Food habits, range use and home range of Pronghorn Antilope in central Montana during winter by Stephen Roy Bayless A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Fish and Wildlife Management Montana State University © Copyright by Stephen Roy Bayless (1967) Abstract: A study of the food habits, range use, and home range of pronghorn antelope with emphasis on the winter period was conducted in 1966-67 on a 171,712 acre area in north-central Montana, The physiography and vegetation of the area was described. The vegetation consisted of eight types: sagebrush-grassland, grassland, shale slope, greasewood, greasewood-sage-brush, cropland, abandoned meadow, and woodland. Quantitative measurements of canopy coverage and densities of taxa were made for five of the eight types. Characteristics of the antelope population were evaluated from results of five aerial censuses in summer. There were 309 females per 100 males and 74 fawns per 100 females. Distribution of antelope and use of vegetation types was evaluated. The sagebrush-grassland type received most of the use, both in summer and winter. Most of the antelope observations in winter were in vegetation types where sagebrush was common. The average group size for antelope in winter was 23.5, with groups being largest when snow covered the ground. The average group size in summer was 9.4. Winter food habits were determined from the examination of 28 feeding sites and analysis of the contents of each of 18 rumen samples. The winter diet of antelope, determined by examination of feeding sites, consisted of 93 percent shrubs, 6 percent forbs, and a minor amount of grass. The diet determined by analysis of rumen contents consisted of 78 percent shrubs, 19 percent forbs, and a small amount of grass. Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) provided the bulk of the antelope food. A statistical analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between abundance of available plant species and their significance in the diet of antelope. Big sagebrush was the only plant which was present in significantly higher proportions in the diet than in the plant community. Three dead fawns were found on the study area. The apparent cause of death was malnutrition. Their rumen contents did not vary significantly from those of other antelope collected during the winter. Poor body condition of antelope and fawn mortality was possibly related to quality of sagebrush in the diet. Winter home range size was determined for each of 16 individually marked antelope. Each of three was equipped with a radio transmitter. Marked antelope were located daily when possible, A total of 579 individual observations of marked antelope was recorded from December 10 through March 23. Eight of the marked antelope "shifted" their home range at least once in winter. A yearling female had a home range size of 5574.4 acres and a yearling male, 4l60.0 acres. Six adult females had an average home range size of 2841.4 acres; three fawn females, 2417.1 acres; and five fawn males, 1579.5 acres. Fawn females had the most variable home range size. Adult females used a larger area on the sagebrush-grassland vegetation type than on the grease-wood-sagebrush type* Both fawn males and females showed the opposite.  FOOD HABITg, RANGE USE AHD HOME RANGE OF PRONGHORN ANTELOPE'IN CENTRA!'MONTANA DURING WINTER : A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Fish and Wildlife Management STEPHEN ROY BAYLESS Approved: Chairman, Examining ConuSttee ill ACKNOWLEDGMENT To the following, among others, I wish to extend sincere appreciation for their contributions to this study: Dr. Don C. Quimby, Montsma State University, for technical supervision and guidance in preparation of the manuscript; Dr. Richard J. Mackle, formerly with the Montana Department of Fish and Game, for initial project planning; Dr. W. E. Booth, Montana State University, for verification of plant specimens; Mr. Neil Martin and Mr. Duane Pyrah, Montana Department of Fish and Gsune, for advice and field assistance; Dr. Robert L. Eng and Dr. Richard J. Grsdxam, Montana State University, for critical reading of the manuscript; Mr. Thomas Mussehl, Mr. Richard Knight, Mr. Phillip Schladweiller, and Mr. Kenneth Greer of the Montana Department of Fish and Game for assistance in various phases of the project; personnel of the Bureau of Land Management Lewistown District Office for their cooperation; and to my wife, Judy, for patience, encouragement, and assistance. During the study, the writer was supported by the Montana State Department of Fish and Game under Federal Aid Project W-98-R-6 . TABLE' OF C Q M iE M 1S VITAo 0000000*60#00#006000*600000*»00000 OO O O 0.0 O1O OOO 6.0 OOOO Oe OOO 0.0 OOOO 9 8 6 oe 0 . f r o» 1 17 r r e o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o TABLE OE C033TEHTSoooooooooooeOooooo^oo o ooooeeoooeo O OOo o oooeeoo o Oo Oo LIST OE TABLES O 00000.0 00 eoeoooeoeeooooeooooooeoeoeooooeoooeooeeoeoeo LIST OE EIGtffiESo O o'o OOO OO'O OOOOOOOO 0'OoOo O OOOOO O OOOOOOO OoOo'O 0 0 0 0000« ABSTRACT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 000 000 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0.0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 »« 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 HTSTEQBUCTIOE 0 oooooooOooo.oooeooe 000.0000 0^00 00 o o ooooeoOeeoOeeeeeoooo DESCRIPTIQE QE THE STUDY AREAoooeooeooeoooeeoooeoeoooopeooooooeoeeo VEGETATIOEo000000OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOO OOOOOOO 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 0000 Sagebrasli=GrBSsland Vegetation Typefr00000o000000 00000 0 o0o Grassland Vegetation Typ©oooooofroofr0fr0,0000o0.0.000fr00fr00000 Shale Slope Vegetation Typefreoooofroooooofroooooooofroofrofroo Greasewood Vegetation Typoooooeooooooooooeooooofrfr000fr0000 Greasewood=Sagebrash Vegetation Type fr » »00» 0 0 » fr fr .0 «. 0 fr 0 » »0 fr fr Other Vegetation Typ®sOfrfrfrfrfrfr00OeoofrfrfrfrfrOfrfrfrfr»00000000000 PROEGEQRE POPtJLATIQE CHARACTERISTICSo. . 0 0 , . oo .frfr » AETELOPE DISTRIBUTIQE AED USE QF VEGETATIOE TIPESofr000000.00.0000000.0 W i n t e r fr » 0 O frfrfr 0 0 0 0 o 0 o.o o;fr 0 « 0 P O e 0 0.0 0 0.0 e o 0 * O O fr frfrfr O'e.o'ooO O frO O O fr Snmmer .oo oo 00000000» * 00 Ofrfrfrfr fr.o Ofrfrfrfrfr » fr 0 0000*0» »* * o » » o » * *•« * WIETER EQOD HABITSfrOfrfrfrfrfrOffrope*****0.0,00.000*0»Ofrfrfrofro*»■<>»*fro.»»00.0»0 • ' ■ ■ • WIETER HOME RAEGEfro»frfrooofrfr»ofrfrofrooofrpofrfrofrofrfrfro00»»»»»»»»»»fr0»0o*» APPEEDIXa 6 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 OOO OOO OO OO O O O O.O O O O O'O »0 0 0 0 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ofrfr OO OO p 0.0 0.0 O 0.0 OOO LITERATURE CITEDfr*»»o*»0*0o**000fr.o,»*0*o.®*00« »o*.*Ofrfrfrfrfrfr oofoo* 00* » 0* Page . ii iii iv v vii ix 1 2 .5 7 13 13 • 14 17 17 19 21 21 24 26 34 48 64 VTable LIST OF TABLES Page I. COHSTMCYjl C M O P Y COVERAGE, AHD FBEQUEHCY OF TAXA FOB FIVE VEGETATIOH TYPES IH THE YELLOW WATEB TBIMGLE STUDY AREA AS DETEBMIHED BY MEASUBEMEHTS WITHIH 2x5 DECIMETEB PLOTS,....... 8 II. GBOUHD-COVER CHARACTERISTICS FOB FIVE VEGETATIOH TYPES. DATA ABE FREQUEHCIES OF OCCURBEHCE OF BARE GROUHDj ROCKj LITTER, . AHD LIVIHG VEGETATIOH AMOHG 4,320 P O I N T S . „ o . . 13 III. SAGEBRUSH CHARACTERISTICS AS DETERMINED BY MEASUREMENTS IH IHCHES ALOHG LIHE TRAHSECTS IH EACH OF 43 STANDS'IH THE SAGEBRUSH-GRASSLAND VEGETATION TYPE.......................... 14 RESULTS OF SIX AERIAL CENSUSES MADE OH THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY M E A DURING THE SUMMER OF 1966 AND WINTER, OF I966— ^...0.0,.00..,.a......o. 20 V. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY MONTH OF 9345 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIMGLE STUDY M E A ■ --- ) OH FIVE VEGETATION TYPES IN WINTER,. 1966-67,,................. 122%:'/ VI. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY MONTH OF 8904 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE IN RELATION TO SAGEBRUSH DENSITY IN WINTER, I986—67.. . . a . , 0,0..o'...........o..,.'. 2 3 V VII. