summary . 94 Conclusions .... ..... 95 Recommendations 98 APPENDIXES A. TEST DATA . . . 100 B. TRAINING DATA .............. 104 C. DAILY LOG DATA . . . . 106 D. GAS ANALYSIS CALCULATIONS . . . . 108 E. BMR GAS ANALYSIS . 110 BIBLIOGRAPHY 112 Vll LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3.1 Testing Periods . . . 22 3.2 Testing Schedule .... ..... 22 4.1 Maximal Oxygen Consumption and Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation of Female Athletes . . . . . . . . . 34 4.2 Response of Maximal Oxygen Consumption to Physical Training . . . . . . 35 4.3 Blood Chemistry Responses to Physical Training . 48 4.4 Body Composition of Female Normals and Athletes 60 Vlll LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1 Maximal Oxygen Consumption 36 4.2 Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation . . . . . .... 39 4.3 Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen 41 4.4 Basal Metabolic Rate . . . . 45 4.5 Blood Chemistry ................ 50 4.6 Heart Rate During Test for Maximal Oxygen Con¬ sumption . . . 54 4.7 Heart Rate During Submaximal Treadmill Exercise and Recovery ... ......... 55 4.8 Heart Rate During Submaximal Bicycle Ergometer Exercise and Recovery ............. 57 4.9 Skinfold Measurements ....... 63 4.10 Percent Body Fat ................ 64 4.11 Body Composition . . 65 4.12 Girth Measurements ...... 69 4.13 Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion ........ . . . 71 4.14 Leg Strength . . . .... . .. . . . . . . . . 74 IX ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to determine the progressive changes in the physical fitness of a female long distance runner during a seven-month training period in preparation for the Western States 100- Mile Endurance Run. The progressive physical conditioning was evaluated by testing 50 selected oxygen consumption, pulmonary ventilation, blood chemistry, heart rate, body composition, girth, running and bicycle per¬ formance, and strength variables at four-week intervals during the training period. A 27-year-old female marathon runner who had run for approximately three years served as the subject. The subject trained up to ten hours a day, six or seven days per week, for a total of 30 weeks. The training program was substantially adjusted due to a knee injury. Consistent throughout the entire seven months was at least one long endurance workout each week. In addition to running, the training involved mountain climbing, cross-crountry ski¬ ing, bicycling, stair intervals, bicycle ergometer intervals, weight training, and swimming. Beneficial changes in the physical fitness of the subject re¬ sulted from non-running as well as running training. During the seven months of training, substantial improvements were noted in ^©2 max, VE/VO2 max, submaximal HR, recovery HR, skinfold measurements, leg strength, and the bicycle ride to exhaustion. VO2 max reached and re¬ mained at peak values (66.5 ml/kg-min, as measured on'the bicycle ergo¬ meter) only during the three months when LSD running was the main form of training. There was no change in maximal HR, resting HR, and girth measurements. Although there were fluctuations in values of ^E max and blood chemistry parameters, no particular trend was observed. The subject was forced to drop out of the Western States 100 due to the knee injury after covering 51.3 miles in 13 hours. It was apparent that the subject was very adequately trained for the run in consideration of the subject’s condition at all points during the run and during the post-race recovery period. It was determined in analysis of the testing results and the 100-mile run that the most important pre¬ requisites for completion of this particular ultramarathon were leg strength and submaximal working capacity. CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction The ultimate long distance running challenge lies in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, of California. The Western States Trail, first tra¬ versed by the Paiute and Washoe Indians and later the Gold Rush pioneers, runs along high mountain ridges, through deep river canyons, over ex¬ tensive snowfields, through a river, and up and down steep rocky pitches for 100 miles. In addition, temperature extremes of 25 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit may be encountered during the summer months. To run 100 miles in this rugged high altitude terrain requires an extraordinary degree of fitness. Several months of intense, specific training must precede an event such as this. Strenuous training, such as that which is necessary to run the Western States 100, has rarely been studied and documented. Many studies have innumerated the effects of moderately strenuous training programs (2, 13, 21, 140, 164). Endurance running training has usually meant covering from one to five miles per workout, from three to six times per week (51,63, 86, 104, 111, 115, 125, 143, 151). Effects of train¬ ing involving strenuous workouts of much longer duration (i.e. three to ten hours) is relatively unknown. A majority of training studies have merely tested subjects be¬ fore and after a short duration training program (12, 39, 50, 73, 86, 2 111, 139, 143, 164). A longitudinal study over a period of several months, with periodic testing of many physiologic parameters, would enable a more significant assessment of the changes taking place (67). Another weakness of existing training research is the lack of relating observed changes to changes in training methodology. Distance runners are difficult to control over long periods (126). Consequently, existing research consists of descriptive studies of long distance run¬ ners (20, 22, 27, 29, 30, 91, 156). It is difficult to separate genetic endowments from the effects of training. Are the observed values pri¬ marily a result of heredity or of training? Furthermore, data concerning the effects of strenuous training specifically on the female athlete are scarce. Probably the single most important thing that is holding back the development of women athletes today is the lack of knowledge in the population at large concerning how hard women should work in developing their athletic potential. Research efforts to assess the physiological responses and adaptation of the female to strenu¬ ous physical effort must be commensurate with the increased parti¬ cipation of females in athletics (89). This study seeks to fill the relative absence of data on female athletes through a longitudinal case study. Periodic testing of many parameters compared training methods to measured changes during the course of seven months of intense endurance training. Statement of the Problem The general problem of this study was to determine the progres¬ sive changes in the physical fitness of a female long distance runner 3 during a seven-month training period in preparation for the Western States 100. Specific Objectives 1. To determine the progressive changes in oxygen consumption, pulmonary ventilation, blood chemistry, heart rates, body composition, girths, running and bicycle performance, and strength that occurred dur¬ ing a seven-month training period, as measured by a selected battery of tests. 2. To ascertain correlations among individual fitness measures. 3. To compare test item results with training changes. 4. To evaluate performance in the Western States 100 in rela¬ tion to test data collected. Delimitations This study was delimited to the case study of the physical fit¬ ness of one female long distance runner during a seven-month period from December 1979 through June 1980 in Bozeman, Montana, while she was training for the Western States 100. The progressive physical condi¬ tioning was evaluated by testing 50 selected oxygen consumption, pul¬ monary ventilation, blood chemistry, heart rate, body composition, girth, running and''bicycle performance, and strength variables at four- week intervals during the training period. 4 Limitations 1. Since this investigation is an individual case study, group generalizations cannot be drawn, although trends may be indicated. 2. Weather and climatic conditions influenced training and testing. 3. Injuries limited training and testing at various times. 4. The test results where appropriate are assumed to represent maximum efforts on the part of the subject. Every effort was made so that this would be the case. 5. Due to the strenuous nature of the training program, train¬ ing fatigue has possibly affected some of the testing results. 6. With the absence of a control subject, changes in physical fitness levels are assumed to be due to the training program. General Terms and Definitions 1. Physical fitness. Physical fitness refers to the capacity to work hard over a long period of time without decreased efficiency (67) and with rapid recovery from the effects of the exertion (105). 2. Long distance runner. For the purpose of this study, long distance runner refers to a female runner with two years of marathon experience who entered a 100-mile run for the first time. 3. Progressive. Progressive refers to the passage of time in four-week increments over a period of seven months. 5 4. Training. Training is defined as daily, scheduled sessions of exercise of varying intensity. 5. Western States 100. The Western States 100 is a 100-mile endurance run over the Sierra Mountains from Squaw Valley to Auburn, California. It involves a total elevation gain of 17,040 feet and a total loss of 21,970 feet. The race is run primarily over remote back- woods trails and fire roads, usually with half of it being traversed at night. Additional factors to contend with during the Western States 100 include vast temperature extremes, bears, and rattlesnakes. 6. Aerobic. Aerobic means in the presence of a sufficient sup¬ ply of oxygen. 7. Running. For the purpose of this study, running means road, trail, and mountain running. 8. Fartlek. Fartlek refers to a style of training employing frequent changes of pace with no fixed pattern. 9. Intervals. Intervals are defined as short bouts of repeated, intense effort alternating with periods of light activity or rest. 10. Stair intervals. Stair intervals refer to a type of ana¬ erobic training involving intense, ascents of stairs, followed by re¬ covery on the descent. 11. Bicycle ergometer intervals. Intervals on the bicycle ergo- meter refer to brief, intense periods of exercise with high resistance and high pedal frequency, alternating with rest periods. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE For this investigation, the literature was reviewed in two man¬ ners. A review of the literature associated with each specific testing parameter is presented in Chapter IV, preceding the results of each test item. Included in this chapter is a more general review of strenu¬ ous training studies on runners. The purposes for this method of review are: 1) to provide the reader with a background of research on strenuous training so that the scope of this investigation can be put in perspective; and 2) to summarize training test parameter research in proximity to the results of this study for comparative analysis. There are countless studies relating the effects of moderate training on various physical fitness parameters. Most studies measure the effects of training three days per week for 30 minutes per workout (39, 50, 51, 63, 84, 151). Most relevant to this study, though, is re¬ search dealing with the effects of strenuous training. For the purposes of this review, strenuous training is defined as training involving at least five workout sessions per week and at least 15 miles of running per week. The following review of literature will be concerned with strenuous training studies involving runners. Three athletes in training for the two-mile run were followed 7 during a season of spring athletics by Schneider and Havens (129). Hemoglobin concentration and the number of red corpuscles were found to increase. The number of leucocytes and platelets remained unchanged, while the lymphocyte index increased. No change was found in total oxygen capacity or total blood volume. Dawson (40) performed an intensive study on himself over a three year period during which he engaged in running, gymnastics, bicycling and tennis. He studied the effects of training on resting heart rate and blood pressure. Resting heart rate was found to be slower, espe¬ cially the noon and afternoon pulses. Morning and evening heart rates declined, but not as significantly as noon and afternoon rates. The daily curves of blood pressures were not obviously altered. The sys¬ tolic pressure was found to rise more rapidly and much higher in the trained state, along with a great increase in pulse pressure. Gemmil (55) followed two track athletes through the initial stages of training and found that total ventilation increased, total oxygen for the exercise decreased, and respiration rate and diastolic blood pressure after exercise were reduced. Tuttle and Walker (144) tested 14 high school track men before, in the middle, and at the end of a season of training. An attempt was made to determine the effects of a season of training and competition on the response of the hearts of high school boys. After a training program of 1.5 to 2 hours of daily jogging, sprinting, and distance 8 running, recovery pulse was improved and recovery time was reduced. The training program had no effect on resting heart rate and heart rate for the first 30 seconds immediately following exercise. Robinson (123) studied nine college men who trained for middle- distance running for 28 weeks. Maximal oxygen consumption measured on a treadmill run to exhaustion improved from 52.8 to 60.2 ml/kg-min. Blood lactic acid concentration at rest increased from 13.2 to 18.0 mEq/1. Nine college students were studied by Robinson and Harmon (125) over a six-month period during which they engaged in a strenuous running program. Blood lactic acid, total plasma protein, blood glucose, alka¬ line reserve, hemoglobin oxygen capacity, and alveolar carbon dioxide tension remained unchanged. A greater tolerance for stress, though, was indicated by an increased ability to accumulate lactic acid during anaerobic work. Blood lactate during submaximal running was signifi¬ cantly decreased after training. A comparison was made by Pepper (34) using 40 track athletes and 42 students taking a body-building course over an eight-week period of training. Both groups decreased in all heart rate measurements but heart rates immediately after exercise and during recovery were most significantly affected. Systolic blood pressure was shown to decrease with training, while diastolic blood pressure slightly increased. It was concluded from this research that there was little difference in 9 the effect of the track and body building programs in terms of magnitude of improvement, although track training lowered the post-exercise heart rates more than body building. In an individual case study using himself as the subject, Cure- ton (34) measured changes in fat, heart rate, oxygen consumption, girths, strength, and hemoglobin over a 12-month period. Six months of complete inactivity preceded the study. Only the first three months of the study involved strenuous training: daily endurance running and swimming, pul¬ ley weights, and conditioning exercises. Peak fitness was reached after the first three months of training. Body fat, girths and weight were significantly reduced. The all-out treadmill run had increased to its highest level after three months. It was’concluded that the peak of physical condition is reached more quickly in some aspects of fitness than in others. Strength reached a peak several months after strenuous training was terminated and hemoglobin was still gradually rising a year after starting