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY MONTH OF 2305 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE OH SEVEN VEGETATION TYPES IN SUMMER, 1966, AS DETERMINED BY FIVE AERIAL CENSUSES..... ............. VIII. WINTER FOOD HABITS OF ANTELOPE BY MONTH AS. INDICATED BY 13,758 INSTMCES OF P L M T USE. AT 28 FEEDING SITES' ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA......a...................... \ IX. X. FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE AND VOLUME PERCENTAGES OF P L M T TAXA AND FORAGE CLASSES AMONG 18 ANTELOPE RUMEN SAMPLES COLLECTED OVER A FIVE-MONTH PERIOD IN WINTER, 1966-67.................. SAGEBRUSH CHARACTERISTICS AT 28 ANTELOPE FEEDING SITES AS DETERMINED BY MEASUREMENTS IN INCHES ALONG A 100 FOOT LINE TRMSECT AT EACH SITE 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 > o e o o o « o o o o 29 / 33/ XI. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SAGEBRUSH CHARACTERISTICS AS DETERMINED BY O C U L M ESTIMATION OF 25 P L M T S ALONG A TRANSECT LINE AT EACH OF SEVEN PERMANENT SITES O0 <>OO0 0 OO. 0 6 0 0 0 0 33 Table Page XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. va. LIST OF TABLES (Continued) SUMMARY OF MOVEMENT DATA FOR l6 INDIVIDUALLY MARKED ANTELOPE \ ON TEE TRIANGLE STUDY AREA H WINTER, 1966-67................CjtO) AVERAGE WINTER HOME RANGE SIZE FOR EACH OF FIVE SEX AND AGE GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALLY MARKED ANTELOPE ON LIHE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA IN WINTER, 1966—6 7 ^ * 6 AVERAGE AREA USED BY EACH OF THREE SEX AND AGE GROUPS OF . ^ -- - INDIVIDUALLY MARKED ANTELOPE IN RELATION TO VEGETATION TYPES Z" j IN WINTERtf I966—67...................o....................... b6 / MEASUREMENT OF FETUSES FROM SEVEN FEMALE ANTELOPE COLLECTED ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA DURING THE WINTER OF I966—6 7 .....................0.0*.. 50 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF 8708 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE IN RELATION TO GROUND CONDITION H WINTER, 1966-67./" 51 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF 8573 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL / 5 2 )ANTELOPE IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE IN WINTER, I966-67 .. . . . . . PERCENT CONSTANCY, CANOPY COVERAGE, AND FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF VEGETATION AT 12 ANTELOPE WINTER BEDDING SITES Z AS DETERMINED BY MEASUREMENTS WITHIN 2x5 DECIMETER PLOTS..../ 53 GROUND COVER CHARACTERISTICS AT 12 ANTELOPE WINTER BEDDING SITES. DATA ARE FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE OF BARE GROUND, ROCK, LITTER, AND LIVING VEGETATION AMONG 48O POINTS......... AVERAGE GROUP SIZE OF ANTELOPE BY MONTH IN RELATION TO GROUND CONDITIONS ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA IN WINTER,, 1966—67.................................o....................I 55 AVERAGE GROUP SIZE OF ANTELOPE BY MONTH IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA IN WINTER, 1966—67.......................o......................v 56 SUMMER GROUPING CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTELOPE BY MONTH DETERMINED FROM RESULTS OF FIVE AERIAL CENSUSES IN THE YELLtiW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA, 1966............'...............oI. 5T CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL NECK BANDS AND COLLARS USED ON EACH OF 19 ANTELOPE TRAPPED ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA ON DECEMBER 9, 1966 O O ' 4 0 0 0 0 0 9 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ' O Q O 6 4 0 -O O V 58 LIST OF FIGURES vii Figure 1. The Yellow Water Triangle Study Area Showing Vegetation Types 2. A 2x5 Dme Plot Frame Used During Measurements of Vegetation#» 3» Sagebrush-Grassland Vegetation !typeeeeeeeeeeeeeee,eeeeeeeeeee # Grassland Vegetation TypGeeoeeeoeeeeeeeee6eeeeee*#i 5« Shale Slope Vegetation Type#####.# • o A o o o o o t i o o e O O O O O p O O O b O O O O O O O O O O O O O O ' O O O 6» Greasewood Vegetation Type In The Foreground Along The Creek Bottom--Greasewood-Sagebrush Type in Center of Picture,«0000040 rJo Cropland Vegetation Type#Oeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee^eeeeeeeeeeeee 3 e Abandoned Meadow Vegetation Ty^e eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 9 o Woodland Vegetation Q^ypeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee.eeeeeeeee IOe A Severely Hedged Big Sagebrush Plant#eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Ile Antelope Insrde Trapeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Page 3 6 6 15 15 16 16 18 18 32 35 12, 13. Fawn Female (^008) Being Fitted With Heck Bandeeeeeeeeeeepeee 35 36 Transmitter Attached To Leather Collar (Left) And Receiver (Right)ee,> « * . o * o o o 0 c d o o o 0 o « e o 6 o 0 o 9 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o Ike Yearling Male Antelope (1372) Showing Leather Heck Collar With Transmitter Package On Right And Antenna On Lefteeeeeeee 36 15e Yellow Water Triangle Study Area Showing Antelope Trapping Pattern And Winter Concentration Areas Of Marked Antelope# e e„ 38 l6e Individual Locations Of An Adult Female (1301) By Day And Month In The Yellow Water Area With Ho Home Range Shiftseeeee kO 17e Individual Locations Of An Adult Female (k002) By Day And Month Showing Two Home Range Shifts# The First Home Range Was In The Yellow Water Area; The Second And Third In The Teigen Areaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee#eeeeeeeeeeee kl 18„ Individual Locations Of A Yearling .Khle And A Yearling Female By Day And Month,,^eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee k2 viii io O O O O O O k O O 0 O O LIST' OF FIGURES (Continued) . Figure 19<> Individual Locations Of Faxm Females By Day And Month0 20o Individual Locations Of Faxm Males By Day and Mbnthooool 210 Yellow Water Triangle Study Area Showing Land Oxmershipooovo 22, Individual Locations Gf A Faxm Male And A Faxra Female By Day And MfonthOOOOOOOOOVOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 23, Individual Locations Of Faxm Males By Day And Month , 00000000 24, Individual Locations Of Adult Females By Day And Month,,,,,, , Individual Locations Of Adult Females By Day And Month,,,,,, Page 43 44 49 6© 6x 62 6325 ix ABSTRACT A study of the food habitS5 range use, and home range.of pronghorn antelope with emphasis on the winter period was. conducted in 1966-67 on a 171,712 acre area in north-central Montana, The physiography and vege­ tation of the area was described. The vegetation consisted of eight types: sagebrush-grassland, grassland^ shale slope, greasew'ood, greasewood-sage- brush, cropland, abandoned meadow, and woodland. Quantitative measurements of canopy coverage and densities of taxa were made for five of the eight types. Characteristics of the antelope population were evaluated from results of five aerial censuses in summer. There were 309 females per 100 males and 7^ fawns per 100 females. Distribution of antelope and use of vegetation types was evaluated. The sagebrush-grassland type received most of the use, both in summer and winter. Most of the antelope observations in winter were in vegetation types where sagebrush was common. The average group size for antelope in winter was 23*5, with groups being largest when snow covered the ground. The average group size in summer was 9 ,^0 Winter food habits were determined from the examination of 28 feeding sites and analysis of the contents of■each of 18 rumen samples* The winter diet of antelope, determined.by examination of feeding sites, consisted of 93 percent shrubs, 6 percent forbs, and a minor amount of grass. The diet determined by analysis of rumen contents consisted of 78 percent shrubs, 19 percent forbs, and a small amount of grass. Big sagebrush (Artemisia ■ tridentata) provided the bulk of the antelope food* A statistical analysis was conducted to determine the relationship-between abundance of available plant species and their significance in the diet of antelope. Big sage­ brush was the only plant which was present in significantly higher propor­ tions in the diet than in the plant community. Three dead fawns were found on the study area. The apparent cause of death was malnutrition. Their rumen contents did not vary significantly from those of other antelope collected during the winter. Poor body condition of antelope and fawn mortality was possibly related to quality of sagebrush in the diet* Winter home range size was determined for each of 16 individually marked antelope* Each of three was equipped with a radio transmitter* Marked antelope were located daily when possible, A total of 579 individual observations of marked antelope was recorded from December .10 through Mhreh 23* Eight of the marked antelope "shifted” their home range at least- once in winter. A yearling female had a home range size of 351^ -ok acres and a yearling male, 4160.O acres. Six adult females had an, average home range size of 2841,4. acres; three fawn females, 2417.1 acres; and. five fawn males, 1579*5 acres. Fawn females had the most variable.home range size. Adult females used a larger area on the. sagebrush-grassland vegetation type than on the.grease- wood-sagebrush type* Both fawn males and females showed the opposite. INTRODUCTION Information on the winter food and range use hah its of pronghorn ' antelope (AntiIocapra amerieana) in Montana'is somewhat limited. Cole (1956) reported the results of a comprehensive study of food and range use hahits with special reference to alfalfa, hut data for winter were less comprehensive than for other seasons. Cole and Wilkins (1958) studied food and range use in reference to the effects on production of winter wheat, Martinka (1967) reported on mortality and food habits of pronghorns during a severe winter. Prominent among reports for other states are the publications of Einarsen (1948) and Buechner (1950) who give information for Oregon and Texas, respectively. The principal objectives of the present study, conducted during the summer of 1966 and winter of 1966=67, were to obtain quantitative data on winter food and range us,e habits of pronghorns to help evaluate current management practices. The summer period was largely devoted to studies of the vegetation of the study area. The use of radio tracking equipment greatly aided the study of habitat relationships and behavior. The study gained importance due to a research project within the study area concerned with the effects on wildlife of sagebrush removal. I . DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA The study area, located in central Montana approximately 40 miles east of Levistown, covered about 171,712 acres. It was bounded on the west by UoS, Highway 87, on the north by State Highway 20, on the east by State Highway .244, and on the south by the Flatwillow Creek Road (Fig, l), The principal economy of the area is stock raising, integrated with grain, alfalfa and forage production. Privately owned lands constitute 67,3 per­ cent (115,640 acres) of the area,” publicly owned lands, 32,7 percent (56 ,080 acres). Land ownership is shown on Appendix Fig, .21, Public lands are administered by the Bureau of Land Management,. Charles M, Russell Game Range, and the State of Montana, The characteristic physiographic features of the area are sharply rolling upland plains, shale slopes and bottomlands (Cole, .1956), The latter two occur where erosion has dissected the upland plain, McDonald, Elk, Yellow Water, Spring, and Pike Creeks flow through the area. Many stock water ponds, in addition to the larger Yellow Water Storage Reservoir, are found on the area. The soils have developed over cretaceous shales of the Colorado formation (Andrews et al», 1944), Upland soils range from heavy, clays to shaly clay loams. Shale slopes have soils ranging from fine shale loams to coarse shale gravels. Bottomlands have soils with thin loamy surface horizons, barren spots of salt impregnated soils, and clay soils with dense saline-alkaline subsoils, Gieseker et al, (op, cit,) describes the climate for the area as semiarid, characterized by moderately low rainfall, great extremes B B Q i I O D B Winnett LEGEND Sagebrush-G rassland G rassland Shale Slope G reasewood Greasewood-Sogebrush Cropland Abandoned Meadow Timber Smiles F latw illow Cr. Figure I. The Yellow Water Triangle Study Area Showing Vegetation Types. •nlj. ■ in summer and winter temperatures, many sunny days and relatively low humidityo" The average annual precipitation at Flat Willow (United States Department of Commerce weather station), on the east edge of the study area, is 12,57 inches. The mean average annual temperature is 45»4°F, Temperature extremes during the study period were 105°F,. in July, 1966, and -130Fi in March, 1967, Major influent wild mammals of the area, in addition to antelope, included white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), VEGETATION The vegetation of the study area Is inelud.ed. in the Temperate Grassland Biome (Odum5 1959) and the Mixed Grass Prairie Association (Costing, 19^8)„ Although studies of the vegetation of this area are few, Mackie (1965) described the vegetation of the Missouri Biver Breaks, and Cole (1956) described vegetation types in the same general area as that of the present study,. The present analysis, with slight modification follows Cole’s vegetation description of the area, but makes use of quantitative measurements for five of the eight vegetation types recognized Nomenclature is that of Booth (1950) and Booth and Wright (1959)» The method of vegetation analysis was a modification of the method of Daubenmire (1959), whereby 2x5 dm plots were systematically placed within a relatively homogenous and undisturbed portion of each vegetation stand (Fig0 2). The percent canopy-cover of each taxon, and percentages of bare ground, rock, and lichens, were recorded for each plot* Classes were; Class I s 0-5$; Class 2 $3 5-25$; Class 3 ® 25-50$; Class h « 50-75$; Class 5 75-95$; and Class 6 a 95-100$0 The midpoint of each class was the value used in data tabulations* Taxa occurring within each vegetation stand but not in any of the plots were also recorded* Twenty 2x5 dm plots within each of thirty-nine 20x50 ft* sample units on the various vegetation types were evaluated in summer* Thirty sample units with each located at an antelope feeding site and consisting of ten 2x5 dm plots along a 100 ft* line were evaluated in winter* ■ Although a pronounced difference occurred in composition and coverage of forbs between summer and winter, composition of shrubs and grasses between the seasons -6- Figure 3* Sagebrush-Grassland Vegetation Type -T= remained comparable« Combined data for both seasons are given in Table 1» Ground cover was further evaluated by recording the point intercept of each of the four sharply pointed legs of the plot frame on bare ground, rock, litter, or living vegetation (Table Tl), To measure sagebrush density on the sagebrush-grassland type, I measured the canopy intercept of all sagebrush plants encountered along transect lines. Each of the twenty-seven 200 foot transects measured in summer was composed of four 50 foot lines equidistant across the greatest length of a 20x50 foot sample unit. Several sagebrush plants were measured in each one-third of the sample unit to obtain the average maximum height and average height for the stand. In winter, the canopy coverage and height of all sagebrush plants occurring along each of sixteen 100 foot transects were measured. Table III is a summary of these measurements. Occurrence and distribution of vegetation types are shown on Fig. I. Sagebrush-Grassland Vegetation Types This type (Fig. 3) occupied the major portion of the study area, 51.3/o or 85 ,696 acres. Various degrees of. association and dominance occurred between big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), grasses, and forbs, These appeared to characterize differences in topography, soils, and/or intensity of livestock grazing. Various sagebrush measurements for this type are given in Table III. ' . Western wheatgrass (Agropyron smith!!), bluebumch wheatgrass (Agropyron spieatum), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), and desert saltgrass (Bistiehlis stricta) were the dominant native grasses. Domlmamt forbs included fringed TABLE Ie CONSTANCY, CANOPY COVERAGE, AND FREQUENCY OF TAXA FOR FIVE VEGETATION TYPES IN THE _ „ YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE. STUDY AREA AS DETERMINED BY MEASUREMENTS WITHIN 2X5 DECIMETER PLOTS* Vegetation Type Taxa SHRUBS Artezruisia cana Artemisis tridentata Atriplex mrbtalXii Cbrys d tllamnus nausepsus Eurotia lanata Gutierrezia sarotbrae Potentilla frutieosa Rosa arkansaaa Sarsobatus verzaieulatus Sagebrush- ' ■ Grassland k-3 Stands 2160 Plots-Summer 64O Plots-Winter Cy/Cv/Fr l/ 2/ +/10 98/14/49 2 / + / 5 2/ 2/10 44/ 2 /21 2 / + / 5 „ 2/ 7 / +/7 .oeeidentalis FORBS Achillea millefolium Allium textile Androsaee septentrionalls 33/ +/15 Antehharia • limorpha Grassland Shale Slope Greasewood 5 Stands. T Stands 2 Stands 320 Plots-Summer 240 Plots-Suramer 160 Plots- 60 40 Plots-Wlnter l60 Plots-Wlnter Summer 90 Cy/Cv/Wj Gy/Cv/Fr Cy/Cv/Fr 40/ 1/15. 