the training. Breath holding after standard stepping exercise was reported to be a sensitive test paralleling the state of training. Four years later at age 47, Cureton (35) was again tested before and after five weeks of training. During the final week of the study he ran six miles per day during the week and swam five miles continu¬ ously on the weekend. Lying and standing pulse rates declined signifi¬ cantly to 50 beats per minute. Basal metabolic rate rose substantially, 10 while body weight and fat were reduced. The changes indicated a stronger heart and greater blood flow in the resting state. Kristufek (86) determined the effects of a daily three-mile run for a seven-week period on one subject, using an extensive battery of 102 test items. Adipose tissue, girths, pulse rates, and basal metabo¬ lism decreased with training. Maximal oxygen intake, back and leg strength, breath holding ability, vital capacity, blood pressures and heartogram scores all showed significant improvements. The subject’s ability to run at a fast pace was not improved with this type of long slow distance running. It was concluded that the continuous rhythmical movements involved in endurance running burn excessive calories, produce more blood flow through the heart while opening the blood vessels, and increase muscle tone and strength. The effects of distance running after a training program of ten weeks duration was studied by Bernauer (12). Cardiac output, run¬ ning performance and muscular endurance increased significantly. Im¬ provements were also noted in the area under the brachial pulse wave, systolic amplitude, diastolic amplitude, diastolic surge, and heart rate as measured by the heartometer. Hornof and Kremer (67) carried out one of the most intensive training studies ever reported, on Emil Zatopek, the great Czechoslo¬ vakian distance runner. The investigation was started in 1944 when Zatopek was 22 years old. Periodic.physical fitness measurements were 11 taken on Zatopek over the next eight years. Numerous anthropometric and cardiovascular variables were studied including muscular girths, phy¬ sique, resting heart rate, electrocardiograph intervals, heart x-ray, lung x-ray, and performance tests. Physique measurements remained quite constant. He was found to have a typical linear physique well-adapted to endurance running. On performance tests Zatopek consistently made a superior showing. The effects of strenuous running training upon cardiac output was studied by Michael (97) on three subjects who were tested every four weeks during twelve weeks of training and eight weeks of detrain¬ ing. Subjects ran five days per week, with the training program consist¬ ing primarily of 220-, 440-, and 880-yard intervals run at maximum speed. Oxygen intake, pulse rate, and stroke volume improved during training and were all reversed during detraining. Fatigue was theorized as the cause for declines in oxygen intake, minute volume, and stroke volume during the first four weeks of training. Four weeks after training had stopped a "delayed rise" was also observed in oxygen intake and minute volume. The great marathon runner Clarence DeMar was studied in detail by Dill (43). Laboratory studies revealed exceptionally superior car¬ diovascular and respiratory systems with a low basal heart rate, low blood pressure, and large vital capacity. Numerous studies were made on DeMar when he was in his prime as a marathon runner between ages 34 12 and 42. He was also tested at age 49 when he was measured to have a maximal oxygen consumption of 60 ml/kg-min, one of the highest observed at that age. Recovery of heart rate and blood pressure were also seen to be very rapid. Hemoglobin concentration and other blood properties were found not to be substantially different from those of untrained men. Adams (1) studied the members of a college track team before, in the middle, and at the end of a season of training and competition. Five out of six skinfold measurements were significantly less at the end of the season, although no changes were observed in any of the girth measurements, resting heart rate, vital capacity, or maximum breathing capacity. However, recovery pulse counts were found to be reduced. No significant change in any of the measurements taken occurred between midseason and the end of the season. A steady level of training was reached at seven weeks, after which no further improvement took place in those particular test variables. Improvements in competitive per¬ formances, though, were noted among the majority of the track team mem¬ bers after midseason. Physiological changes not reflected in the meas¬ urements taken were still occurring. Improvements in performance were attributed to further refinements of the neuromuscular system and to progressive training of the central nervous system. One of the most comprehensive studies was carried out in the Soviet Union by three researchers at Tartu University (147). Nine 13 specific training routines were studied, ranging from long steady runs to fartlek to uphill intervals. Runners took 100-, 400-, and 800-meter time trials at the start of the training period and again six weeks later. They were also checked for physiological changes including oxy¬ gen uptake and heart volume. The general conclusion reached was that no one training system should be used exclusively: "the utilization of only one of the training methods results in an intensified development of only one function, sometimes even to the detriment of other func¬ tions" (147). Effects of eight weeks of strenuous preseason training were observed on 22 varsity basketball team members (17). Workouts involved cross-country and interval running and weight training. Body weight, skinfolds, hemoglobin, blood sugar, diastolic blood pressure, and re¬ covery heart rate were all significantly decreased. Increases were measured in physical working capacity, maximal oxygen consumption and leg and upper arm strength. Training studies on female athletes are scarce. Recently more attention has been given to the effects of strenuous physical activity of the female runner, but these have mainly been descriptive in nature (20, 22, 46, 48, 156). Few studies have actually studied female runners throughout a period of training. One of the few longitudinal running studies was done by Knowl- ton and Weber (85) on a young woman during a 17-month period in which 14 she was training for the mile and two-mile events. Her training con¬ sisted of intervals and frequent runs longer than five miles. The sub¬ ject reached a highly trained state for middle distance competition, although there were several setbacks due to the university schedule and injuries. Noticeable improvements were observed in her cardiovascular response to a submaximal bicycle test and maximal treadmill run. Train¬ ing reduced resting heart rate, body weight, and basal metabolic rate, but had no effect on hemoglobin concentration. None of the data sug¬ gested that the strenuous level of training had any harmful effect on the subject. The training program was considered to be extremely severe by convention for female runners. Many of the results of the experi¬ ment parallel results obtained on training males. Brown and others (18) studied the effects of a strenuous cross¬ country training program and competition on girls eight to thirteen years old before the season and after six and twelve weeks of training and competition. Training sessions were held four or five days per week and lasted from one to two hours. Competition in .75 to 1.5 miles took place every Saturday for the last eight weeks of the study. The most significant change was the increase in maximal oxygen consumption, 18 percent at six weeks and 26 percent at twelve weeks. Maximal and sub- maximal heart rates showed a decline with training, although these changes were also observed with the controls. No detrimental effects were observed, other than slight unexplained weight loss in two of the 15 younger girls. It was concluded that preadolescent girls are capable of adapting to endurance running in a manner similar to adults. Often pre-training fitness levels are unclear, as is quantifica¬ tion of the training programs. There is a wide variety in parameters tested and very little consistency in testing procedures. Standardized procedures, documentation of training programs, evaluation of pre-train¬ ing levels and prior activity, and longer periods of investigation would seem to enhance training research studies and help to make valid com¬ parisons possible. The review of the literature most closely related to this study indicated that more high quality research is needed to discover the changes which occur throughout the course of strenuous training, especially in female runners. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE The material in this chapter is presented under the follow¬ ing headings: 1. Research Method. 2. Subject. 3. . Training Program. 4. Daily Log. 5. Testing Battery. • 6. Testing Schedule. 7. Testing Equipment. 8. Testing Procedures. 9. Analysis of Data. Research Method This research was conducted as a longitudinal case study. It was designed to measure the progressive changes in the physical fitness of a female long distance runner in training for the Western States 100- Mile Endurance Run. A testing battery of 50 items was used to test one subject over a period of seven months at four-week intervals. Subject A 27-year-old female long distance runner, who had run for approximately three years and trained for racing approximately two 17 years, served as the subject for this investigation. In the two years prior to the beginning of this study, the subject had completed seven marathons, including a 2:59:34 best. During that time she consistently trained for long distance running by logging 7150 miles, with an aver¬ age of about 75 miles per week. Weekly mileage ranged from 60 to 110 miles per week. The subject did not train intensively for the two months prior to the beginning of this study, averaging about 30 miles of running per week during that time. The author served as the subject of this investigation. Training Program Training for the Western States 100-Mile Endurance Run on June 28, 1980, was the'experimental factor. The subject trained up to ten hours a day, six or seven days per week, for a total of 30 weeks, for this event on a base of previously described training. The training program consisted of workouts designed to increase central and peripheral circulatory factors, in addition to muscular strength primarily of the lower extremities. Since this study spanned three different seasons, the weather often dictated flexibility in duration and type of training. The train¬ ing program was substantially adjusted due to a knee injury sustained just prior to the beginning of this study and a reinjury during the fifth month of training. Running was intended as the main form of training but was not a regular part of training until after the third 18 testing period. Consistent throughout.the entire seven months, however, was at least one long endurance workout each week (mountain climbing, bicycling, running, cross-country skiing). The first testing period occurred after one month of very limited training due to injury. After the first testing period, the subject began intense non-running training consisting of one long aero¬ bic workout (cross-country skiing or mountain climbing), bicycle ergo- meter intervals, stair intervals, swimming, and weight training. This type of training was used for the first two months. The subject resumed running on February 1, after completion of the third testing period. During the following three months of training, the week's training schedule included one long run of up to 50 miles, one additional long workout of bicycling or cross-country skiing, hill runs, fartlek runs, bicycle ergometer intervals, and weight training. During a 50-mile run the injury reoccurred to cause a substantial reduction in running mile¬ age. The final two months of training primarily involved hiking, bicy¬ cling, and mountain climbing, with very limited running. A detailed description of the training program for the entire seven months is included in Appendix B. Daily Log A daily log was kept to record training data, heart rate, weight, sleep, and caloric intake. An attempt was made, to avoid unusual devia¬ tions in sleeping and eating patterns. 19 Weight was taken each morning soon after waking and prior to eating or training. Heart rate was determined through palpitation of the carotid artery immediately after waking. Heart rate was again taken 15 minutes after training was completed and weight was measured immedi¬ ately after training whenever possible. Total calories were estimated for each meal so that daily caloric intake could be calculated. Caloric values were obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 72, Nutritive Values of Food. Data from the daily log is included in Appendix C. Testing Battery The testing parameters are as follows: 1. Maximal oxygen consumption (V02 max). 2. Maximal pulmonary ventilation (VE max). 3. Ventilatory equivalent for oxygen (VE/V02). 4. Basal metabolic rate (BMR). 5. Blood chemistry. a. Red blood cell count (RBC). b. Hemoglobin (Hb). c. Hematocrit (Hct). 6. Heart rate a. Resting (HR rest). b. Maximal (HR max). 20 c. Submaximal (HR submax). d. Recovery (HR recov). 7. Body composition. a. Triceps skinfold (TR). b. Subscapular skinfold (SU) c. Abdominal skinfold (AB). d. Suprailiac skinfold (SI). e. Thigh skinfold (TH). f. Calf skinfold (CA). g. Cheek skinfold (CH). h. Percent body fat (PF). i. Total body weight (BW). j. Lean body weight (LBW). k. Fat weight (FW). 8. Girths. a. Calf (CA). b. Thigh (TH). c. Upper arm (UA). d. Forearm (FA). e. Chest (CH). f. Abdominal (AB). g. Gluteal (GL). 9. Bicycle ride to exhaustion. 21 10. Running time trial. 11. Strength. a. Leg press. b. Leg extension. c. Leg curl. Testing Schedule Testing took place every four weeks during the seven-month training period. The starting date of each test period is shown in Table 3.1. The five-week period prior to initiation of testing was used as a trial period during which all of the tests were performed and pro¬ cedures were standardized. The trial period was used to familiarize the subject with testing, reduce anxiety, minimize the learning effect, and establish a realistic testing schedule. A standardized sequence of testing was followed during each testing period. The testing schedule is shown in Table 3.2. Precondi¬ tions necessary for several tests were strictly adhered to. These are explained in further detail under the individual testing procedures. Testing Equipment Ergometers. A mechanically-^braked Monark bicycle ergometer (BE) was used for the maximal oxygen consumption and one of the sub- maximal HR tests. The other submaximal test was performed on a motor- driven treadmill (TM) with adjustable grade and speed (Quinton 18-54). 22 Table 3.1 Testing Periods Number Starting Date Trial October 28, 1979 1 December 2, 1979 2 December 30, 1979 3 January 27, 1980 4 February 24, 1980 5 March 23, 1980 6 April 20, 1980 7 May 18, 1980 8 June 15, 1980 Table 3.2 Testing Schedule Day Time Test Monday 7:00 A.M. Girths 8:00 A.M. Blood 9:00 A.M. BE HR Tuesday 7:30 A.M. BMR 8:00 A.M. Skinfolds 8:30 A.M. VO2 max • Wednesday 7:00 A.M. Time trial Thursday 9:00 A.M. TM HR 11:00 A.M. Strength Friday 8:00 A.M. Ride to exhaustion 23 Due to availability of equipment, testing was performed at two differ¬ ent locations. Since oxygen consumption equipment was located in the same laboratory as the BE, the test for V02 max was performed on the BE, rather than the TM. Oxygen consumption. Oxygen consumption was determined by the open circuit method. The subject breathed through a rubber mouthpiece connected to a Collins Modified Otis-Kerrow Valve. A metal and sponge- rubber spring-type noseclip was used. The expired air was fed through a plastic hose into a 350-liter tissot tank (Collins Chain-Compensated Gasometer). Gas analysis was determined by means of a Beckman E-2 oxygen analyzer and a digital LB-2 carbon dioxide analyzer. Gas analyzers were calibrated using certified gas (Matheson Gas Products for O2, Beck- ' / man for CO2)• A Gralab Universal Timer was used to time, while a metronome (Seth Thomas E500-000) was used to keep pedaling frequency constant. Blood chemistry. Red cell count and hematocrit were determined automatically through use of a MCV, Hct, RBC Counter (Coulter Model ZBI). The Coulter Hemoglobinometer was used to measure hemoglobin concentra¬ tion. Heart rate. Heart rate was monitored through radio telemetry while work was performed on the BE. A two-lead system was used which placed one electrode on the sternum as a ground and the other in the 24 standard V-5 position on an intercostal space. Double-backed adhesives were used to hold the electrodes in place. Electrode paste (Redux Creme) filled the well in the electrodes in order to transmit the electrical signal from the skin to the electrodes. An ECG-EMG-EEG FM Transmitter (Narco FM-1100-E2), attached at the subject's waist, transmitted the signal to the physiograph (Narco Physiograph Six) through a bio-telemetry receiver (Narco FM-1100-7). Ten consecutive ECG tracing complexes on the paper recorder were meas¬ ured with a metric ruler. Paper speed was constant at 2.5 meters per second. Heart rate was also monitored through a five-lead system during a submaximal run on the treadmill. Electrodes, pre—filled with elec¬ trode gel, were placed on the right and left clavicle, the right and left lower rib, and the V-5 position. Direct wire leads carried the signal to the Burdick EK-4 Electrocardiograph. On the paper recorder three successive R-spikes were measured with a precalibrated ruler to determine HR. The CS-515 Monitor also provided instant digital readout of HR. Skinfolds. Skinfold measurements were taken with the Lange skinfold calipers. Body weight was measured on an upright Detect© scale. Girths. A plastic tape measure was used for determination of girths. 25 Strength. The Universal Gym apparatus was used in the deter¬ mination of strength. The leg press, leg extension, and leg curl sta¬ tions were used. Testing Procedures Tests were administered by Dr. Robert Schwarzkopf, Director, Human Performance Laboratory, who used identical procedures each time. Maximal oxygen consumption. Maximal oxygen consumption was determined by a discontinuous test using the open circuit method on the bicycle ergometer. Strenuous muscular work was avoided on the day pre¬ ceding the test. The test commenced with the subject as near to the true resting state as possible. The procedure of Albert Craig (31) was followed. Pedaling fre¬ quency was constant at 60 revolutions per minute. Three five-minute intervals at 360, 720, and 900 kilopond meters per minute (kpm/min) were followed by a five-minute rest. A five-minute bout at 1080 kpm/min was followed by a second five-minute rest. Gas was collected for one minute during the fifth minute at each resistance. The final two gas collec¬ tions were during the last 30 seconds of a 2.5-minute interval at 1440 kpm/min and a two-minute interval at 1530 kpm/min. The final two bouts were separated by a ten-minute period. The oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers were calibrated prior to each test using standardized gases. For determination of gas content, expired air was permitted to flow through the analyzers for several 26 minutes before a reading was made. Standard calculation procedures were followed for computation of VC>2 max in liters per minute (1/min) and milliliters per kilogram per minute (ml/kg-min), corrected to standard temperature and pressure dry (STPD). See Appendix D for calculation procedures followed. It was determined that VO2 max was reached if there was no further increase in oxygen uptake despite an increase in workload, or there was less than a 2.1 ml/kg-min increase (134). Basal metabolic rate. For measurement of basal metabolic rate (BMR), the subject arrived at the laboratory at 7:00 A.M. on testing day in a 12-hour post-absorptive state with no prior muscular exertion. The subject reclined in a relaxed state on a foam-covered table and breathed into the rubber mouthpiece. Room temperature was kept between 65-70 degrees Fahrenheit. Gas was collected for 15 minutes and then analyzed using oxygen consumption and gas analysis procedures previously described. Calculation procedures for computation in cubic centimeters per minute (cc/min) and kilo-calories per hour (kcal/hr) appear in Appendix E. Body surface area was found using the DuBois nomogram (49) so that BMR could be expressed in kcal/hr/m^. The Harris-Benedict Standards (49), based on body weight, age, and stature, were used to determine deviations above or below normal. Blood chemistry. The subject arrived at the Marsh Laboratory at 8:00 A.M. in a post-absorptive state. A five-milliliter blood sample 27 was drawn and manually diluted each time by the same laboratory techni¬ cian. Standardized blood analysis procedures were used to determine a complete blood count which included the following: red blood cell count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit. Heart rate. Heart rate was determined through radio telemetry during a replicated submaximal session on the bicycle ergometer. The subject pedaled at 720 kpm/min for nine minutes. HR was recorded three times at three-minute intervals. At the end of nine minutes the subject stopped pedaling and remained seated. Recovery HR was recorded at 30 seconds, one minute, and two minutes after cessation of exercise. On the treadmill, HR was recorded during a submaximal run using a five-lead system. Resting HR was recorded after the electrodes were placed and the subject was seated. Grade on the TM was set at 2.5% and remained constant throughout the test. The subject warmed up for three minutes at three miles per hour (mph), after which the speed was in¬ creased to six mph, subsequently to seven mph, and finally eight mph. Exercise HR was measured during the last 20 seconds at each TM speed. A recovery HR was recorded following completion of the run, at 30 seconds, one minute, and two minutes, during which the subject was seated. Body composition. Skinfold measurements taken with the Lange skinfold calipers were used to determine body composition. Standard¬ ized procedures were used as described by Keys (80, 81). Three measure- 28 merits to the nearest 0.5 mm were taken, with an average of the three used as the score. All measurements were performed on the right side of the body. Sites of the skinfolds were as follows: 1. Triceps (TR) — Vertical fold on the posterior line halfway between the tip of the acromion process and the olecranon process, arm hanging at side. 2. Subscapular (SU) — At the tip (inferior angle) of the right scapula, on a 45-degree line laterally downward. 3. Abdominal (AB) — Horizontal fold one centimeter to the right of the umbilicus and parallel to the long axis of the body. 4. Suprailiac (SI) — Vertical fold on the right midaxillary line just above the crest of the ilium. 5. Thigh (TH) — Vertical fold on the anterior right thigh in the midline, halfway between the patella and the greater trochanter. 6. Calf (CA) — Vertical fold in the midline of the right calf at the level of maximum circumference. 7. Cheek (CH) — Horizontal fold beneath the right temple at the level of the nostrils. Density was computed from the skinfolds using the following two formulas: 1. D = 1.0764 - 0.00081(SI) - 0.00088(TR) (Sloan) 2. D = 1.0852 - 0.0008(SI) - O.OOll(TH) (Pollock) 29 The formula used to calculate percent body fat is that of Keys and Brozek (81): PF = 100(4.201/D - 3.813) Girths. Measurements of girth were taken using the procedures of Andersen (4) and Scott (131) at the following locations: 1. Calf — bare right calf at point of maximum girth. 2. Thigh — gluteal fold (angle made by the curve of the gluteus maximus with the near vertical line of the thigh. 3. Upper arm — bare right arm midway between the tip of the acromion and the tip of the olecranon. 4. Chest — maximum around thorax over breasts. 5. Abdomen — minimum girth around abdomen. 6. Gluteal — horizontally at position of largest circumference 7. Forearm — largest circumference below the elbow. Bicycle ride to exhaustion. The subject pedaled the bicycle ergometer to exhaustion at 1080 kpm/min, trying to keep a pedaling fre¬ quency of 60 rpm in time with the metronome. A three-minute warm-up at 360 kpm/min preceded the test. Exhaustion was determined as the point at which the subject discontinued the proper pedaling rhythm for more than five seconds at a time (17). Time trial. A time trial was performed on the same fairly flat, seven-mile loop. The subject avoided strenuous training on the day prior to each trial. Stretching and a short jog preceded each time trial so that the subject could run all-out. A male marathon runner 30 who was capable of running a faster time accompanied the subject to encourage as fast a time as possible. Strength. A measurement of strength was made by determining the one-repetition maximum (19) for three different leg exercises: leg press, leg extension, and leg curl. The subject warmed up with stretching exercises for ten minutes. At the pre-determined weight for each exercise, the subject performed six repetitions and then one repe¬ tition at successively higher workloads until the maximum was reached. One minute rest was allowed between each test and the order remained constant. Analysis of the Data Progressive values of each test variable were graphed and objec tively presented in Chapter IV. Trends were compared with those noted during other training studies. Test item results were analyzed with respect to changes in training, specificity of training, and other influencing factors. Per¬ formance in the Western States 100 was also evaluated in relation to test data collected and training. CHAPTER IV RESULTS The findings are objectively presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V contains a complete discussion of all results. Data in this chapter are presented under the following headings: 1. Maximal Oxygen Consumption. 2. Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation. 3. Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen. 4. Basal Metabolic Rate. 5. Blood Chemistry. 6. Heart Rate. 7. Body Composition. 8. Girths. 9. Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion. 10. Time Trial. 11. Strength. Maximal Oxygen Consumption (VO2 max) Maximal oxygen consumption has received wide acceptance as the primary determinant of cardio respiratory endurance capacity (7f 8, 39, 105, 127, 134) and is known to improve with endurance training (17, 18, 51, 63, 73, 86, 116, 125, 153). Any change in aerobic capacity should be reflected in a central (stroke volume) or peripheral adapation (arterio-venous oxygen difference). It is generally accepted that 32 initial adaptation appears to be due to increased central capacity as shown by increased stroke volume values (8, 32, 134). Secondary adap¬ tation over a longer periodsof time appears to be due to peripheral mechanisms causing an increased arterio-venous oxygen difference. Many studies have reported approximately equal increases in stroke volume and arterio-venous oxygen difference (8, 32, 64). Increased extraction of oxygen by the working muscles appears to play as great a role in the increase in VO2 max with training as does the increase in maximal cardiac output. VO2 max during a treadmill test has been shown to be at least seven percent greater than when performed on a bicycle ergometer (4, 100, 120, 134). Performance on a bicycle is commonly affected by weak¬ ness in the quadriceps and often a subject ceases cycling before the true centrally limited VO2 max is reached. Data on a BE may be in¬ creased by seven percent to make the figures comparable with those ob¬ tained on a TM (118, 134). Figures from this study appearing in paren¬ theses include a seven percent increase. A significantly greater dis¬ crepancy in V02 max values on a TM and a BE was found by Brown and others (20) studying six world or national class distance runners after three to four months of running 50-100 miles per week. V02 max was 52.6 ml/kg- min on the BE and 68.8 ml/kg-min on the TM, a difference of 25 percent. Normal college-age females are found to have an average V02 max of about 40.0 ml/kg-min (46). V02 max of female athletes are seen to 33 be substantially higher than this figure (Table 4.1). Long distance runners consistently have been measured at about 60 ml/kg-min. The highest value obtained to date on an adult female athlete is 74.0 ml/ kg-min on Gusakova, the Russian Olympic cross-country skier, in 1964' (108). Brown and others (18) have recently reported values of 70.0 and 78.3 ml/kg-min on 10- and 12-year-old sisters involved in cross-country running. V02 is known to increase with training, but there is great diver¬ sity in the magnitude of gains in V02 max in response to physical train¬ ing (Table 4.2). According to Shephard (134) the largest gain in V02 max due to training (and in the absence of preliminary bed rest) is about 20 percent. Gains have been observed to range from 0 percent to 93 percent (119). The great variation in change due to training is a result- of many factors, for example, prior fitness level, intensity of exercise, frequency of exercise, and duration of training period. Either a low beginning fitness level or a high intensity training program seems to have caused the most notable changes in VO2 max. It is very diffi¬ cult to compare the magnitude of changes among studies because of the lack of quantification of the many variables which affect V02 max. V02 max in this study was shown to change significantly during the training period (Figure 4.1). The subject's minimal training during the first month was accompanied by a substantial drop in V02 max (12 percent). During the following two months of non-running training, V02 34 Table 4.1 Maximal Oxygen Consumption and Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation of Female Athletes Investigator # Subjects Age Subjects VE max 1/min (BTPS) VO2 max ml/kg-min Brown et al (18) 12 8-13 Distance runners 67.6 61.3 Brown et al (20) 6 15-26 National or world class distance runners 114.1 52.6 (BE) 68.8 (TM) Burke & Brush (22) 13 15-16 Distance runners 101.71 63.24 Drinkwater & Horvath (48) 15 16-18 Track athletes 90.9 51.1 Hermansen & Andersen (66) 5 22-27 Norwegian cross¬ country skiers 99.0 55.0 Maksud et al (90) 13 15-30 Olympic speed skaters 96.5 46.1 Plowman (118) Cross-country skiers 97.9 58.0 Saltin & Astrand (127) 10 15-28 Best Swedish athletes 111.8 61.8 Wilmore & Brown (156) 11 24-37 Long distance runners 108.9 • 59.1 Dearborn 1 27 Long distance runner 121.2 66.5 (71.1) Re sp on se o f Ma xi ma l Ox yg en Co ns um pt io n to Ph ys ic al Tr ai ni ng 35 I =*: S cn S 3 oo in O r—i fH f' o to 00 00 1 CD •H CO rsj t: d CO CM CO CO no X X X 7 JC 3 3 X X X X 3 \ 3 \ 3 3 3 CNJ CO CO \ \ \ in CO CO oo W * w * w • • * * w X CQ X CQ CC CC a: CC X x X X X X X X 3 3 * 3 3 3 3 3 CO C\J O O) O) CO CO 3 JC \ 3 3 * td CC IS >. 3 • >> P M I U ra w -H w £ ra ■p Ta u P P c • «> rt w c o> >-< bo C l DO) •O rH c c c P "O W O P t. 2 rH w I •a •a •H «) W e opp a «j ■o i ^ 4) P o in r> z • 4) * 4> ti >> C >> C (B 2 P £ p P P <0 P (fl c >> I IP I -^'O'O'O'OP w « >,(BP 4)P 4) OPP rPEooEoooc PC « nf * • 3 X D CO X W CO rH O D U f-H <& ii in is n CM l l o P CM CM to ■o 2 w «c o a .c p oo <0 c P •p -p ^ p p p g m c m v coo 4) P *H P coo) c ooc 00 4)0^ 4>r^ SP^CCM CPPCO 4) C 4) C ECO ECO o p c— c x > •p (OP WP C 3 3 (0 P P CO 0Q O Q Id U c 4) JC , co o o C O CM (0 ^ P *D OO p CM C X ■ ■»— ■ > T 1 2 —♦ { > I H 3 4 5 6 7 8 Testing Period Figure 4.1. Maximal Oxygen Consumption. 