20/ +/ 5 80 /.1 /49 71/20/57 14/ 4/10 . 100/ 7 /29 86 / 3/23 ■ 71/1/24 29 / +/10 14/ 2 /6 0 Greasewood- Sagebrush 12 Stands Elots-Suramer Plots-Winter Cy/o/Fr 8/34/90 100/ l /5 92/6/ 28 50/ 2 /20 50/ 4-/5 25/ 2/20 8/ +/10 100/ 2/13 75/ 4/18 X 8/ 4-/10 50/ 2 /80 25/ 1/45 8/ +/20 TABLE I. (Continued) Vegetation Type Taxa Sagebrush- Grassland 43 Stands 2166 Plots-Summer 640 Plots-Winter. Antehnafia rosea Arehafia hooker! ArtemisTa ffigida- Artemisia Artemisia ludoyieiam Aster cane'seens is biSulcdtus Astragalus gilviflorus missouriensis Gameiina Ghrysopsis yillosa Girsium flodmani Coliomia linearjs. Braha v e r m E H i s i a Hyetelea 'Oehrejeucus Cy/Cv/Fr 2/4/60 53/ 2/36 81/ 5/4? 2/ +/10 2/ + / 5 5/ +/25 2/ +/5 7/ +/ 8 9/ V l 3 2/ 1 /1 0 2/ +/ 5 % * \ \ 19/ +/l4 12/ +/ 9 2/ +/ 5 37 / +/16 Grassland Shale Slope Greasewood 5 Stands 7 Stands 2 Stands 320 Plots-Summer 240 Plots-Summer 160 Plots- -4;0 Plots-Winter l60 Plots-Winter Summer Cy/Cv/Fr Greasewood- Sagehrush 12 Stands 60 Plots-Summer 90 Plots-Winter Cy/Ov/Fr Qy/Cv/Fr ' Cy/Cy/Fr 20/ V 5 80/14/83 60/ +/ 7 X 40/ + /10 29/ +/20 14/ + /30 43/ 5/37 14/ +/10 14/ +/ 5 14/ +/ 5 14/ +/ 5 29/ +/13 100/ 3/45 50/ +/15 50/ +/20 8/+/ 5 50/ 2 /27 33/ 5/31 8/ +/15 8/ +/10 8 / + / 5 25/ +/17 25/ + / 7 TABLE I. (Continued) Vegetation Types Taxa Eriogonum flavum Gaura coecinea Geum triflorum Grindelia squarrosae Haplopappus - RU-ttallli Hymenoxys - acaulus Lactuca spp=, Lepidium „ denslflorum Melilotus. officinalis Cpuntla pdlyeantba Qxytropis Serinea Penstemon Ultidus PetaiOstemum purpareum Phlox hoodii Plantago pursMi Plantago spinulosa Psdraiea Srgophylla Psdralea tenuiflora EatlbidS ■ eolumnifera Sagebrush- Grassland 43 Stands 2166 Plots-Smnmer 640 Plots=Winter Cy/Cv/Fr ,5/..+/15 23/ V i o 2/ V 5 5 / + / 5 Grassland Shale Slope 5 Stands 7 Stands 320 Plots-Summer 240 Plots-Summer 4 0 -Plots-Winter1 l6o"Plots-Winter Greasewood- Greasewood Sagebrush 2 Stands 12 Stands l6o Plots- 60 Plots-Summer Summer 90 Plots-Winter 40/ +/20 Cy/Cv/Fr 14/ t/lO Cy/Cv/Fr 50/ +/ 5 Cy/Cv/Fr 8/ +/35 8/ V 5 5 / +/33 50/ +/ 5 19 / + / 7 17/ +/ 18 2 / +/30 65 / 1/17 2 / +/10 40/ +/13 20/ +/ 5 43/ +/10 l V +/ 5 14/ +/15 50/ +/10 50/ 2/15 8/ +/ 5 25/ 5/38 16/ +/17 26 / +/31 4o/ +/32 20/ + /10 20/ + /20 20/ + /30 60/ +/2© 29/ l/l8 14/ 2/65 50/ +/15 5©/ 2 /70 8 / + / 5 25/ +/33 7/ 1 /28 14/ +/ 5 19/ 1 /13 X 20/ 4/45 43 / 3/33 17/ 1/15 H O B TABLE I, (Continued) Sagebrush'- Grassland 43 Stands 2160 Plots=Summer Taxa 640 Plots =Wlnter- Cy/Cv/Fr ___________________ 40/12/39 Sisymbrium loeselii +/ + eocoinea 53/ + /23 Taraxacum ,officinale 2/ +/35 Thelasperma ,marginatum 2/ + /5 Thermopsis .rhombifOlia Tragopogbn dubius 9/ +/15 Yicia amerieama 5/ + /32 GRASSES AM) GRASS­ LIKE PLAITS ' cristatum Agrdpyron dasystaehyum Agropyron smithii Agrdpyrdn spicatum Bouteioua . gradilis' Bromus japonieus Bromus tectorum Oalomovilfa Carex brevier 9/25/61 49 / 6/55 84/l8/6l 51/12 /61 79/11/46 2/ +/15 21/ 3/21 65 / +/28 Grease-wood- Grassland Shale Slope Greasewood Sagebrush 5 Stands 7 Stands 2 Stands 12 Stands 320 Plots=Summer 240 Plots-Summer 160 Plots- 60 Plots=Summer 4 0 -Plots=Winter l6ChPlots-Winter Summer 90 Plots=Winter Cy/Cv/FrQr/Cv/Fr 40/ 7/40,.. 60/ +/30 % X ' 80/ +/25 cy/Cv/Fr 14/ 4 /1 0 14/ +/15 14/ +/15 43/ 4/60 14/ +/35 Cy/Cv/Pr 100/16/65 33/ 4 /16 25/ +/15 17/ +/20 50/ +/ 5 25/ 1 /27 60/ 5/38 29/ 2/15 50/ 3/55 42/10 /77 40/ 3/48. 43/19/87 100/ 2 /38 58/20/81 60/ 7 /50 71/21 /76 100/ 7/63 42/ 9 /56 60/18 /78 29/ 4/30 100/ 9/40 33/14/40 8/ 3/30 20/ 1/45 14/ 4/75 50/ 3/35 17/ 1/45 60/ +/23 14/ +/20 33/ 1/30 it ®1 TABLE I8 (Continued) Vegetation Type Taxa SageBrush- Grassland 43 Stands 2160 Plots=Summer 640 Plots=Winter Qr/Cv/Fr Greasewood= Grassland Shale Slope Greasewood Sagebrush 5 Stands . 7 Stands 2 Stands 12 Stands 320 Plots-Summer 240 Plots=Summer l60 Plots- 60 Plots-Summer 40 Plots-Winter 160 Plots-Winter Summer 90 Plots=Winter Qy/Cv/Fr Cy/Cy/Fr Cy/Cv/Fr Panthonia unispicata Distiehlis strieta Festuea oetoflora Hordeum jubatum Koeleria eristata Poa eahbyi Poa compressa Poa pratensls' Poa seeunda Sehedonnardus paniculatus Stipa eomata Stipa viridula EOCK LIGHMS BABE G B O M D 26 / + /lO 2/14 /70 35/ +/18 88 / 4 /51 1 6 / 2/24 t ^ 93 / 2/52 4 9 / 2 /26 53 / 7 # 23 / 4/29 16 / +/25 84 / 3/70 lOO/71/lOO 80/ 3/39 20 / 1 /30 60 / 3A7 4 o / +/28 100/13/69 4 0 / 5/48 20/+/ 5 80 / 1/45 100/69/100 14 / +/15 29 / l /3 0 14/14/100 2 9 / +/18 57 / 2/28 1 4 / 1 /30 14 / +/10 14 / 1 /20 7 1 / 4/80 100/76/100 50 / 1/15 100/39/83 100/ -5-/15 X 50/ t /5 100/ 5/38 50 / 5/35 100 / i /4 o 100/ 2/60 17/10/53 8/ -5-/10 42 / 3/30 33 / 4 /23 25 / 3/43 8/ 1/25 6 7 /5 /4 9 5 0 / +/19 8/ 3/25 75 / 1/45 50/80/ioc l/ Constancy (present occurrence among stands)/ Canopy. Coverage (percent of area covered by foliage)/. Average Frequency (percent occurrence among plots)» -5- indicates . canopy- coverage or frequency values less than one percent8 2/ X indicates taxon did not average one percent coverage or frequency8 s S Is -IS= TABLE 11« GBOUITO-COVER CHARACTERISTICS FOR FIVE VEGETATION TIPES« DATA ARE FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE OF BARE' GROUND, ROCK, LITTER, AND LIVING VEGETATION AMONG 4,320 POINTS, ' Vegetation Type Number of Points Bare Ground Rock Litter Living Vegetation Pet, Pet, Pet, Pet. Sagebrush-Grassland 2800 39.5 0,5 28.9 31.1 Grassland ’ 36O 35.6 0,3 33.1 31,1 Shale Slope 400 51.8 ■ 1,3 22.8 24.3 Greasewood 160 26.3 0 35.6 38.1 Greasewood-Sagebrush . 600 57.8 1.5 22.3 18 .3 sagewrb and Selaginella (Selaginella densa)o This type (Fig, 4) occupied 16,6$ or 27,700 acres of the study area. For the entire type, needle-and-thread (Stipa comata) and blue grama were the most important grasses, but various degrees of association and dominance occurred among the grasses. Important forbs included fringed sagewort and Selaginella, A small portion of the study area, 1,6$ or 2,675 acres, was occupied by this type (Fig, 5)« It was confined to slopes below shale ridges, ; Longleaf sagebrush (Artemisia longifolia), big sagebrush, rubber rabbit- brush (Chrysothamnus‘nauseosus), broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae), Arkansas rose (Rosa arkansana), western wheatgrass, prairie sand, reedgrass (Calomoyilfa longifolia), eanby bluegrass (Poa■canbyi), saltbush (Atriplex =Ili- = TABLE III, SAGEBBUSH. CHARACTERISTICS AS DETERMINED BY MEASUREMENTS IH INCHES ALONG LINE TRANSECTS IN EACH.OF %3 STANDS IN THE SAGEBRUSE=GRASSLAND VEGETATION TYPE, l/ 2/ Density I Rare 2 Scattered 3 Common 4 Dense Average No* Transects (Stands) 5 9 . 15 14 = FO D No* of Plants/Transects 5.6 16*1 32*4 . 54*9 •27.3 FO D Max* Plant Ht* 14*7 19.2 19 .0 19*4 18 .1 FO D Plant Ht* 10*3 11*6 11*8 10*5 11*1 FO D Canopy Intercept/Plant 10 .2 10*7 11.4 8*5 .. 10*2 l/ Each of the 27 transects for summer w a s .200 feet* Iheh of the l6 transects for winter was IlrOO feet, hut the data are expanded to repre= sent 200 foot transects* 2/ Densities were assigned to the sagebrush in each stand on the basis of the number of plants intereeepted/200 feet of line as follows: 0 = 8 Plants s I Rare 9 = 20 " s 2 Scattered" 21 - Ii-O " e 3 Common kl + ”- s 4 Dense nuttallii)S slimflower scurfpea (Psoralea tenuiflora), Selaginella, and prairie thermopsis (Thermopsis rhombifolla) were characteristic* _ se ; This type (Fig0 6) was confined to stream bottoms* It occupied 2*8$ or 4 ,672 acres of the study area* Greasewood (Sarcobatus Termiculatus) was dominant, but big sagebrush was also present* Desert saltgrass was the most common of grasses* Common forbs included fringed sagewort and Selaginella =15 - Figure 5« Shale Slope Vegetation Type -16- Figure 6o Greasewood Vegetation Type In Foreground Along Creek Bottom— Greasewood-Sagebrush Type In Center Of Picture. Figure 7» Cropland Vegetation Type -17* This type (Fig» 6 ), occupying 14«2$ qr 23,776 acres, was the second, most extensive type. It was confined to bottomland flats and adjacent gentle slopes between the sagebrush"grassland and greasewood vegetation typeo Greasewood, big sagebrush, and in places, silver sagebrush ' (Artemisia cana), were dominant shrubs* Dominant grasses included thick= spike wheatgrass (Agropyron. dasy stachyum), western wheat grass, blue grama, and desert saltgrass* Among forbs, hoary aster (Aster oanescens), plains priekley pear (Opuntia pblycantha), and Selaginella were important* Vegetation types of little importance to antelope, but occurring on the study area, were the Cropland type (Fig* 7), covering 4*2^ or 7,0^0 acres; the, Abandoned Meadow type (Fig* 8 ), occupying 0*7^ or 1,107 acres; and the. Woodland type (Fig* 9)» which covered 8 *6% or 14,355 acres* The cropland type included alfalfa, native hay, and wheat fields. The abandoned meadow type was abandoned agricultural land which had been reseeded, either naturally with native vegetation or artificially with crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), The woodland type of ponderosa '• pine (Pinus ponderosa) was restricted to the more mesie western portion of the study area where its distribution was broken and scattered. -18- HA BI . . - v Lr . .