37 max nearly increased back to trial levels. During this.initial two- month period, training was primarily high intensity, with a small endur¬ ance component. Resumption of endurance running in the third month pro¬ duced a significant increase in VO2 max. A peak value was reached dur¬ ing testing period #5, 66.5 ml/kg-mih (71.1 ml/kg-min). A 23 percent increase in VO2 max was noted over the first four months of training. Running was reduced substantially in the final two months of training with a corresponding decline in VC>2 max. Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation (^E max) Maximal pulmonary ventilation reflects the ability to move gas in and out of the lungs. A positive correlation exists between maximal VE and VC>2» but VE max cannot be used for prediction of VO^ max. It has been suggested that VE max is actually not a well-defined performance variable (8, 118) and that the numbers are greatly influenced by body size. VE max for normal females is about 40 1/min at age ten and about 85 1/min at age 20 (118). Table 4.1 shows comparative data on female athletes. The highest value observed for a female runner is 125.4 1/min (156). A 19-year-old swimmer is reported to have the largest VE max recorded for a female athlete to date, 148.4 1/min (118). Male athletes typically have VE max values considerably higher than females. Costill (30) found ten elite male marathoners to range from 144.7 to 181.2 1/min. 38 VE max has generally been shown to increase with endurance train¬ ing (21, 39, 57, 64, 157). Pechar and others (115) reported 7.7 percent, 4.6 percent, and 4.2 percent increases with eight weeks of BE and TM training on college-age males. Grimby (57) noted a significant increase in VE max along with a higher VC^ max. Pollock (119) suggests that VE max will generally increase 10-20 percent unless values are rather high to begin with, and this increase has usually been seen to take place during the first six to ten weeks of training. In contrast, VE max was found by Brown and others (18) to be unchanged with 12 weeks of cross-country running, even though VO2 max showed a 26 percent increase. Subjects were in a partial state of training at the beginning of the study. In this study VE max did not show any particular trend (Figure 4.2). It did not appear to increase with training. A significantly lower value of 105.5 1/min was measured during testing period #1 after one month of little training. The highest value attained by the subject, 121.2 1/min, was observed during the final testing period. Similarly high values of VE max, 118.5, 118.4, and 118.2 1/min, though, were also measured during testing period #5, the trial, and testing period #3, respectively. Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen (VE/VO2) The ventilatory equivalent for oxygen is a measure of ventila¬ tory efficiency, the amount of air ventilated for a given oxygen con¬ sumption. A greater respiratory efficiency (lower VE/VO2 value) means 39 130 125 d 120 3115 c §110 CO s 105 100- i ■ < » ■ i « 1 * 1 ■ > T 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 Testing Period Figure 4.2. Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation. 40 that a smaller volume of air is necessary to obtain the same VO2, asso¬ ciated with a greater ability to extract oxygen. Endurance athletes are theorized to have lower exercise VE per unit metabolic rate than non-athletes or non-endurance athletes (92), a result of endurance athletes breathing less at comparable exercise intensities. There is very likely a genetic component. Submaximal VE/VO2 has been seen to decrease with endurance training (39) or remain unchanged (57, 115). VE/V02 at a submaximal work¬ load decreased from 27.3 to 25.3, an 8 percent decrease, in nine middle- aged males undergoing BE endurance training for nine weeks (39). VE/VO2 at maximal levels has previously been shown to decrease or remain unchanged. Davis (39) has reported a 6 percent decrease over a nine-week endurance training program in middle-aged males. Grimby (57) reported no improvement in VE/V02, although significant changes occurred in VE max and VO2 max. In this study VE/VO2 was determined from BE test data. For com¬ parison, values at 900 kpm/min are considered representative of submaxi¬ mal VE/VO21 and 1440 kpm/min values are used as maximal VE/V02* During the training period VE/VO2 at maximal levels was seen to change more than at submaximal levels (Figure 4.3). A significant and steady de¬ cline in VE/VO2 max was observed during the first five months of train¬ ing (17 percent). In the final two months of training, a substantial rise (19 percent) in VE/VO2 max was measured, while no real change occurred in the submaximal values. 41 • Maximal VE/V02 (1440 kpm/min) ■ Submaximal VE/V02 (900 kpm/min) 15’ , .f * f— — i ■ > ■ ■ ■ t r " ■ t T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Testing Period Figure 4.3. Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen. 42 Basal Metabolic Hate (BMR) • ^ Basal metabolic rate, or resting oxygen consumption, reflects the velocity of blood flow and is a good measure of circulation rate (34). In studies performed on groups, there is relative uniformity among individuals, BMR usually falling within 10 percent of normal (49). There is also relative constancy in values found on individuals repeat¬ edly tested over long periods of time. In studies performed on one in¬ dividual, BMR has not differed more than 15 percent from normal and usually not more than 10 percent (49). It is most evident from a review of literature that there are great differences among studies concerning the direction and magnitude of change in BMR while undergoing physical training. Increased blood flow shown to accompany increased activity sometimes causes a rise in BMR during periods of training (10, 34, 67). However, many studies have found conflicting evidence (85, 86, 128, 141). One interpretation of the conflicting findings is offered by Schneider and Foster (128). When BMR is increased, muscle mass suppos¬ edly increases due to physical activity before any increase in cellular efficiency occurs. The added protoplasm increases the total oxygen re¬ quirement of the body. But if efficiency in cellular metabolism ex¬ ceeds the effect of increasing lean body weight, the rate can be lowered. BMR remains unchanged if the increase in cellular efficiency is counter¬ balanced by the new production of muscle tissue. 43 Many studies have reported a decline with training. Kristufek (86) reported a decrease in BMR from -13 to -26 percent of normal over seven weeks of endurance running. He attributed the decline to in¬ creased relaxation, better circulatory efficiency, and a drop in body surface area. (It appears to this author that an increase, rather than a decrease, in body surface area would have occurred in Kristufek's training study with the decline in body weight, skinfolds, and girths which also took place.) Schneider and Foster (128) found seven of nine athletes in one experiment to experience a significantly lower BMR dur¬ ing training. Decreases of 4.4 to 14.9 percent were noted from swimming, football, basketball, and track training. They concluded that cellular efficiency exceeded the effect of the increase in muscle mass to cause a lowered rate. Many studies, though, have indicated a higher BMR during and after training. It has been suggested that some of the emotional strain of training is reflected in the measurements, along with improved cir¬ culation (35). Baldwin (10) has shown that psychic stimulations affected BMR during a season of football training and competition, causing a higher BMR as the season progressed. A higher BMR was also noted as the time for critical games approached. Heusner (67) showed an increase with swimming training of 4.7 kcal/hr/m , although the change was only a slight one and still within the normal range of values. In another case study extending over a period of five years (35), it 44 was clearly shown that BMR increased with endurance training and closely paralleled the measures of blood flow. BMR has also been observed to respond to many other factors, many of which are often not taken into consideration when reporting re¬ sults. Steinhaus (141), Cureton (34, 35) and DuBois (49) have given excellent summaries. Values typically 5 percent higher in winter than in summer have been found. Cureton (35) has stated that the most impor¬ tant point of control in the testing of athletes seems to be eliminating very severe workouts the day before a BMR test. He found excessively high BMR's on tests performed the days after hard workouts. The lowest figures according to Krogh and Lindhard (49) reportedly are obtained after a diet rich in carbohydrates. Cureton has noted the reverse (35). In addition, premenstrual rise is found in some women (49). Extreme ectomorphy in body build also seems to affect BMR values. Highly trained ectomorphs have typically been seen to have BMR's well below those with greater mesomorphy/endomorphy (35). The need for more carefully controlled and standardized research is evident in regard to BMR testing. During this study BMR was seen to decrease from 39.2 kcal/hr/m^ to 34.0 kcal/hr/m (Figure 4.4). The most significant change during any period was during the first month. A decrease of 3.8 kcal/hr/m^ (9.4 percent) was measured. With the exception of the initial reading, the subject's BMR did not differ more than 2.8 percent from normal, (% n o r m a l ) B M R ( c c / m l n ) B M R (k ca l/ hr /m z ) Figure 4.4. Basal Metabolic Rate. 46 although a generally decreasing trend was noted during the seven months Blood Chemistry The three measures of blood chemistry used in this study, red blood cell count (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), and hematocrit (Hct), are closely related. A change in RBC normally is accompanied.by a corres¬ ponding change in both Hb and Hct (121). RBC refers to the number of red blood cells per cubic millimeter (mm^) of blood. Hb is the part of the red blood cell that has a dissociable bond with oxygen. Values for Hb in this study are reported as a concentration in grams per decaliter (g/dl). Hct reflects the percentage of the blood that is solid matter. There is a great difference between males and females with re¬ gard to these particular blood chemistry values. RBC in normal females is about 4.8 x 10^/mm^ as compared to 5.4 x lO^/mm^ for males (8). Average Hb in females is generally considered to be about 13.7 gm/dl (8), 30 percent smaller than males. Values recorded by Holmgren (71) and Hannon (62) on women are 13.09 gm/dl and 13.6 gm/dl, respectively. Dewijn (42) reported an average value of 14.35 gm/dl on 43 trained female athletes on the Netherlands Olympic Team. He also indicated that values below 12 gm/dl suggest anemia and possible iron deficiency. Females usually have average Hct readings of 42 percent as opposed to 47 percent in males (8). An average value of 40.3 percent was found in a study involving eight normal college females (62). 47 Astrand (7) has stated that the Hb concentration represents an excellent resting measure of fitness. Others (43, 44, 125) have con¬ cluded that blood in the resting state is not necessarily an important factor, since blood values of superior male athletes differ very little from the normal range of variation in untrained men. There are conflicting reports in the literature concerning blood chemistry changes with training (Table 4.3). It seems widely accepted that endurance training increases the total blood volume and the total amount of Hb in the body (72, 83, 111), but that there is a much more variable influence on concentration of Hb (134). Factors most commonly influencing these blood chemistry para¬ meters in association with physical training include dilution, severe exertion, menstrual periods, dehydration, and amenorrhea. The first three generally result in lower or unchanged values. An increase in total blood volume, which has repeatedly been shown to result from training, without a corresponding increase in RBC acts to dilute Hb concentration. Severe exertion has been theorized to cause a temporary destruction of RBC (34) due to higher body temperatures. Yoshimura (121) noticed that the greatest effects are evident about three days after the start of heavy exercise, an occurrence which he has labelled "sports anemia." A rebound seems to occur within a few days, sometimes to even higher levels. Schneider and Havens (129), though, have con¬ cluded that lower readings are a result of a stagnation in some of the B lo od Ch em is tr y R e s po ns es to P hy si ca l &0 c ♦rl c •H (0 u H * 48 o CQ + + O o + CC 2 2 * u 1 O O o 2 2 2 X * ,Q 1 o + 1 1 o 1 O + O X 2 2 2 2 > 5 i \ •5 £ \ Dfl -P >) \ i X \ X c o CO X 00 X X •H G •* * •* c c G CD 00 rH X rH rH CO •|-3 . 1 G 1 •H >> • G *H W co X c G E b as ke l G X 1 X X •H X 1 • w CD rH X i c X cd X rH p> >> G G CO CO G G o G CO rH (0 o cd cd X cd a G •H G X o H C CD G o X 0) »—f X cd a •H CD rH CO X cd *H o X O o G •'-} a G a E G X CD X rH o > •H G G c c G X cd o G X DO c G G CO o cd X CD CD CD rH O X o cd CD CD G •H rH X G G 0 X o CO CO CO o co 2 cd X X G X O' CO X < *H G 2 CO H ^^ G CT) G <£5 N .—^ X o CM X X rH rH o3 i—l rH -p cd 00 00 X CD c£5 CO cd G G cd V—✓ ^^ DO -p X C G X X G CO X •H CD DO C G CD o G (D CD X-—* X C G X • -p N G rH o CD G N, X (D rH rH •H G X w C ♦H rH X G DO CM rH X •H rH X CM G > X X (U ? rH c •H CD to E CD cd rH o H G G X rH > O c X G G rH >—^ o o to Nw-' X 2 G c G G G CD o c to G O •H M CQ O O X X X o X CO O DO O (D G W W G o3 cd JZ o o (u U G o o c o •H TJ II II II O + I * K e y: 49 capillaries due to extreme fatigue, rather than a destruction of RBC. On the other hand, physical activity slightly accelerates the rate at which RBC are produced (61). If there is a greater increase in RBC in proportion to the blood volume increase, counts could be elevated. Dehydration could similarly affect blood chemistry, causing higher con¬ centrations. There has been particular interest in the female athlete with regard to blood chemistry. DeWijn (42) found that about 25 percent of his female athlete subjects possessed lower than normal RBC counts dur¬ ing training and/or competition. By comparison, only 8-9 percent of sedentary females and male athletes showed the same tendencies. On the other hand, it has been suggested (54) that prolonged amenorrhea could result in a higher Hct, possibly acting as a packed RBC infusion, thus increasing the endurance performance of amenorrheic females (see Chap¬ ter V) . During this study no particular trend was observed in blood chemistry measures (Figure 4.5). Substantially lower RBC, Hb, and Hct were again found during periods #6 and #7. Values for all three para¬ meters did not deviate substantially from accepted average values for females. Heart Rate (HR) Resting. Resting HR is a measure of circulation in the resting state and has been used as a determinant of physical fitness levels (x lO t> /I Ir ar , ) H c t ( % ) Hb (g m/ dl ) Figure 4.5. Blood Chemistry. 