*> 2—\4 Figure 8. Abandoned Meadow Vegetation T^rpe0 Figure 9. Woodland Vegetation Type PROItGHOBH POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS' Six aerial censuses were conducted (Table IV)* Each flight across the .study area during a census period permitted the coverage of‘"a' one^znile strip. Starting at the northwest comer, antelope were classified in each north-south strip until the entire area had been covered. All flights started shortly after sunrise, and were undertaken only on calm and clear days. During the first four censuses, 1925 antelope were classified. Data from the September apd February flights were not reliable for sex and age class composition* Does and fawns were difficult to distinguish from the air after August. There were 309 females per 100 males, and 74 fawns per 100 females. The fawn-female figure includes yearling females» Some workers, including Einarsen (1948), have reported that antelope females do not breed until their second year. Others have reported breeding of fawns (Buechner, 1950 and Wright et.al., 1962)» In 1962 an aerial census of the study area conducted by personnel of the Montana Department of Fish and Game disclosed 1171 antelope with a fawn/female ratio of 90/l00, In 1963, during a similar census, 502, antelope were counted with a fawn/female ratio of 90/100« During the winter, seven female antelope were collected. They were aged according to changes in mandibular dentition (Wright, 1962), No yearlings were collected. Except forAoae with a single fetus, all females were carrying twins (Appendix, Table XV). =■20“ TABLE IVo RESULTS OF SIX AERIAL CENSUSES MADE ON THE IELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA DURING THE SUMMER OF 1966 AND WINTER OF 1966-67, No, Obser- Adults uiassxx xea 99/ IOGfcfcf Fawns/ 10099Dates. Aircraft vers l/ $$ cfcf $9 or cfcf Fawns Total 6/21, 28/66 Super Cub 2 20? 5b 32 135 428 383 65 7/11/66 Cessna 180 3 246 89 13 181 929 276 74 8 /3 ,V 66 Super • Cub 2 227-78 9 210 $24, 291 93 8/12 /66 Cessna 180 3 209 67 37 131 444 312 63 9/9 /66 Super Cub 2 ** . - <=» 380 = 2/9 /67 Cessna 180 3 44l l/ The figure for number of observers always includes the pilot. A M iELOPE DISTRIBUTION AND USE OF VEGETATION TYPES Winter (December^ January a February* March); The relation between the occurrence of antelope and vegetation types was evaluated by recording the type where the animal was first observed for each of 93^5 observations (Table V)0 A total of 8904 observations of indi­ vidual antelope was recorded with the aid of a 15-60x spotting scope and 7x35 BTg, binoculars during 75 observation; ■ days from Deeeniber 9 through March 23 while traversing the area in a vehicle over essentially the same routes* Observability of antelope was poor when snow covered the ground, and especially so when it persisted in scattered patches and the sky was cloudy* During an aerial census on February 9» 44l individual antelope observations were tallied® The sagebrush-grassland vegetation type received most of the antelope use regardless of month (Table V) or weather conditions (AppendixTables XVI. and XVIl)* During each month, 62 percent or more of the observations were in this type, and for the entire winter,.71 percent* The sagebrush- grassland and greasewood-sagebrush types combined provided 8(5 percent or more of the observations in each month and 89 percent for winter*.■ The grassland, greasewood, and cropland types received minor use, and no use was recorded for the shale slope, timber, or abandoned meadow types* There was some evidence from individually marked antelope of movement from grass­ land to sagebrush types during periods when snow covered the ground* The density of sagebrush at each observation site recorded from the ground was determined (Table Vl)* Density values were assigned on an ocular estimate basis resulting from experience gained while cover mapping TABLE V. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY MONTH OF 93^5 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE ON YELLOW WATER,TRIANGLE ,STUDY AREA. ON FIVE VEGETATION _TYPES IN WINTER, . !966-67. No., Observ. Sagebrush= GreasewoocL- Total Month grassland Grassland Greasewood sagebrush Cropland Singles Groups Antelo] December 67(20.6)3/ M l S o iO 10(46.3) 13(38.0) 6 (51.0 ) 5 76 1810 January 86(30.1 ) 4(50.5) 5(49 .7) 3(45 .0 ) 2(49.0) 7 84 2682 February^ 62(18.6 ) 6 (11.8 ) - 31(27.0) . 9 161 3204 March 70(21.7) 7 ( l M 8 ) 23(27.2) 0 I 75 1649 Average 71(22.8) 5(23 .1) 4(48 .0 ) 18(34.3) 2 (50.0 ) Total 22 396 9345 l/ Percentage of total antelope observed for the month. Average group size in parenthesis excluding singles. 2/ Data from an aerial census on February 9 are combined with data from ground observations. - =*23“ TABLE VI0 . PERCENTAGE .DISTRIBUTION BI MONTH OF 8$04 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE IN RELATION TO SAGEBRUSH DENSITY IN ' WINTER, 1966=67, . . I 2 Month Rare Scattered December 9 i/ 29 January 7 28 Fehruary 7 38 March 7 17 . Average 7 ,5 28,0 Total rush Dens 3 Common 4 Dense Total No, Observations 50 12 1810' 53 12 2682 45 10 2763 48 28 1649 49,0 15,5 890,4 l/ Percentages are based on 100 percent for each month, (Table III), Most of the antelope observations, were in vegetation types where sagebrush density was.estimated as "common"5 i»e,, 21 to 40 plants intercepted per 200 feet of line transect. Vegetation characteristics at antelope bedding sites in winter are given in Appendix Tables XVIII• and XIXi» Three hundred and ninety-six groups each consisting of two or more and together comprising 9323 antelope, were observed from December 10 through Iferch 22 (Table V), The average group size was 23,5, The three groups observed in December and January on the cropland vegetation type were largest, followed by those on the greasewood and greasewood-sagebrush types, respectively, Dirschl (1963) believed that the extent and quality of the winter range was the factor determining group size for antelope. Group size increased steadily from approximately 20 when, the ground ■ was dry to about 31 when snow covered the ground (Appendix Table XX). No correlation between group sizes of antelope, and temperatures was established^, except groups were slightly larger with warmer temperatures (Appendix Table XX]). .Summer (June* July* August* September); Use of vegetation types in summer was evaluated from 2305 observations of antelope during five aerial censuses (Table VIl). The sagebrush-grass- land type received more use than did any other type during June* July* August * and for the entire summer* but intensities of use during this period were significantly less than for the winter months (Table V). Use of this type steadily decreased through the summer. In September* the grassland and cropland types each received greater use than.sagebrush- grassland. Gple (1956) found that sagebrush-grassland was used more than other vegetation types by antelope prior t© midsummer* but after this time* use of this type decreased and use of greasewood and shale slope types in­ creased. He also indicated that use of alfalfa fields sharply 'increased after mid-August* reaching a maximum in late September. A total of 2249 antelope in 238 groups averaging 9.4. was observed during the five aerial censuses in summer. Groups were largest.on the crop­ land vegetation type* but only eight percent of the total groups were seen - *. « .Mr — ""A— ^— — — < » -V-AI H —. “r - , here (Table VII). Most of the groups observed were in sagebrush-grassland* where the average group size was 8.2. Female-fawn groups* bachelor herds * TABLE VII. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY MONTH OF 2305 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE ON SEVEN VEGETATION TYPES IN ..SUMMERi, I9S6 , AS DETERMINED BY FIVE AERIAL CENSUSES. -25- Vegetation Type June Month I/ July ' August-/ September Average Total Sagebrush- grassland 53(7,0)2/ 50(7.2) 44(10.8) 16(7.9) 41(8.2) - Grassland 24(7.7) 24(11.5) 31(11.4) 45(12.8) 31(10.9) Shale slope 2 (8 .0 ) « cn - • - tr(8 .0 ) Greasewood 5(6.7) • 2 (6 .0 ) 1 (10.0 ) 1 (2 .0 ) 2 (6 .2 ) Greasewood- sagebrush 9(4.5 ) 6 (5 .0 ) 16(12.6 ) 17(7.9) 12(7.5) Cropland 6(5.5) 17(18.0 ) 8 (11.1 ) 22(20.8 ) 13(1*3.9) Abandoned meadow 2(9.0) an tr(9 .0 ) KU *1 ? ' _ m Tot. No. singles 24 11 H 10 56 Tot. No. groups 60 60 85 33 238 Tot. No. Antelope I 529 968 380 2305 l/ Data for this month are the result of two aerial censuses, one on August 3 and the other on August 9» 2/ Percentage of total antelope observed fortlbhe month. Average group .size in parenthesis excluding singles. - and territorial males, as described' by Cole (195$) were observed. Data are summarized in Appendix Table XXII. WIZCER HOME RMSE Hineteeaa antelopeincluding seven adult females, © m yearling female, four fawn females, one yearling male, and six fawn males, were trapped on December 9,. 1966„ They were driven with the aid of a helicopter a maximum ■ ' 4 distance of seven miles into a 4GxlOO foot oval shaped trap (Fig0 11) with one-quarter mile wings (McLueas, 1956)» They were individually marked and released the following day* A neckband constructed of plastic impregnated nylon (61Saflag") backed with nylon webbing, similar to bands used by K M g h t (1966) for elk, was stapled around the neck of each of l6 antelope (Fig* 12)» Generally, two ■ fingers of space was allowed between the neck band and an animal1s neck. One .fawn was never seen again and another was. seen for only three days after release* Possibly the neck bands were lost by slipping over the fawns ’ heads0 Various symbols and color combinations for individual bands facili­ tated recognition. Depending on light conditions, individual bands were identifiable at distances of one-half to three-quarters of a.mile,' with some patterns being more easily recognizable than others (Appendix Table XXII3)» Each of three antelope was equipped with a two-stage cry sta l controlled transmitter mounted on a one-eighth inch th ick leather collar (Fig, 1 3) rivetted around the animal’s neck (Fig, 14), Transmitters operated in the 151 Me, range. Two omitted steady signals, and the third, a.pulsating signal. The transmitters with steady signals were more easily heard than w a s ■the one with a pulsating signal when high winds caused noise la the earphones of the receiver. Theoretical transmitter life was estimated at l80 days, but collection of the "radioed antelope" at.the end of the study TABLE VIII0 WINTER FGOB HABITS OF ANTELOPE BY MONTH AS INDICATED BY 13,758 INSTANCES OF PLANT USE AT 28 FEEDING- SITES ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA. January February 9 Feeding sites 12 Feeding Sites 56 of Veg0. avail­ able March 7 Feeding Sites $ of Veg0 avail­ able No. 50- No. $ of Veg. No. 50- In- 2x5 dm. In- avail- In- 2x5 dm. stan- Plots stan- able stan- i Plots ces 4 -1001 ces 56 ' 120- ces 2-100* Taxa of of Tran- t of of 2x5 , Feeding site examinations ^ conducted immediately after the feeding site had been vacated by feeding antelope, supplemented rumen content analyses in determining food preferences0 Each "bite11 from a plant was recorded as one instance of use on a feeding site, as de­ scribed by Khowlton (i960). The percent of the diet.constituted by each plant used was computed for each rumen and feeding site. These percent­ ages were totaled and averaged using the aggregate percent method (Martin et ala, 19^6). Results are shown in Tables VIII and IX, Ten 2x5 decimeter plots placed along a 100 foot line were examined at each feeding site not covered with snow to determine the percent canopy coverage of each plant species, • On feeding sites with snow cover, the canopy coverage of shrubs was recorded along a 100 foot line transect. During periods when snow covered the ground, antelope were observed to eat plants which extended above the snow. The difference between the percent of diet and percent canopy cover­ age ■for each species used was determined at each feeding site. The average Of the differences between, the percent of the diet and the percent canopy coverage for each plant species was tested statistically where sample sizes permitted with a two-tailed t-test at the five percent level of significance (Li, 1965). The hypothesis tested was: there is no. sig­ nificant difference between the percent of the diet constituted by an •35 Figure 12« Fawn Female (4008) Being Fitted With Neck Band, -36- Figure 13. Transmitter Attached To Leather Collar (Left) And Receiver (Right). Figure l4„ Yearling Male Antelope (1372) Showing Leather Neck Collar With Transmitter Package On Right And Antenna On Left. -37- preveated their continued operation until battery depletion* Beceivers were the double conversion crystal-=-e©ntr@lled superhetero­ dyne type, with, sensitivity better than one-tenth microvolt. (Fig* l g ) , Radio equipment was supplied by Bferfcusea HLeetronic Specialties/ 92 West Haraey Road, Esko, Minnesota» Banded and "radioed" antelope, were located daily when possible* A high point near the center of the study area was selected as a .listening • post. All three transmitter signals could be heard from .this location early in the study period* Signals were heard, from as far away as seven miles from this point under optimum conditions* Depressions or ridges hindered reception* A total of 579 locations ©f- individually marked ' antelope was recorded with the aid of the receiver and ocular aids (15= 60x spotting scope and 7X35 mm* b inocu lars), from December 9 through March 23* When released, a l l . 18' successfully marked antelope - returned to the same (general area ■ from which they were originally driven* Eight, including ©he with a radio, remained in th is area (Yellow Water Area) through the winter study period; f iv e , including one'with a radio, moved approximately seven miles north to the Teigen Area a fter remaining in the Yellow Water Area for only three days; one "radioed yearling male" moved three miles south' to the Pike Creek Area a fter spending three days in the Yellow Water Area; and two banded antelope sh ifted th e ir home range to the Teigen Area after spending approximately one month in the Yellow Water ^rea (Fig, 15)* Data for two antelope- were too incomplete for further conclusions* -38- > --------* - M ovement o f d riven an te lope to trap. -------► A ntelope d ispersal from trap . A I i 3 I miles Figure 15. Yellow Water Triangle Study Area Showing Antelope Trapping Pattern and. Winter Concentration Areas of Marked. Antelope. =39= Locations of individual antelope were recorded in one-tenth of a mile intervals by day and month on a one-half inch scale map# Locations of representatives of each of the various sex and age groups are shown on Figures l6 through 20# Sie locations for the remaining animals are shown on Appendix Figures 22 through 25» To estimate home range size, a.line was drawn around the outside points of observation for each individual antelope# Sie area enclosed was calculated with the aid of a Polar Planimeter (Table XII)# One antelope (StOl3) was deleted from home range calculations because only five observations were recorded# Eight of the 1 6 .for which home ranges were calculated each “shifted” their home rangej seven once and one twice# A home range '-shift” was defined as a movement from one area of activity to another with no subsequent return# Sie yearling female had the largest home range of all sex and.age groups, followed by the yearling male, adult females, fawn females, and fawn males, respectively (Table XIII)# , For those groups where more than one animal was available, home range sizes were tested with a standard analysis of variance, one-way classification, at the 5 percent level of significance# The hypothesis tested w a s s there was no significant diff­ erence between • the mean home range size of adult females, fawn females, and fawn males# Whether the assumptions were satisfied in this test was questionable, but the resulting F-value of 1*4898 with 2 and 11 degrees of freedom led to acceptance of the hypothesis# A -t-test applied to the three group means also led to acceptance of the hypothesis that no significant difference existed (11 degrees' of freedom at the 5 percent level of —^O- + geometric center of home range — joins successive observations on home range Figure 16. Individual Locations Of An Adult Female (1301) By Day And Month In The Yellow Water Area With No Home Range Shifts. •41- ~A------ O lmile + geometric center of home range — joins successive observations on first home range . — joins successive observations on second home range . ---- joins successive observations on third home range .... indicates shift between home ranges Figure 17. Individual Locations Of An Adult Female (4002) By Day And Month Showing Two Home Range Shifts. The First Home Range Was In The Yellow Water Area; The Second And Third In the Teigen Area. A. Yearling F e m l e (4003) In Yellow Water Area With No Home Range Shift. -42= B. Yearling Male (1372) In Pike Creek Area Showing One Home Range Shift. • • e .'t (symbols Sdiiie a s Iig I/) Figure 18. Individual Locations Of A Yearling Male And A Yearling Female By Day And Month. A. Fawn Female (4010) In Yellow Water Area Showing No Home Range Shift. (symbols same as Fig. 17) B. Fawn Female (4008) In Telgen Area Showing One Home Range Shift. Figure 19. Individual Locations Of Fawn Females By Day And Month A 0 Fawn Male (4015) In Yellow Water Area With No Shift In Home Range. -44- B 0 Fawn Male (4007) In Telgen Area Showing One Home Range Shift. (symbols same as Fig. 17) Figure 20 Individual Locations Of Fawn Males By Day And Month TABLE XII. SUMMARY OF MOVEMENT DATA FOR l6 INDIVIDUALLY MARKED ANTELOPE ON THE TRIANGLE STUDY AIffiA IN WINTER, 1966-67. Dates of No. of Shift (miles) Between Antelope Adult ? (4002) Observation Qbserv0 Home Ranges Distance (miles) Maximum First From, Center Between to Last 'of Range 2/ Adult 9 (4004) Adult f (4005) Adult 9 (4014) Adult 9 (1301) Adult f (1374) 12/12-1/12 i/1 7 -2 /13 2/23-3/22 12/ 12- 3/18 12/ 12- 3/18 12/11-3/22 12/11-3/23 12/14:2/13 2/ 23- 3/22 Yearling $ (4003) 12/ I I - 3/18 F a w n ? (4008) 1/31=2 /8 2/25-3/22 Fawn 9 (4009) 1 2 / l 2 - l / l l I / 17-1/20 Fawn $ (4010) • 12/11-3/22 Yearling ef (1372) 1 2 /l7 - l /2 1 1/22-3/23 Fawn cf (4006) Fawn cf ('4007) Fawn cf (4011) Fawn cf (4012) Fawn cf (4015) 12/ 18-3/18 1/ 17- 2 /8 2/ 25- 3/22 1/ 31- 2 /8 2/25-3/22 1/ 31- 2 /8 2/ 25- 3/22 12/11-3/22 11 10 14 39 39 39 58 35 14 41 5 13 14 4 38 22 19 37 7 13 5 13 5 12 42 4.97 1.47 1.56 1,90 4.82 3=64 I .90 1 .89 1.99 4.08 2 .6 2 2.05 3.17 3 .9 6 3U96 3.16 4-^7 2.12 5.02 1.40 2.11 4.27 1 .6 0 4.80 6 .8 2 4.37 3.18 1 .90 2.10 1.40 2 .1 0 1 ..4o 1 .70 1.17 2 ,66 0.88 0.23 1 .76 1.76 1.91 1.35 2.54 0.20 2.20 1.13 1.00 0.45 1.15 1.9@ 1.85 1.64 2.64 1.00 1.00 1 .13 1.00 1 .13 1.00 1 .90 1.4l 0.83 0 .65 1 .0 0 1 .08 1 .09 0.98 1 .29 0 .60 1 .1 6 0.59 1 0.63 11 .2 2 ' G & 5 8 1 .1 2 1 .98 0 .97 : 1.04 = 0.68 0 .62 0 .56 0 .63 0 .56 0.55 1.01 =T" 2.42 1.36 1 .28 1.75 2.78 2 .70 1.74 2 .85 1.35 4.10 0.80 1.32 2 .85 0.52 3.32 3.64 3.13 2 .36 0.98 1.31 0.80 1.33 0.80 1 .00 1.75 ,Estimated Home Range acres I 1510.4 1369.6 870.4 2924.8 3776.0 3840.0 2835.2, 3929.6 915.2 5574.4 409 .6 915.2 1644.8 134.4 4691 .2 5209.6 3H0.4 2560.0 1011.2 .960.0 428.. 8 960 .0 428.8 723.2 2668.8 l/ Center to-center distance. 2/ Central point of the area within which the animal was observed,. calculated geometrically (Hayne, 1949)= TABLE XIIIo AVERAGE WIHTER HOME RAHGE SIZE FOR EACH OF FIVE SEX AHD AGE GROUPS OF IHDIVIDUALLY MARKED' AHTELOPE OH THE YELLOW WATER TRIAHGLE STUDY AREA IH W H T E R jl 1966-67«, Age and Sex Group Ho, of Antelope Av, Home Range Size (acres) .l/ Range Adult $ 6 2841,4 1250.1-3840,0 Yearling 9 I 5574,4 Fawn $ 3 2417,1 91502-4691.2 Yearling Cf I 4l6o„© Fawn cf 5 1579.5 723 . 2 -2668.8 Xj Eight antelope had home range "shifts"» The average of the home ranges for each of these antelope was used in calculating average home range Size5 except for four where the number of observations for one of the home ranges was less than s ix . For these four the home range'resulting from six or more observations was used. TABLE XIV, AVERAGE AREA USED BY EACH OF THREE SEX AZD AGE GROUPS OF IHDlVIDUALLY MARKED AHTELOPE H RELATlOH TO VEGETATIOH TYPES H WIHTER5 1966-67» .Average Area Used (acres) Vegetation Adult Fawn - Fawn Type t 9 Cf / Greasewood- sagebrush 2977 .3 (5 )^ 3168. 0 (2 ) 2614.4(2) Sagebrush- grassland 3542,4(2) 729.6(2) 1504.0(3) l / The number of antelope used in calculations in parenthesis. significance). • Fawn females had the most variable home range sizes,: followed by adult females and fawn males, respectively. Since, home range data were available for only one yearling female and one yearling male.,. no conclusion could be made about the variability of. the home ranges for these sex and age groups. Adult females used a larger area on the sagebrush^grassland vegetation ; type than on the greasewood^sagehrush type. Both fawn: males, and females showed the opposite (Table XIV). APPENDIX -49- < N O I mile □ private land ■ public land Figure 21. Yellow Water Triangle Study Area Showing Land Ownership -50- ■TABLE XV0 MEASUREMENT OF FETUSES FROM SEVEN FEMALE ANTELOPE COLLECTED ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA DURING THE WINTER OF 1966-67 Date Age of Ntmber of ‘ Crotm=Rump Cpllected Female Fetuses Sex Weight 12/23/66 3yrs~Tmos 2 ? 2 © 2So . .112 mmd Cf 3 ozso .113. HEtto 1/21/67 5yrs=8mos 2 9 5 ozso 152 mmo ■ Cf 6 . oz&o 156 EEtto ' 2/1/67 7yrs-9mos 2 9 8 ©zso ,170 Etttte Cf 7 ozso I65 Etttto 3/22/67 8yrs~10mos 2 9 21 ozso- •245 Etttt0 • Cf 18 OZSo 213 BHtto 3/23/67 5yr s =IOmos 2 9 30 OZSo 281 Etttto Cf 24 ozso 256 Etttto 3/23/67 . 2yrs=IOmos I 9 22 ozso 257 HStto' 3/23/67 5yfs=10mos 2 Cf 26 OZSo 276 Etttto Cf 28 O SSo 279 Htttto 4/21/67 2yrs=Ilmos 2 9 61 OZSo 345 EHtto .Cf' 60 OZSo 340 Etttto TABLE XVI0 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF 8708 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE IN RELATION TO GROUND CONDITION IN .WINTER, 1966-67. Vegetation Type „h . . . ,r. n..— Ground Condition Sagebrush- Grassland Grassland Greasewood. Greasewood- Sagebrush Cropland Total No. Observations Dry & 5 = ' 28 1716 Damp - i f - 13 • “ 22 - ^77. ;Wet, Muddy Tl 8 2 13 2353 Scattered Snow 70 6 " 8 IT 1388 B v n Snow 1=6" 74 I 6 13 5 277% H t l/ Percentages are based, on 100 percent for each ground, condition category. TABLE XVII. . PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF 8573 OBSERVATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL ANTELOPE IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE.IN. WINTER, I966-67. Vegetation Type Sagebrush- Greasewood- Total No. Temperature Grassland Grassland Greasewood Sagebrush Cropland Observations Minus O0F0 78^ 8 - ib 296 0~32°F» 72 3 k 19 2 4909 USMPL'CG - 77 8 - «" 14 2 2438 P G M!G0W : 69 6 10 16 930 l/ Percentages are "based on 100. percent for each temperature category= & ro1 • =53“ TABLE:; X H I I , PERCENT GONSTAECX, CATfQPY COVERAGE, AND FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF VEGETATION AT 12 ANTELOPE WINTER BEDDING SITES. AS DETER­ MINED BY MEASUREMENTS WITHIN 2x5 ■ DECIMETER PLOTS. '. Taxa Constancy Coverage Frequency SHRUBS Artemisia tridentata spp. ; is aauseosus Gutierrezia sarothrae Rosa arkansana SarcoLatus verjniculatus FORBS ' . - .' Arenaria hooker! Artemisia frigida Aster canescens' Circium flodmani is Psoralea tenuiflora Selaginella densa Taraxacum officinale GRASSES AND GRASS-LIKE PLANTS Routelbua gracilis Bromas■japohicus Caj'rbx brevier Kbelefia cristata Pba compressa Pba'secunda Schedonnardus paniculatus• LICHENS BARE GROUND 100 16 43 25 2 ■ 23 .8 2 20 33 • I. 18 8 2 10 25 . 9 ■- 27 La -2 . 46 58 . . 9 ' ■; 51 8 . • 5 / 2 0 8 tr 10 8 . tr 10 42 k 30 25 tr 17 ■ 25 tr 13 IT tr .15 8 tr 10 8 28 80 83 34 I 92 25 10 50 '50 . 10 4o ' 8 3 30 25 tr .■> 30 50 ■ 4 45 17 3 25 8 2 30 92 2 46 17 tf 25 83 100 3 81 .59 100 TABLE XIX. GBOUKD COVER CHARACTERISTICS AT 12 AETELOPE WIETER BEDDIEG SITES. DATA ARE FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE OF BARE CROUKD, ROCK, LITTER, AED LIVIEG VEGEFATIOE AMOEG 480 POINTS. Bare Living Ground Rock Litter Vegetation 61 19 20 TABLE XX. AVERAGE GROUP SIZE OF ANTELOPE BY MOITH H RELATIOI TO GROUID COIDITIOIS OI THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA H WIITER, 1966-67.' - Ground Condition December Month . January February JSdarch Io.