51 (65). Low resting HR's are seen in endurance athletes (Robinson), but also in healthy non-athletes (43). A low resting HR is probably chiefly genetic, although it is influenced to some extent by training. Numerous studies have noted a decrease in resting HR with pro¬ gressive physical training (3, 16, 63, 65, 67, 71, 85, 86, 120, 143). Kristufek (86) noted a 20 percent decrease with seven weeks of endur¬ ance running. The magnitude of cited change in the literature was de¬ pendent upon the initial fitness level. However, resting HR was seen not to change in two studies (1, 17). Athletes were observed to be in a partial state of training at the beginning of the studies. A college varsity track and field team (1) trained and competed for three months with no change in resting HR. With eight weeks of preseason conditioning for basketball season, there was also no change in resting HR observed in college males (17) for a similar reason. Resting HR's in the 40's are not unusual among endurance ath¬ letes. Resting HR in one female distance runner (85) ranged from 39-. 52 bpm over a 17-month period of training. Internationally renowned male distance runners (44) were found to average 54 bpm while in train¬ ing, ranging from 36-62 bpm. While detrained, resting HR ranged from 47-78 bpm. During this study, resting HR did not change significantly. The subject was in a partial state of training at the beginning of the 52 study, with resting HR averaging 45 bpm at that time. In addition, there may have been other factors prohibiting finding a true resting value (see Chapter V for further discussion). Maximal. Maximal heart rate (HR max) is the highest HR reached during very strenuous exercise. HR max is not usually affected by training, although the level of effort required to produce it is in¬ creased. Wilmore and Sigerseth (160) reported HR max to be independent of endurance performance. HR max varies with age more than it does with training (7, 8). In reports on female athletes of approximately the subject's age (71, 90, 118, 136), values ranged from 187-194 bpm. In one study (20), HR max was measured both on the BE and the TM on elite female long distance runners. Testing mode perhaps makes a difference, as a HR max of 193 bpm was measured on the TM, as compared to 188 bpm on the BE. It has been suggested that the lower maximal HR in cycling exercise is due to the early development of muscle fatigue in the lower extremities (100). HR max has repeatedly been shown to be unaffected by training (39, 51, 87, 116, 136), regardless of the beginning fitness level of the subjects. Only one conflicting report was found in the literature. Pechar and others (115) found HR max to be significantly lower in all of his groups after eight weeks of training on the BE and the TM. Pos¬ sibly this is a result of the large error factor in measuring HR max after exercise. 53 Maximal HR was consistently about 187 bpm as measured during the test for VC>2 max on the BE (Figure 4.6). Only during the final test in June was a higher HR max (193 bpm) observed, when all submaxi- mal HR's were also seen to be quite high. HR max was also apparently reached during the TM run, although the test was originally intended to be entirely submaximal. Maximal HR found on the TM was consistently 190-200 bpm (Figure 4.7), with the exception of one testing period. Submaximal. Since an endurance run is performed at a submaxi¬ mal level, it is important to consider submaximal measures which could help explain variance in endurance. Many studies have explained per¬ formance results exceeding prediction from VO2 max by observing low submaximal HR's. Submaximal exercise HR has been shown to be reduced with training (32, 53, 59,60, 151). A lower HR response to exercise indicates an improved cardiovascular system, representing a greater stroke volume and/or arterio-venous oxygen difference. This reflects, in part, a more efficient transport mechanism for delivering blood to the working muscles (138, 152). It is well-accepted that training reduces HR submax at a given workload (60, 87). Ten weeks of jogging at least three times per week produced significant reductions in exercise HR of middle-aged men (151). Decreases of 8.3 to 12.8 bpm were observed for the six-minute.submaximal test. Other studies using the Astrand submaximal test observed similar results (84, 85, 143). Wenger (154) found HR submax to be reduced after H ea rt R at e (bp m) 54 • Maximal HR (1440 kpm/min) O Submaximal HR (1080 kpm/min) ■ Submaximal HR (900 kpm/min) a Submaximal HR (720 kpm/min) 200' 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 90 T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Testing Period Figure 4.6. Heart Rate During Test for Maximal Oxygen Consumption. H e a r t R a t e (b pr a) Figure 4.7. Heart Rate During Submaximal Treadmill Exercise and Recovery. 56 training, with much greater absolute reductions in HR occurring in the group with a low initial fitness level. Submaximal HR responds similarly to training changes in superior athletes. An Olympic canoeist (6) improved physical condition through cross-country running and skiing with a corresponding lower submaximal HR. HR was seen to rise when training was limited to paddling alone and then again when a broken rib hindered training. HR submax was measured for this investigation both on the TM and the BE. HR responses to the two modes of testing were very different. Specificity of training and testing (see Chapter V) is a possible ex¬ planation for some of the difference. TM HR showed a very slight decline over the first three months while the subject was engaged in non-running workouts (Figure 4.7). The most dramatic change was a significant drop in HR submax at all three TM speeds during testing period #5, after the subject had been running for two months. HR declined 26, 19, and 17 bpm at six, seven, and eight mph, respectively. Submaximal HR measured on the bicycle ergometer (Figure 4.8) showed a significant decrease of 36 bpm during two months of non-running training, between testing periods #1 and #3. The BE was used frequently in training during that period. During running training of the next three months, HR remained essentially unchanged on the BE. A similar 180 170 160 150 140 130 120- 110' 100- 90 80. 70 60 50- 40- 57 • Submaximal exercise (720 kpm/min) O Recovery at 30 sec ■ Recovery at 1 min □ Recovery at 2 min T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Testing Period : 4.8. covery Heart Rate During Submaximal Bicycle Ergometer Exercise 58 trend was noted for HR submax measured during the test for VO2 max on the BE (Figure 4.6). Recovery. Recovery after exercise has been found to occur more rapidly after a period of physical training (138, 151). The cardiovas¬ cular cost of an exercise can be determined by the speed with which the HR recuperates (34). Familiar "step tests" are based on this accepted physiologic principle. Recovery is shown to be improved with physical training (16, 17, 34, 84, 86, 143, 151). During three months of track and field training and competition, Adams (1) noted a decrease only in the distance run¬ ners, in spite of already much lower beginning values. Knowlton and Weber (85) found recovery HR to significantly change in a female dis¬ tance runner and observed the first reading after cessation of exercise to be the most discriminative. In addition, HR was sometimes seen to fall then rise slightly in the recovery period. Morehouse and Tuttle (106) similarly noted that there is occasionally a secondary rise in pulse rate, occurring at about 1.5 minutes after the exercise, espe¬ cially after more strenuous exercises. They concluded that it is a normal but variable phenomenon. A significant reduction in TM (Figure 4.7) and BE (Figure 4.8) submaximal recovery HR at 30 seconds, one minute, and two minutes was observed in this study. Recovery HR seemed to respond similarly on the TM and the BE. The largest decrease observed in both was between test- 59 ing periods #1 and #3, during intense non-running training while re¬ covering from a knee injury. HR was seen to drop 35 bpm (25 percent), 37 bpm (34 percent), and 17 bpm (21 percent) on the treadmill and 39 bpm (30 percent), 46 bpm (36 percent), and 21 bpm (21 percent) on the bicycle ergometer during the two month period. A more gradual but significant decrease occurred on the TM with resumption of running training, especially with the 30 second recovery HR. Body Composition Body composition is an important factor in endurance perform¬ ance, since excess fat which must be transported makes no positive con¬ tribution to performance. Amounts of subcutaneous fat, as determined by skinfold (SF) measurements, have been found to be highly correlated with endurance performance (34, 58, 77). The normal range of percent body fat (PF) for college women of the subject's age is 20-25 percent (118). Wilmore and Behnke (155) re¬ ported 25.7 percent for 128 college-age females. Successful female long distance runners are characterized as having little body fat (fable 4,4). It remains to be determined whether this is primarily a result of training or of inherited traits. It is difficult to separate cause and effect (11). Body fat in six world or national class women distance runners was measured to average 11.7 per¬ cent (20). A low of 6 percent was observed. Eight female runners (110) competing at the Olympic Games in Munich in 1972 had an average of B o dy Co mp os it io n o f F e m a le N o r m a ls a n d A t hl et es 60 1 in ,3- 03 O CQ 1 1 • 1 • • fl < 1 1 CO 1 co d ,d’ N 1 i—i *—1 rH j o oo o o 'Cf CM O 1 M • • • • • • • • i m o CO 03 CO CO rH 03 IN CM 1—1 rH S 10 1 Q o CO o in in N O Q D • • • • • C/3 oo CO o d CO oo N 1 ° 1—I 1—1 I—I rH 1 ^ 1 2 to C'' CM O 1 < 1 • 1 i • • 1 i M U 1 CM 1 i C'' rH 1 00 CM CM | NJ 8 W CM CO 03 CO O 1 ac 1 • 1 i « • • || H 1 00 1 i CO 03 rH 00 | CM rH rH CO cr; I'* 00 CM o 00 o ^1- O • • • • • • • • I H CO CD CM 03 co CM o | •H rH 1—1 CM rH 0 -p B 03 LO O co 1—1 00 CO B tn 1 • • • • • • • 1 in O) 03 CO CO CM 1 CM iH i—1 1—1 rH CM i—1 P 03 w G o 1 G o 0) 03 03 •H E 03 as 0) o w w >> 03 03 o 03 T3 cd 03 •H p •’-) c p i—i -P -P -P •H P P 03 rH TS X3 CO 03 CO •H 03 X 03 a 03 O •p cd 03 D -p C E w rH o rH E C 2 E QO o G in w C P p X cd JC >> G •H P C •H D O 03 •p P -P rH as CO O O ro Q P s > cd H cd O P D 03 2 PI -p to rH in IN 00 CM 0) rH CM CM CM CM 'cr oo l 1 1 l 1 1 i N < c in 1 00 O CO IN CM r—1 rH rH CM rH rH W -P =«; X> o 00 1 ■CO CO co in i—1 rH o r—1 1 CM CO CO in XJ rH ^ ' w rH rH cd o 1—1 co cd rH in 4- p nJ cd •P rH 03 0Q -p -p 03 QO -P 0) 03 -p C o3 0) 03 ^—. 00 ,—s 03 P —^ T3 >—v cd ,—- o G N O o W 0) CM JC Z3 03 G rH rH •H CO cd XI G —■ rH cd C as 03 cd cd o •H cd 03 H i CQ 2 s 2 CO 25 Q 61 13.3 percent fat. A mean relative body fat of 15.2 percent was found for 11 women long distance runners of national and international caliber and mean age of 32.4 years (156). The three best runners out of this group, on the basis of competitive performances in distances between two miles and the marathon, averaged 7.0 percent in relative body fat. Systematic endurance training has repeatedly been shown to de¬ crease PF (39, 86, 95, 104, 120, 150). In top athletes, significant variations in body composition occur regularly in relation to the inten sity of training, although it is relatively less apparent than in un¬ trained or obese subjects (114). The changes in body composition dur¬ ing training often take place without noticeable changes in body weight (BW) (88, 104, 142). A varsity track team was seen to significantly decrease in five out of six SF measurements over a three-month season with no change in BW (1). Normal high school girls trained by walking, running, and jogging for 15 weeks and decreased the sum of SF by 16 per cent with no corresponding change in BW (104). Typically no change in BW was observed when normal or trained subjects underwent a period of training. Weight is not a good guide to fat loss, possibly because fat loss can be compensated for by an increase in muscle mass due to exer¬ cise (82) . When a loss in BW during training was reported, subjects were usually obese or had been completely inactive for a period of time (39, 62 86, 120, 150, 163). Sedentary middle-aged women trained five days per week for 16 weeks with significant decreases in SF measurements and BW (143). Moody and Wilmore (104) found a significant reduction in the sum of SF (23.5 percent) along with a decrease in BW when obese high school girls trained for 29 weeks. A decrease in body weight and percent fat has been theorized as one of the possible causes of secondary amenorrhea and oligomenorrhea in female athletes (37, 38, 54). Degree of physical exertion, as shown in mileage per week, has also been seen to be directly proportional to the degree and incidence of menstrual abnormality. It is theorized that there is no single amount of training, weight loss, or percent body fat that induces amenorrhea, but that each woman has a different threshold. Regular menses can be expected to return with a decrease in intensity of training and gain in body weight. In this study, body composition changed significantly during the seven months (Figures 4.9-4.11). Six of the seven skinfold meas¬ urements decreased (Figure 4.9) and one remained unchanged. Most of the change was seen during the first three months of training. The most significant decreases in SF over the entire seven months occurred at the abdominal (44 percent), thigh (39 percent), suprailiac (39 percent), and cheek (39 percent). Substantial decreases were also observed at triceps (35 percent) and calf (20 percent). No significant change was seen in the subscapular SF. Abdominal, suprailiac, and tricep SF showed 16- 15- 14 13- 12- 11 10. 9- a 7- 6. 5' 4‘ 63 • Tricep (TR) O Thigh (TH) ■ Abdominal (AB) a Cheek (CH) A Suprailiac (SI) A Calf (CA) Q Subscapular (SU) T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Testing Period V 4.9. Skinfold Measurements. B o d y F a t (% ) 64 • Sloan formula ■ Pollock formula O Average T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Testing Period Figure 4.10. Percent Body Fat. F a t W e i g h t ( l b s ) L e a n B o d y W e i g h t ( l b s ) T o t a l B o d y W e i g h t (l bs ) 65 T123 4567 8 Testing Period Figure 4.11. Body Composition. 66 most of the change during the first three months of training, while the thigh and calf decreased more gradually throughout the entire seven months. The cheek SF did not show any real change until the fourth testing period, after running had been resumed. Percent body fat was calculated from the SF measurements as pre¬ viously described. From the Sloan density formula which used the tri¬ cep and suprailiac SF, PF decreased (Figure 4.10) from 17.5 percent to 14.6 percent. The Pollock formula used thigh and suprailiac SF. Rela¬ tive fat decreased from 14.5 percent to 10.8 percent, showing a larger percent improvement (26 percent) than the Sloan formula (17 percent). Lean body weight (LEW) was calculated by subtracting fat weight (FW) from BW. Fat weight was computed using average PF and BW. BW in¬ creased almost six pounds (Figure 4.11). BW rose gradually over the seven-month period, with the exception of a decline during the first month. The subject gained a total of 8.8 pounds of LBW. A loss of almost three pounds of fat was observed during the training program. An initial loss of 1.2 pounds of fat during the first months was the most significant change, accompanying a corresponding loss of BW. Girths Increases in muscular strength generally are accompanied by in¬ creases in cross-sectional area. Girth measurements are the indirect assessment of cross-sectional area used in this study. Girths in some areas merely reflect changes in adipose tissue. Unfortunately, girth 67 measurements often do not selectively measure changes in muscle mass or fat tissue. A decrease in adipose tissue accompanying muscle hyper¬ trophy may cause no measureable change in girth. Muscular girths have sometimes been shown to increase with strength and weight training (2, 95). Much greater changes in muscular girths of male subjects have been observed and have been attributed to their higher plasma content of testosterone (95). During a four-week isotonic weight training program a significant increase in girth meas¬ urements, accompanied by a decrease in all SF values, was shown for male karate class members (2). Girth measurements have been seen to decrease with endurance running training, accompanying a decline in BW and PF (34, 103, 104, 120). Cureton (34), using himself as a subject, reported a reduction of calf, thigh, gluteal, and upper arm girths associated with fat loss and a weight loss of over ten pounds. His training consisted of dis¬ tance running and swimming, although he began the testing after being completely inactive for six months. In a study by Moody and others (104) only the obese group of females exhibited any significant changes in BW and girth measurements. In a case study, Kristufek (86) reported that body girths on the whole were decreased after seven weeks of en¬ durance running, with a corresponding drop in BW and a reduction of SF measurements. It appears that girths decreased significantly only in studies 68 involving obese or previously sedentary subjects. Most results tend to support the idea that increased muscle development compensates for a subcutaneous fat decrease, resulting in no change in circumference (1, 19, 113, 114). Girth and SF measurements taken on a college varsity track and field team during a season of training and competition (1) showed no significant changes in any girths, but a large decrease in SF. With six months of weight training (19), women throwing event ath¬ letes were found to show only minimal evidence of muscular hypertrophy, yet considerable increases in strength. During this study, four girths increased (Figure 4.12), although the changes were slight: thigh (3.5 percent), gluteal (3.3 percent), forearm (2.2 percent), and calf (1.6 percent). Abdominal and upper arm girths fluctuated somewhat but remained essentially unchanged. Chest girth showed an overall decrease of 2.1 percent. Changes were noted gradually throughout the entire training period. Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion A reproducible work task exceeding anaerobic threshold has been used as a measure of endurance change. Use of a BE for this type of test provides an indirect measure of aerobic capacity and leg strength. These parameters have previously been shown to improve with intense endurance training. Fardy (53) used an all-out ergometer ride in a soccer training / detraining study. Time of the ride was significantly improved at five 69 • Gluteal (GL) O Chest (CH) ■ Abdominal (AB) □ Thigh (TH) ▲ Calf (CA) A Upper arm (UA) ♦ Forearm (FA) 70 60 40 30 20. $=$ i $ T ^=4= t T 1 2 3456 78 Testing Period Figure 4.12. Girth Measurements 70 weeks (56 percent) and at ten weeks (92 percent). Five weeks of de- ' training showed a significant reduction (24 percent). Ride time at 1080 kpm/min in this study increased most signifi¬ cantly during the latter part of the training program, the longest ride occurring during testing period #7 (Figure 4.13). The net increase from testing period #1 to #7 of 10.2 minutes represents a 278 percent increase. A substantial drop is seen at testing periods #4 and #5 after running training was resumed. Chapter V discusses the variable results more completely. Time Trial The seven-mile time trial was intended as a measure of running performance and aerobic capacity. Cooper's 1.5-mile Test has been shown to be highly correlated with VOp max (26). A longer distance was chosen for the trial in this study, as it is more specific to the event which the subject was preparing for and more of a measure of aerobic capacity than the shorter distances (8). Running performance has been shown to improve after endurance training as measured by time trial results (84, 86). Kristufek (86) found mile run time to be improved 6 percent after seven weeks of run¬ ning three miles per day. Ten weeks of cross-country training (84) pro¬ duced a 9 percent increase in 28 students in a university cross-country course who covered approximately nine miles per week. Change in a run- R id e T im e (m in ) 71 15 14 13 12 11 10- 9 8 7 6 5- 4 3 > >' 1 ■ < T 1 2 3 4 5 6 ~7 8 Testing Period Figure 4.13. Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion. 12 ning time trial is greatly dependent upon initial fitness level, type and duration of training, and nature of the test. The fastest time run by the subject, 45.5 minutes (6.5 minutes per mile), was observed during testing period #5, after two months of running training. Results of this parameter are incomplete due to injury so that no trend can be noted during the training period. Strength According to Cureton (34), strength is a very complex human quality involving, at least in part, will power, the number of muscle fibers recruited, and efficiency of the levers involved, to develop coordinated effort against a particular resistance. There is great variation in the means for testing strength and evaluating gains, thus making it difficult to compare reports in the literature. Strength has been reported to increase with weight training (2, 17, 19, 95) and en¬ durance running (34, 86). A means of testing similar to that employed in this study was also used by Brown and Wilmore (19). Strength was determined by one- repetition maximum in the bench press and half squat. Weight training was performed three times per week for six months by female throwing event athletes. Strength increased 15-44 percent in the bench press * and 16-53 percent in the half squat. Only leg strength was measured in this study, as previously described in Chapter III. There was no change in the leg press (Figure 73 4.14), Increases of 14 and 67 percent were observed with the leg ex¬ tension and leg curl, respectively. A drop in all three tests was seen from the trial to the first testing period, after one month of very little training. After testing period #1, a slight increase was observed until testing period #4 for the leg extension and until testing period #5 for the leg curl. After testing period #5, no further increases were noted. Weight room workouts for developing leg strength were dis¬ continued after testing period #5. The subject tljen relied on activi¬ ties more specific to the event she was training for. The specificity of training possibly is a factor in the measuring of strength during the latter part of this study (see Chapter V). L o a d (l bs ) 74 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 ■ Leg curl 100 T 1 2 3 45 678 Testing Period Figure 4.14. Leg Strength. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION A complete discussion of all results is presented in Chapter V under the following headings: 1. Maximal Oxygen Consumption. 2. Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation. 3. Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen. '4. Basal Metabolic Rate. 5. Blood Chemistry. 6. Heart Rate. 7. Body Composition. 8. Girths. 9. Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion. 10. Time Trial. 11. Strength. 12. 100-Mile Run. Maximal Oxygen Consumption Maximal oxygen consumption was seen to vary with changes in training (Figure 4.1). Increase in V02 max with training may be achieved by an increased stroke volume and/or arterio-venous oxygen dif ference (32, 68). However, the relative contributions from these fac¬ tors in the present study could not be predicted. 76 Training of primarily bicycling raised V02 max to 59.8 ml/kg-min (64.0 ml/kg-min), but not until regular running training was resumed did V02 max reach a peak during this study, 66.5 ml/kg-min (71.1 ml/ kg-min). Although exercise heart rates were similar during bicycling and running training, it is very possible that the intensity in cycling was lower because of a lower cardiac output. Studies have found a lower cardiac output during cycling than running when heart rates have been similar, due to a lower stroke volume (115). This could explain the lower V02 max values during BE training. However, bicycle training has been shown to improve utilization and transportation of oxygen in the musculature of the lower extremity to a greater extent than running due to the higher intensity of cycling work on the leg muscles. This appeared to be the case in this investigation. V02 max values declined again during the final two months of training after a reinjury substantially reduced running mileage. More frequent long duration mountain climbing and running/walking workouts were added to the training program in an attempt to replace the running training. The lower intensity of these workouts with a corresponding lower exercise HR during this period probably was insufficient to pre¬ vent a decline in V02 max values. Percent changes in V02 max with the various training periods were rather substantial, considering that the subject began in a par¬ tial state of training and was not obese. Magnitude of change in VC>2 77 max has been shown to be greatest when subjects have begun training from a sedentary or obese state (9, 32, 39, 55). In this study the intensity, duration, and frequency of the workouts apparently were of such magnitude to cause significant changes, regardless of beginning fitness of the subject. Discrepancy between TM and BE VO^ max values is generally re¬ garded to be about seven percent, although this difference may vary with the state of training of the quadriceps (134). Prior to this study the subject had done no bicycle training. During the first two months of this study the subject frequently worked out on the BE. Quadriceps strength was improved during this period (Figures 4.13-4.14), hence affecting the difference which originally existed between TM and BE VC^ max values. It is impossible to determine the magnitude of the effect that training of the quadriceps had on VO2 max values, although the discrepancy probably decreased as a result. The highest value of VO^ max recorded in this study was 66.5 ml/ kg-min (71.1 ml/kg-min), considerably higher than values found for nor¬ mal college-age females (46) and consistent with measurements on female long distance runners (Table 4.1). In fact, all values of VC>2 max found during this study were significantly higher than those measured on normal females. Maximal Pulmonary Ventilation VE max did not show any particular trend during the seven months 78 (Figure 4.2), possibly a result of the subject's partial state of train¬ ing at the beginning of the study. VE max has most often been seen to increase with training (39, 58, 64, 157), although subjects have begun the studies in an.untrained state. One study on female runners who were not detrained initially showed results that are in agreement with this study (18). VE max in that particular study remained unchanged during 12 weeks of training even though VO^ max showed a 26 percent increase. Additionally, the increase in VO^ max may have partially prevented the lactic acid increase from high intensity exercise that is a stimulus for respiration (8). Ventilatory Equivalent for Oxygen Progressively increased maximal ventilatory efficiency was observed until testing period #6 (Figure 4.3). There was consistently a high intensity component in training during that entire period. Oxy¬ gen utilization at a maximal workload was gradually increased over these five months, although the greatest change was observed during the first two months of primarily high intensity BE training. During the final two months of the study when training was much lower in intensity, even though the duration of workouts was often greater, ventilatory efficiency at a maximal level was seen to decline. During that period the subject rarely worked out at maximum effort. VE/VO2 at a submaximal workload did not change significantly during training, with the exception of an increase at testing period 79 #1. This increase was consistent with changes in other testing para¬ meters during that period due to the preceding month of very little training. During the final two months of training there was no increase in submaximal VE/VO2 (indicating a lower efficiency) to correspond with the change in maximal VE/VC^- Submaximal training during those two months, even though running was substantially reduced, apparently was sufficient to maintain efficient oxygen utilization at submaximal levels. The lowest value of VE/VO2 max attained by this subject was 32.3, which compares very closely with two other reports on female runners. Average values of 32.5 (156) and 32.9 (48) were calculated from the data presented in these reports. All other values reported for trained female athletes were much higher (71, 89). Slightly lower values (30.7) were found for some male marathoners (30). Basal Metabolic Rate A decline in BMR was observed during the seven months of train¬ ing (Figure 4.4). An increase in cellular efficiency appeared to ex¬ ceed the effect of increasing LBW. A high degree of relaxation often acquired during training, regardless of muscle hypertrophy (141), can also help to explain lowering of values in this study. The time of year has been shown to influence BMR readings, warmer weather lowering the readings. The final readings in this study were, in effect, taken dur¬ ing spring, while the first several tests were performed in the winter. The effect of season cannot be entirely disregarded. 80 At no time did the subject's BMR deviate substantially from normal. With the exception of the first reading (+11.9 percent of normal), BMR did not differ more than 2.8 percent from normal. Only one study was available on a female athlete to compare values. During endurance running (85), BMR values decreased from 242 to 209 cc/min over a 17-month period in a female athlete of similar size and weight. Cor¬ responding values in this study were substantially lower, 204 to 181 cc/min, although a similar trend was noted. A higher intensity train¬ ing program during this study with a corresponding greater cellular efficiency, along with a higher degree of relaxation, could help to ex¬ plain the differences between the two studies. Blood Chemistry No particular trend was seen in blood chemistry parameters (Figure 4.5). The much lower values observed during testing period #4 and #6 possibly can be explained by the dilution factor from an increase in total blood volume or by Yoshimura's "sports anemia" (121). The subject had resumed running as the main form of training in the month prior to testing period #4. The running training may have affected blood measures by increasing blood volume, thus causing a dilution effect. It is also possible that the subject had not adapted to the differing training mode and was suffering from training fatigue. The blood test at testing period #6 came shortly after a 50-mile run, the subject's longest workout to date. Results of this test suggest 81 that the severe exertion caused a temporary destruction of RBC, an occurrence labelled "sports anemia." When experimental error was con¬ sidered as the cause for the low readings, it was concluded that the largest error possible (2-4 percent) in RBC determination could not explain the vast declines which occurred during testing periods #4, #6, and #7. Compared to normal values for females, the subject's values all appeared quite normal. Hb seemed to differ the greatest, somewhat higher than all values reported on normal females and female athletes. According to DeWijn's standards (42), the subject's Hb values do not indicate any danger of anemia or iron deficiency, apparently very com¬ mon in female runners. The subject had experienced secondary amenorrhea for the two years prior to this investigation, although her menstrual cycle was fairly regular during the entire seven months of this study. Resumption of menstrual periods occurred during testing week #1. It does not appear that amenorrhea necessarily resulted in a higher Hct as suggested by Feicht (54), since the highest Hct was observed during the final test¬ ing period, at which point the subject was no longer ammenorrheic. It appeared that the unmeasured combined effects of training, incomplete recovery, dehydration, volume dilution, amenorrhea, and the subject's menstrual cycle caused some degree of variability in results. 