- • Observ. Io. Groups Av. Group Size Dry . - 37.2/9/5 18.6/43/64 19.8/14 /17 1712 86 19.9 ,.Damp - - - . 19.8/29/24 476 24 19.8 Wet, muddy Scattered 23*8/14/13^ 25»9/17/19 22.7/38/53 -24.6/21/14 2349 99 23.7 Snow ' thD!RStRIP 28*3/22/23 24*4/10/11 22.9/14/9 1366 57 24.3 . Snow 1-6" 28.8/64/36 --— ■=--- 36.4/52/37 19.4/9 /5 25.9/21/11 2765 89 31.1 l/ Average group size (two or more antelope represented a group) /percent of observation days in month with that particular ground condition/ number.of groups* TABLE XXIe AVERAGE GROUP SIZE OF ANTELOPE BY MONTH' IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA IN WINTER, 1966=67, Month No. ' No, Av0 Group Temperature December January February ' March Observ0 Groups Size Minus OeF 9 28 , 3/ 9 /6 20 , 8/ 7 /6 295 12 24,6 0 to SS0F o 31,3/57/31^/ 34;3/54/39 18 , 8/ 52/78 21.9/64/51 4894 199 24.6 32 to eIsNi 0 20,0/43/32 28 , 8/ 27/18 23,4/33/37 22 , 6/ 29/18 2427 105 ■ 23.1 40 to 6@°F, -T l ^ t - , 30,1 /9 /17 23 , 2/ 14/18 = 929 35 ■ 26.5 j V t ...... . o\ l/ Average group s iz e (two or more antelope' represented a group)/percent of observation days, in'month with that particular temperature c ©nditi on/number of groups® TABLE XXII. STOMER GROUPING CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTELOPE BY MONTH DETERMINED FROM RESULTS OF FIVE AERIAL CENSUSES H THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA, 1$66* Month No. Observe Av. Group . Size Female-Fawn' Groups Bachelor Herds. No, .Territorial Gf.* S No. Observ. Av.' Group Size % of Groups w/ . Territorial cf .. No* Observ. Av. Group . Size June 4b4(6o)i/ 6 .7 349(47)^ ' tt£* 7-4 26 36(6 ) ^ 6.0 18 July 518(6 0 ) 8 . 6 446(44) 1 0 . 1 48 64(13) 4.9 28 August^/ 957(85) 11.3 885(73) 1 2 . 1 - 71 39(7) . 5-6 29 Sept. 370(33) 1 1 . 2 327(22) 14.9 8 6 27(6) 4.5 28 Total 22^9(238) VTi l/ Two or more antelope were considered to represent a group. Number in parenthesis is number of groups. . 2/ Data for this month was the result of two aerial censuses. They were averaged to obtain the data for bachelor herds and territorial males. TABLE XXIlIo CHABACTERISTie1S OF INDIVIDUAL HECK BANDS AND COLLARS USED ON EACH OF 19 ANTELOPE TRAPPED ON THE YELLOW WATER TRIANGLE STUDY AREA ON DECEMBER 9, 1966* -58- Band and Collar Characteristics Antelope Ear Tag Pattern color UDSOiEyVe= Radio Weight Nunfeers Color and Description ability Channel Age and Sex (lbsu b S4001, White . 3/84501 Black 0Sg It Fawn ?, 64 84002, White g /Good34502 Black Dots Adult ? 97 84003, White Good34503 Black Squares Yearling $ 91 S4004, White 84504 ■ Black Arrows Medium Adult $ 103 84005, White . , 34505 Black Candy Stripe Good Adult 9 111 s4oo6. White 34506 Black Chevrons Medium Fawn cf 74 84007, White Good 7634507 Black Diamonds Fawn cf 84008, White 34508 Black Checkerboard Poor Fawn 9 6k 84009, Black 34509 Orange ttrpBf Medium Fawn 9 67 84010, Black 34510 Orange Triangle Medium Fawn 9 64 84011, Black 34511 Orange Poor Fawn cf 72 34012, Black y‘ 34512 Orange Circles Good Fawn cf 70 34013, Black 84513 Orange Hourglass Poor Fawn cf 71 84014, Black 34514 Orange G,z 58 Good Adult 9 91 84015, Black 84515 Orange Crescent G©@d Fawn cf 71 84016, 34516 Orange Black Lines . 3 / Adult 9 102 31301, Blue 10431302 Leather ttsj Of Poor 9 Adult 9 S1372, Red S1373 Leather 83g « Poor 7 Yearling cf 10© 31374, Yellow 31375 Leather Squares Poor 5 Adult 9 89 -59 TABLE XXLLIo (.GmtLnued) l/ S4001 was never seen again after release; S40l6 was. seen for only three days after release, " } . 2/ Qtservahility was based on the following categories1; Good <=> recognizable at l/2 to 3A mile under both good and poor light conditions. Medium «=* recognizable at 1 /2 to 3 A mile, with good light conditions only. Poor *» recognizable only at short distances with g^od ' light conditions,. 3/ Bands of S4Q03 and StOOT were easily observed^ but difficult to distin^ i::!.' guish from each other. -6o - A. Fawn Female (4009) In Yellow Water Area Showing Home Range Shift to Teigen Area. C I . + geometric center at home range • ---- IOins wxwsme etaerwtiom on test home rw e * ---FWs successive observations on second home range . " " NKfc^ tes shift between home ranges B. Fawn Male (4006) In Yellow Water Area With No Home Range Shift. + geometric center of oome range --joins sucesive observations on home range Figure 22. Individual Locations Of A Fawn Male And A Fawn Female By Day And Month. -6i- A 0 Fawn Male (4011) In Teigen Area Showing One Home Range Shift. i N .sie Imile . (symbols same as Fig.ZZA) B. Fawn Male (4012) In Teigen Area Showing One Home Range Shift. (symbols same as Fig.ZA) Figure 23. Individual Locations Of Fawn Males By Day And Month A. Adult Female (400U) In Yellow Water Area Showing No Home Range Shift. —62— B 0 Adult Female (4005) In Yellow Water Area Showing No Home Range Shift. Figure 24. Individual Locations Of Adult Females By Day And Month AB. Adult Female (1374) In Teigen Area Showing One Home Range Shift. (spkbofc saw » Fig 22A) Figure 25. Individual Locations Of Adult Females By Day And Month. LITERATURE CITED Andrewsj, D0 A 0P Ce S» Lambertand Ce W 0 ,Stose0 .1944* -Geslogie map of Montana0 U 0 S0 Dept0 of Interior ^ Geological Survey* •Booth., W 0 E0 .1950o -Flora of Montana^ Part I,. Conifers and Monocots0 Research Foundation at Montana State College* Bozeman* Montana* 232 pp* and J0 C0 Wright0 1959» Flora of Montana* Part II* • Dicotyledons* -Montana State College* .Bozeman* Montana* 280 pp0 Buechner* H 0 K0 1950» -Life history* ecology* and range use of the pronghorn antelope in Trans=Pecos Texas* Amer0 Midland naturalist* PUmSbdSorMUoPG Cole* Glen F» 1996* The pronghorn antelope=-Its range use and food habits in central Montana with special reference to alfalfa* ' Mont* Fish and Game -Dept0 and Mont0 Agr0 Expt* Sta0.Teeh0 Bull* 516* .63 pp* and B0 T0 Wilkins * ' 1958 » The pronghorn anteiope=Its range use and food habits in central Montana with special reference to wheat* Mont0 Fish and Game Dept*-Tech0 Bull* Ho, 2* 39 PP° Cheatum* E* L 0 .1949<, Bone marrow as an index of malnutrition in deer* H* Y0 State Conservationist* 3(5);19°220 Daubenmire* R 0 1959» A canopy-coverage method of vegetational analysis* • Horthwest Sci0* 33:43=64« .Dirschl* H 0 J0 1963* Food habits of the pronghorn la Saskatchewan* J0 Wildl* Mgmt** 27(l):8l-93» Einarsen* A e S0 1948* The pronghorn antelope and its management* ■1st ed* Wildlife Mgmt0 .Inst0* Wash** D 0 C* 238 pp* Ferrel* C0 Mo* and H* R* Leaeh0 1950» Food habits of the prong-horn antelope of California* Calif* Fish and Game* 36;21=26, Gieseker* L0 F 0 1940* Soil survey of central Montana* ■ Mont0 Agr0 Expt0 •Sta0 Bull* 9» .133 PP» Hayne* D* W 0 .1949» Calculation of the size of home range» Ibid0* 30:1=18 iv Kaightf R» R 0 -I9600 Effectiveness of neckbands for marking elk* J0 Wildl Mgmt** 30(4):845=846* ■ Khowlton* F 0 F 0 I96O 0 Food habits* movements and population structure of moose in the Gravelly Mountains* Montana* J0 Wildl* Mgmt0 24(2): 162=170» = 65- ° Li, Je Ce R 0 19^5* Statistical Inference Xe 1st ede Edwards Brothers, . Imc-e, Am Arbor, - M c M g a n e 658 $p» Mackie, Re Je 1965» Deer, elk, and cattle food habits and range relation­ ships in the Mssouri River Breaks* -Unpubl0 thesis. (PheD0:), Montana State C o U e g e 0 229 PD* - l . Martin, A e Ce, Re H e Censeh and Ce P 0 Browne . 19460 Alternative methods in upland game bird food analysis* Je Wildl0 Mgmt0 .10(1) s8->12* Martinka, C0 -J0 1967* Mrtality of northern -Montana pronghorns in a severe winter* J* Wildl0 Mgmt0, 31(l) :159=l6k 0 McLueas, J0 1956* Antelope trapping procedure* -Spec0-Report to Game Mgmt0 Div*, Mont0 Dept0 Fish and Game, Helena, Montana* •Odum, E0 P 0 .1959» Fundamentals of ecology* W 0 B 0 Saunders Co*, Philadelphia,■Penn0 and London,. England* Dotting, Ho J* 1956* The study of plant communities * 2nd ed0„ W 0 H« Freeman -and Co0, San Francisco, Calif* and London England!* v- Wright, P 0 L 0 and S0 A* Dow, Jr0 1962* Mniraum breeding age in prong­ horn antelope* J0-Wildl0-Mgmt0 26(1)SlOO-IOl0 . ''XYoakum, J0 ' 1958«. Seasonal food habits of the Oregon Pronghorn Antelope* Interstate Antelcpe Conf0, 1958 Transactions, p* 4?* 1UU12808 C op. ^