82 These and perhaps other variables have undoubtedly contributed to the f inconsistencies reported in the literature. Heart Rate Resting. Resting HR did not change significantly during this study. Resting HR has generally been seen to decline with training (16, 72, 85, 86, 143) unless athletes were observed to be in a partial state of training at the beginning of a study (1, 17). There are several possible explanations for no change observed during this study. Since the lowest resting HR during the last three years has typically been observed for this subject in the morning soon after waking, resting HR was determined accordingly in this study. How¬ ever, it was noted midway through the research period that HR was often much lower in the evening than it was in the morning. Values in the evening were often 39-40 bpm, corresponding to values previously ob¬ served in the morning during periods of intense marathon training (37- 40 bpm). It must be noted that the subject's entire routine was greatly changed just prior to this study. Since resting measures such as HR are highly subject to factors such as emotion and state of relaxation (8, 14), it appeared that a true resting HR was not observed with the morning measurements during this study. Of course, it also must be re¬ membered that basal tests do not always determine the fitness of an individual. 83 In addition, the subject began the testing in a partial state of training. Since resting HR was already low (45 bpm) at the beginning the study, significant change could really not be expected. However, much lower values (37 bpm) have been observed prior to this study when the subject was highly trained. It appeared to the author that the training during most of this study was of comparable intensity, duration, and frequency to cause similar low resting HR's. Nonetheless, resting HR's in this study were seen to correspond to those previously found for endurance athletes (43, 44, 85). Maximal. Maximal HR did not change significantly with training during this study, which is consistent with most of the literature (39, 51, 87, 116, 136). HR max on the TM was found to be higher than that measured on the BE which also has been previously reported (20, 157). Submaximal. Submaximal HR's measured on the TM and BE were shown to vary with changes in training. Specificity of training was evidently a factor in interpreting the results. In this study, bicycle training produced the most dramatic re¬ sults on the BE test during exercise, while the effects of running training were most evident on the TM test. During the first two months of training, results seem to suggest that bicycle training produced specific effects, as seen by a decrease in HR on the BE and not on the TM. This is in agreement with other studies involving specificity of 84 training and testing (115, 122). Following three months of running training, HR as measured on the TM declined, while HR on the BE remained unchanged. This is not in agreement with the literature, which has generally indicated that running training produces similar changes on the TM and BE (115, 122). A possible explanation for this discrepancy lies in the preconditions for observing the effects of running training. Running training in this study began after two months of intense BE training, therefore, HR on the BE submaximal test was already at a fairly low value to begin with. Other studies have usually commenced with subjects in an untrained state. Results of the TM test during testing period #6 appeared to be inconsistent with other data also recorded during that testing period. Movement artifacts have occasionally been known to interfere with find¬ ing a true HR (134), and it appeared to be the case during this test. The electrocardiograph recording was observed to be quite different from all other recordings, and the HR's were very difficult to measure. Absence of data during testing period #2 was due to an injury, which made it impossible for the subject to run on the TM at that time. Heart rates on the TM during the final testing period were among the lowest recorded during this study. Even though running mileage was very low during the preceding two months, apparently the long mountain climbs and run/walks were sufficient to maintain a cardiovascular effi¬ ciency for submaximal levels. 85 Recovery. Recovery HR was significantly reduced with training (Figures 4.7-4.8), responding very similarly on both TM and BE tests. A more rapid and efficient physiological recovery was apparent. Results are in agreement with the literature (16, 17, 86, 143, 151). After two months of BE training, recovery HR on both tests was seen to be significantly decreased. A further decrease was noted in both tests after three months of running training. The recovery HR tests appeared to show the cumulative effects of training over the entire period, rather than respond to specific modes and intensities of training. In fact, the lowest TM recovery HR's at 30 seconds and one minute during the entire study were recorded during the final testing period, in spite of running mileage being substantially reduced. Other studies have observed that the first recovery HR reading after exercise is the most discriminatory (85). A similar finding was noted during this study on the TM. Occasionally a secondary rise in HR was seen (testing periods #7 and #8) as has also been reported in the literature (85, 106). Morehouse and Tuttle (106) merely concluded that it was a normal but variable phenomenon. Often recovery was so rapid that recovery HR's were very erratic In a few instances it was difficult to determine HR from the electro¬ cardiograph recording after the TM test. During the trial period an equipment malfunction resulted in missing data for recovery HR's at 30 seconds and one minute. 86 Body Composition . Skinfold values at six out of seven sites showed an overall de¬ crease with training (Figure 4.9), which is in agreement with the liter¬ ature (39, 95, 104, 120, 150). But changes in fat weight may not be accurately represented by subcutaneous SF's, especially during intense training. This has been found to be especially true in women because of the deposition of more fat internally. It was suggested that perhaps intramuscular and internal fat stores were diminished before the sub¬ cutaneous deposits. Measurements at the various SF sites were compared with those obtained on female runners (Table 4.4). SF values measured on this subject were very similar to those found on distance runners in the literature. SF values were also compared with two studies on typical college-age females with PF of 24.8 percent (150) and 25.5 percent (77). There was a great difference between values found on average females and the results of this investigation. All of the SF measurements on this subject were 50-76 percent less than those taken on average col¬ lege-age females. Percent body fat (Figure 4.10) was seen to decrease signifi¬ cantly with training, accompanied by an increase in BW (Figure 4.11). The increase in BW with a corresponding decline in PF suggests a large gain in LBW (Figure 4.11). No reports were found with such a large in¬ crease in BW and LBW during training for an endurance event. On the 87 contrary, many reports on endurance running training have indicated a weight loss (34, 37, 39, 86, 143). During the three years of training preceding this study when the subject's training was primarily LSD running in preparation for marathon racing, BW was seen to decline from 123 to 110 pounds, where it had remained relatively stable for the year preceding this study. Thus BW was very low at the beginning of this study. The seven-month training program reported on in this research study, though, differs in many respects from a typical endurance running program. Due to the nature of the event that the subject was preparing for, extremely moun¬ tainous terrain with severe uphills and downhills, it was considered essential to increase leg strength and muscle mass. Throughout the course of this training study, the subject engaged in workouts designed to increase leg strength, in addition to maintaining a high aerobic capacity. Therefore, increases in BW and LBW were appropriate. Amenorrhea has been associated with low PF and/or LSD training (37, 38, 54). Reappearance of the subject's menstrual period after two years of amenorrhea seemed to coincide with a decrease in training and increase in BW and PF. Even though the intensity of training was high during the seven months of this study and PF significantly declined (Figure 4.10), the subject's menstrual cycle remained regular. In fact, the high energy cost of total training (Appendix B) was comparable with the amenorrheic marathon training period prior to this study. However, 88 training mode during this investigation was quite different from pre¬ vious marathon training. During training for marathon racing, running was the sole method of training, while during this training period the mode was quite varied on a monthly basis and even within each week (see Chapter III and Appendix B). Running mileage was typically not high during this investigation. Therefore, it may be speculated that high mileage LSD running may be instrumental in this condition. Girths No great changes were observed in any of the girth measurements. Since a girth measurement involves both lean and fat tissue, most likely the decrease in subcutaneous fat (Figure 4.9) in combination with an I increase in muscular development resulted in no measureable changes in circumference. The two girths which showed the greatest increases were the thigh and gluteal (Figure 4.12). In addition, thigh skinfold (Figure 4.9) was observed to significantly decrease, along with a large gain in LBW (Figure 4.11). It appeared that a large portion of the increase in LBW occurred in the thigh and gluteal areas. This finding is con¬ sistent with the type of training program followed. Apparently one of the primary aims of the training program, to develop leg strength and muscle mass, was accomplished. This was further substantiated by observed leg strength increases as measured on the bicycle ride to ex¬ haustion (Figure 4.13) and the strength test (Figure 4.14). In addi- 89 tion, a higher resistance could also be tolerated by the subject on the BE during the test for VC>2 max. During testing period #1, the subject could not continue at 1440 kpm/min for the full 2.5 minutes due to ex¬ treme leg fatigue. During testing period #3, and thereafter, the sub¬ ject could pedal at 1440 kpm/min and sometimes higher for the entire time. Women have often shown the same relative improvements in strength as men, while their low levels of androgen seem to be responsible for preventing the same degree of muscle hypertrophy (95). In this study, leg strength and muscle mass appeared to have increased, although the magnitude of the increase was not apparent by observing the changes in girth measurements. The subject's girth measurements were compared with those taken on distance athletes of a similar age (22, 91, 110, 137). Thigh girth was typically greater than the long distance runners (22, 110) and smaller than the cross-country skiers (137). Calf girth was found to be slightly lower than values found in three studies describing endur¬ ance athletes (91, 110, 137). No significant differences were seen in gluteal, forearm, and upper arm girths among all the studies. In terms of girth measurements, the subject seemed to fit the female distance runner's norm. Bicycle Ride to Exhaustion Overall, the ride to exhaustion appeared to reflect the cumula- 90 tive effects of training over the entire period (Figure 4.13). Results indicated substantial increases in aerobic capacity and leg strength. Due to the nature of the test, results were also subject to other un¬ controlled factors. Inconsistent results may be anticipated from such a protocol. In addition to leg strength and aerobic capacity, time of the ride was dependent upon the subject's ability to tolerate lactic acid buildup, threshold for pain, motivation, and perseverance. For example, a change in training does not appear to be responsible for the short ride times during testing periods #4 and #5, since aerobic capa¬ city (Figure 4.1) and leg strength (Figure 4.14) were high. Some workouts were still performed on the BE during that time, even though running training had been resumed. Perhaps the aforementioned extrane¬ ous factors influenced the data in these two instances, rather than merely leg strength and aerobic capacity. Time Trial Unfortunately no conclusions could be drawn regarding the time trial, due to the absence of data from six testing periods because of injury. . Strength Specificity of training appeared to affect results of the strength test. Strength was shown to increase on the leg curl and the leg extension until testing period #5 (Figure 4.14). At that point, 91 weight room workouts were entirely replaced with hill running, mountain climbing, and bicycle ergometer intervals for developing leg strength. , There were no apparent increases in leg strength after testing period #5, as observed from the weight strength test. Leg strength, though, continued to increase as shown in the ride to exhaustion (Figure 4.13). Leg press values were not seen to increase above pretraining values. Most likely this is due to the large increment in weights on the test apparatus (25 pounds). The subject felt confident of reaching a higher max, but the added 25-pound load was too large an increase. One Hundred-Mile Run The subject was unable to complete the 100—mile run due to reoccurrence of a knee injury. The subject dropped out of the run after completing 51.3 miles in 13 hours. The injury was a factor from the fourth hour of the run to the point at which the subject was forced to stop. The training program, therefore, could not be evaluated in terms of the 100-mile run results, since factors other than training influenced the outcome. However, the author made speculations concern¬ ing the effectiveness of the training program through consideration of the condition of the subject during and after that portion of the run which was completed. At no point during the run did the subject suffer from extreme fatigue or dehydration. This is substantiated by heart rate, blood 92 pressure, and body weight measurements taken during the run at three' points: 32.0, 46.0, and 51.3 miles. Blood pressure was observed to remain constant at 110/70, an average reading for the subject. Body weight was stable at 120 pounds for the entire time. Heart rate soon after stopping at the checkpoints was measured to consistently be 100- 106 bpm. • With temperatures reaching 110 degrees Fahrenheit during the run, dehydration and heat disorders were very common and the major causes for a high drop-out rate. At no point did the subject suffer any effects of the high temperatures and hot sun. Adequate precaution¬ ary measures were taken to keep body temperature down such as drinking constantly, wearing a wet hat (often filled with snow), and walking through all streams. Furthermore, at no point did the subject suffer from muscle cramps, tightness, or soreness during the run. In terms of post-run recovery, there were no indications of fatigue, heat disorders, or illness immediately after the run or in the week following. Body weight and heart rates were not unusual, and the subject was motivated to remain very physically active. It appeared that the subject was very adequately trained for this particular event and took the necessary measures during the run to ensure completion. A circumstance beyond the subject's control pre¬ vented her from finishing the Western States 100. The testing results were also analyzed with respect to the run. 93 A. high VO2 max was not necessarily important for success in a long run of this nature, since work was at a submaximal level. The sub¬ ject's VO2 max had dropped slightly in the final two months of training from the reduced running mileage, although the subject's level was still well above average. In addition, maximal VE/V02 had also declined dur¬ ing the final two months. There is perhaps a minimal value of VO2 max necessary, below which performance would be hindered. More important, though were the submaximal measures which con¬ tinued to show positive results, even with very little running. Sub¬ maximal VE/VO2 and heart rate on the TM more specifically applied to this endurance running event. Submaximal VE/VC^ remained unchanged during the final two months, indicating that adequate submaximal venti¬ latory efficiency was retained. Exercise and recovery heart rates re¬ corded on the final TM test were among the lowest recorded during the entire training period. Leg strength was actually one of the most important factors. The subject's leg strength increased progressively as previously indi¬ cated. Even greater gains in leg strength specific to mountain climb¬ ing and running probably occurred than were measured by the available tests on the BE and the weights. No test existed to adequately measure leg strength gains that were evident during the final two months of mountain and hill workouts. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The effects of moderately intense and short duration training have been widely studied. This study helped fill the presently exist¬ ing void of strenuous longitudinal training studies on female athletes. The purpose of this study was to determine the progressive changes in the physical fitness of a female long distance runner during a seven-month training period in preparation for the Western States 100. The progressive physical conditioning was evaluated by testing 50 selected oxygen consumption, pulmonary ventilation, blood chemistry, heart rate, body composition, girth, running and bicycle performance, and strength variables at four-week intervals during the training period. A 27-year-old female long distance runner was used as the sub¬ ject for this investigation. Prior to this study the subject had run . for three years and trained for marathon racing for approximately two years. The subject trained up to ten hours a day, six or seven days per week, for a total of 30 weeks, over the course of this investiga¬ tion. The training program was substantially adjusted due to a knee injury sustained just prior to the beginning of this study and a rein¬ jury during the fifth month of training. Running was intended as the main form of training but was not a regular part of training until 95 after the third testing period. Consistent throughout the entire seven months, however, was at least one long endurance workout each week. The type and duration of endurance workout (mountain climbing, cross¬ country skiing, running, bicycling) varied according to the season, weather, and injury. During the first two months, non-running training was performed, primarily stair and bicycle ergometer intervals. Three months of running training followed, ending with reinjury during a 50- mile run. For the final two months, lower intensity hiking, mountain climbing, and run/walk training predominated. An attempt was made to avoid unusual deviations in sleeping and eating patterns. In addition, a trial period was used to standardize procedures and familiarize the subject with the testing. Each test was given by the same administrator in the same order during each test¬ ing period. Preconditions necessary for several tests were strictly adhered to. A complete tabulation was made of the data from all of the test¬ ing periods (Appendix A). The progressive values of each variable were graphed and presented in Chapter IV. A complete discussion of all re¬ sults was presented in Chapter V. Conclusions Since this investigation was conducted as an individual case study, broad generalizations could not be drawn. Other subjects would not necessarily have reacted to a similar training program in the same 96 way. In addition, changes in some of the variables, or a lack thereof, very possibly reflected the prior training base and the preceding two years of intense marathon race training. However, trends may be indi¬ cated and noted for further study. Within the limitations of this study, the following conclusions seem justified. 1. Maximal oxygen consumption reached and remained at peak values only when running was the primary form of training. Substitu¬ tion with high intensity bicycle workouts or long duration hikes was not adequate to maintain the highest levels of VO2 max. 2. Significant changes in VC>2 max with varying intensities and modes of training were seen, even though the subject was in a con¬ stant state of training and could not be considered obese. 3. Maximal VE/VO2 improved for five months in conjunction with a consistent high intensity component in training. 4. Basal metabolic rate decreased as a result of training, possibly due to greater cellular efficiency, increased relaxation, and the change of seasons. 5. It appeared that the combined effects of training, incom¬ plete recovery, dehydration, volume dilution, amenorrhea, and the men¬ strual cycle caused some degree of variability in blood chemistry re¬ sults. No particular trend could be seen with changes in training. 6. Submaximal heart rate as measured both on the treadmill and the bicycle ergometer significantly declined during training. Bicycl- 97 ing and running training were both seen to produce specific effects, as measured by heart rate declines solely on the mode of testing which was specific to the mode of training. 7. Recovery heart rates were reduced with training, respond¬ ing similarly on the treadmill and bicycle tests. 8. Skinfold values were seen to progressively decline through¬ out the entire training period. A gain in body weight with a decline in percent body fat suggested a substantial gain in lean body weight. This was probably a result of the various workouts designed to improve leg strength and muscle mass: stair and bicycle ergometer intervals, weight training, mountain and hill workouts, and bicycling. 9. It was speculated from the data that specifically high mile¬ age LSD running may be a prime causal factor in amenorrhea in female athletes, as opposed to a low percent body fat or mere high intensity of workouts. Energy cost of total training during this study was com¬ parable to that observed during periods of exclusively LSD running training during amenorrhea. In addition, percent body fat again reached low levels during this investigation as it had during previous marathon training, yet the subject's menstrual cycle remained regular during the entire study. 10. An overall increase in leg strength and aerobic capacity was observed with the bicycle ride to exhaustion. 11. Leg strength improved as measured on the leg curl and leg 98 extension, but in general the weight tests were not an adequate measure of strength for most of this study. No test adequately measured leg strength specific to hill and mountain training. 12. Even though the training program had to be substantially adjusted from the original intention, substitution with non-running training produced beneficial changes in the physical fitness of the subject. The altered training program appeared to adequately prepare the subject for the Western States 100. It was determined that a high VO2 max was not necessarily important for success in this particular 100-mile run. Rather, submaximal working capacity and leg strength were theorized to be the most important prerequisites for completion of the Western States 100. Recommendations Based on the results of this research, it appears that further investigation would be profitable in the area of strenuous training on runners. The following recommendations are presented: 1. Further case studies of this nature should be conducted, studying the effects of training and detraining over a period of several years. 2. It would be valuable to include a measure of anaerobic threshold in future studies of this nature as a measure of peripheral changes that may be taking place. 99 3. Blood volume and total hemoglobin changes should be included in future investigations. 4. It should be determined how varying intensities and modes of exercise affect the hemodilution factor. 5. If at all possible, VO2 max should be tested on the ergo- meter most specific to training mode.' In some instances it would be valuable to test VO2 max both on the treadmill and the bicycle ergo- meter. 6. It would be useful to pursue specifically the effects of training fatigue on a series of tests performed throughout a period of strenuous training. APPENDIX A 101 APPENDIX A TEST DATA T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 V02 max (ml/kg-min) 61.5 54.1 59.8 59.1 64.3 66.5 64.1 62.2 59.3 VO2 max (1/min) 3.10 2.69 3.05 3.06 3.30 3.46 3.35 3.28 3.14 VO^ (360 kpm/min) 0.76 0.81 0.90 0.98 0.93 0.91 — — 0.85 VO2 (720 kpm/min) 1.51 1 .55 1.57 1 .58 1.67 1.59 — 1.60 1.56 VOp (900 kpm/min) 1.97 2.05 2.08 1.99 2.06 2.15 1.94 2.00 1.99 VOp (1080 kpm/min) 2.39 2.55 2.54 2.47 2.47 2.47 2.45 2.40 2.56 VE (360 kpm/min) 25.2 34.6 26.4 27.8 23.8 27.7 23.9 — 27.5 VE (720 kpm/min) 39.7 49.6 43.3 42.9 43.6 42.9 — 45.1 43.1 VE (900 kpm/min) 53.2 62.4 58.6 55.5 55.7 59.2 52.4 56.1 54.2 VE (1080 kpm/min) 68.4 88.5 79.5 71.4 69.1 68.8 66.7 68.3 79.2 VE max 1/min 1 18.4 105.5 112.7 118.23 114.9 118.5 108.4 115.1 121.2 VE/VO2 (1440 kpm/min) 38.2 39.2 37.0 34.6 34.8 34.2 32.4 35.1 38.6 RMR (cc/min) — 204 186 189 189 181 185 181 181 RMR (koal/hr/m2) — 39.2 35.5 35.9 36.0 34.4 35.0 34.0 34.0 RMR (% normal) — + 11 .9 + 1.1 +2.2 +2.6 -2.1 0 -2.8 -2.8 HR TM f. mph 174 159 155 160 134 170 161 138 HR TM 7 mph 180 175 175 174 165 190 177 167 HR TM 8 mph 190 187 190 200 173 190 200 190 HR TM rec 30 sec — 140 105 100 90 84 90 81 HR TM rec 1 min — 110 73 72 87 82 70 62 MR TM rec 2 min 80 80 63 66 58 72 71 66 HR BE (720 kpm/min) 163 170 150 136 139 139 132 146 139 HR BE rec 30 sec 125 132 no 93 97 96 79 104 94 HR BE rec 1 min 110 127 98 81 87 86 71 96 81 HR BE rec 2 min 110 101 98 80 76 79 71 94 87 HR BEmax (360 kpm/ min) — 124 103 109 1 10 1)9 119 118 112 HR BE (720 kpm/ min) — 163 143 143 141 147 147 135 160 HR BErnax (900 kpm/ min) — 176 169 150 156 158 153 152 164 HR BEmax (1080 kpm/ min) — 187 18? 176 172 172 171 172 183 HR BE max MAX — 187 187 187.5 187 — 187 189 193 102 APPENDIX A (continued) T 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 HR resting 45 48 46 46 47 48 47 47 47 Hb (g/dl) — 15.4 15.2 15.0 14.4 15.6 15.2 15.3 15.6 Hct (%) — 42.3 43.3 42.5 39.4 42.2 39.2 40.9 43.6 RBC (#/mm3) — 4.69 4.72 4.59 4.32 4.60 4.38 4.22 4.73 TR SF (mm) 15.5 15.2 13.2 11.5 11.7 11.2 11.2 10.8 10.0 SU SF (mm) 6.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 6.2 6.0 6.2 7.0 AB SF (mm) 12.5 11.2 8.0 6.8 6.5 6.8 7.0 7.0 7.0 SI SF (mm) 11.5 8.5 8.3 6.8 6.7 7.7 6.8 7.0 7.0 TH SF (mm) 13.2 13.7 12.0 11.3 11.3 10.2 8.5 7.5 8.0 CA SF (mm) 10.0 9.8 10.8 10.0 9.3 9.3 8.3 7.5 8.0 CH SF (mm) 12.0 12.3 il.? 11.5 10.0 8.2 9.5 8.5 7.3 % Fat (Sloan) 17.5 16.5 15.8 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.6 14.6 14.3 % Fat (Pollock) 14.5 13.8 13.0 12.3 12.3 12.1 11.2 10.8 11.0 % Fat (Average) 16.0 15.1 14.4 13.5 13.5 13.5 12.9 12.7 12.6 Total BW (lbs) 110.4 108.8 111.0 112.8 114.1 115.3 114.7 116.0 116.3 LBW (lbs) 92.8 92.3 95.0 97.6 98.7 99.6 99.9 101 .3 101.6 FW (lbs) 17.6 16.5 16.0 15.2 15.4 15.6 14.8 14.7 14.7 CA G (cm) 32.3 31.8 32.0 32.5 32.3 32.5 32.8 32.8 32.8 TH G (cm) 51.3 51.6 51.8 52.3 52.1 52.1 52.6 52.6 53.1 UA G (cm) 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.6 23.9 23.6 24.1 23.9 23.9 FA G (cm) 23.1 23.1 23.1 23.4 23.4 23.4 23.6 23.6 23.6 CH G (cm) — 84.6 84.3 84.1 83.8 84.3 ' 84.1 83.3 82.8 AB G (cm) 65.8 66.5 65.5 65.3 64.5 64.8 65.5 65.5 65.5 GL G (cm) 88.9 89.2 90.2 90.2 90.4 90.7 91.4 91 .7 92.2 Ride to Exhaustion (min) 17.9 3.6 7.8 12.5 5.6 7.0 13.5 13.9 10.1 Time Trial (min) 47.9 — — — 49.3 45.5 — — — Leg Press (lbs) 165 140 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 Leg Extension (lbs) 70 • 50 70 70 80 80 80 80 80 Leg Curl (lbs) 30 20 30 40 40 50 40 50 50 APPENDIX B 104 M < X w a o w w 53 p-> dt H < K H potass Suj^sax in o in co in co o o o c\j co o o o CT> o in in o co *H o co m m c\j /o in o o in in OXO O OOOOSXKDS OQX XX X XXX OOOinQinoomoinoocNJQomoinooooQ mnj^r^incoiDin^^r^t^oor^oinr^^t^oint^coo rH «“H f-l (\J r—H oiDOOOinomoinoinoinoinoinoooinmcD Nco^ioco^incviin^io^coosj^rt^co^tc^oiocooco r-i xxa3oo:out?oooaucca;>OIO>O-HOO I i ■'j I I ! I I I I I ! I I i^diddddd ooooo-Hommooooini i i i j i i I Idddinindin^ddcodd^j I I I I j I I rH t^toicol I I I I id! I I i ! I I I it^ld .-•■-i (OO^H,Jono>f'fsjir)^HOLf>(\i(M I • • I | t l I ^3-H c >■, rvjr-i^ic\joo^^ooa)roio rsjr)(M(\iCM(N(NC\J(M<\)nrOW'T> w >> -H E w § 5 UJZ£>V£>U)UIO •H f« -H 4-> 3 t. K X 03 O U E- 3 CC X 0Q W 10 O X APPENDIX C 107 APPENDIX C DAILY LOG DATA Test Period Week # Starting Date A.M. Wt. A.M. HR Hours Sleep (Avg/day) Calories/ Day #1 1 2 Dec 108.8 48 5.4 1440 2 9 Dec 108.9 44 6.6 1712 3 16 Dec 110.6 48 7.4 1922 4 23 Dec 113.0 48 7.3 1861 #2 5 30 Dec 111.4 46 6.3 1905 6 6 Jan 111.5 46 7.0 1948 7 13 Jan 112.4 44 6.6 2184 8 20 Jan 113.3 45 6.5 2150 #3 9 27 Jan 113.9 48 6.7 2079 10 3 Feb 115.2 47 6.6 2179 11 10 Feb 113.9 49 7.1 2311 12 17 Feb 113.7 47 6.4 2213 #4 • 13 24 Feb 113.7 47 7.5 2233 14 2 Mar 115.4 47 7.0 2385 15 9 Mar 115.5 50 8.0 2456 16 16 Mar 116.0 48 8.1 2125 • #5 17 23 Mar 114.4 48 7.5 2001 18 30 Mar 114.4 47 6.9 2182 19 6 Apr 114.3 48 6.9 2271 20 13 Apr 115.2 47 6.4 2436 #6 21 20 Apr 115.0 48 7.2 2250 22 27 Apr 116.1 47 7.6 . 2331 23 4 May 115.7 47 7.1 2356 24 11 May 116.1 48 6.9 2004 #7 25 18 May 115.9 48 7.0 2016 26 25 May 115.6 47 7.0 2190 27 1 June 116.0 47 6.9 2262 28 8 June 116.8 47 7.0 2228 #8 29 15 June 116.7 50 7.0 2044 30 22 June 117.0 47 6.9 2050 APPENDIX D 109 Name Weight (Kg) Test Protocol Kp (60 rpm) Duration (min) Sample (min) Rest (min) APPENDIX D Human Performance Laboratory Montana State University Gas Analysis Calculations Age Date Height Test No. 1 2 2.5 3 4 4.25 5 5 5 5 2.5 2 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 2-2.5 1.5-2 5 5 10 Heart Rate Volume . 1. T2 = Tissot, final 2. T^ = Tissot, initial 3. AT = Tissot difference 4. AT x 3.244 = VE uncorr. 5. BP = Barometric Pressure 6. Tc = Tissot Temp. 7. STPD 8. (7) x (4) = VE Corr. Room Air Correction 9. C02% 10. E2 11. E2 x 21/1000 = 02% 12. 100 - (9 + 11) = N2 13. (12)/79.03 = N2 Corr. Oxygen Consumption 14. 20.88 x (13) = 02 Corr. 15. (14) - (11) = 02 Extr. 16. (15)/100 = 17. (8) x (16) = 02 1/min 18. (17) x 1000 / BW(Kg) = 02ml/Kg-min R0 19. (9) - .03 = C02 prod. 20. (19)/(15) = RQ2 APPENDIX E Ill APPENDIX E BMR GAS ANALYSIS 1. = tissot, final 2. = tissot, initial 3. AT = tissot difference 4. AT x 3.244 = V uncorr. 5. BP = barometric pressure 6. Tc° = tissot temperature 7. STPD 8. (7) x (4) = V corr. 9. E2 10. E2 x 21/10 0 11. 20.88 - (10) = 02 ext. 12. (1;L)/100 = 02% 13. (8) x (12) = V02 14. (13)/15 = V02 (1 /min) 15. (14) x 1000 = fa>2 (cc/min) 16. (14) x 5kcal/l x 60 min/hr = V02 kcal/hr BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Adams, W. C. 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