Selected instructional strategies, learner outcome, and attitudes of adult learners in a mandatory education setting by Barbara Ann White A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education Montana State University © Copyright by Barbara Ann White (1988) Abstract: The primary purpose of the study was an investigation of the teaching-learning transaction by determining the effect of selected instructional strategies on learning outcome of adults enrolled in a legislatively mandated pesticide recertification program. Attitudes and selected personal descriptors which might affect learning outcome were also examined. The population for the study was 654 private pesticide applicators applying for relicensing. Ranging in age from 16 to 83, the pesticide applicators represented District V of the Montana Pesticide Recertification Program, encompassing 11 counties. The recertification program was comprised of a six-hour block of instruction which included seven criteria deemed necessary in order to be licensed to purchase and apply restricted-use compounds. The fifth criteria, Pesticide Safety, served as the subject matter content for the development of the instructional strategies identified as lecture, representing a pedagogical methodology, and small group discussion, representing an andragogical methodology. Upon conclusion of the safety instruction, participants were asked to complete three data collection instruments, which included a measure of learning outcome, an attitudinal scale, and a general information questionnaire ascertaining personal descriptors. Sixty-seven percent of the participants would have participated voluntarily had the program not been legislatively mandated; 45% indicated their agreement in favor of a legislatively mandated program. Ninety-four percent of the participants were favorable to the strategy they received while 80% indicated their prior experience did not eliminate the need for the safety information. Significant differences were found to exist for the independent variable of instructional strategy, with mean scores on learning outcome higher for the group receiving the lecture strategy. The group having completed an education level of 13 to 16 years demonstrated a significantly higher score on learning outcome. In addition, learning outcome was significantly related to the two attitude variables. Attitude toward instructional strategy received accounted for 58% of the variance in learning outcome. Service providers of one-time, mandated educational activities need to consider the learning environment, attitudes of the learner, and personal descriptors, especially age and level of education, when selecting instructional strategies. Experience of the learner should also be considered as an important variable.  SELECTED INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES, LEARNER OUTCOME, AND ATTITUDES OF ADULT LEARNERS IN A MANDATORY EDUCATION SETTING by Barbara Ann White A thesis submitted in p a r t ia l fu lf i l lm e n t o f the requirements fo r the degree o f Doctor o f Education MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana © COPYRIGHT by Barbara Ann White 1988 Al I Rights Reserved UJ 5~ S' * 2 - i i APPROVAL o f a thesis submitted by Barbara Ann White This thesis has been read by each member o f the thesis committee and has been found to be sa tis fa c to ry regarding content, English usage, format, c ita t io n s , b ib liog raph ic s ty le , and consistency, and is ready fo r submission to the College o f Graduate Studies. Date/ Z Chairperson, Graduate Compfittee Z Approved fo r the Major Department Head, Major Department Approved fo r the College o f Graduate Studies Date G raduate Deem mSTATEMENT OF PERMISSION. TO USE In presenting th is thesis in p a r t ia l fu lf i l lm e n t o f the requ ire­ ments fo r a doctoral degree at Montana State U n ive rs ity , I agree tha t the L ib rary shall make i t ava ilab le to borrowers under ru les o f the L ib rary . I fu r th e r agree, tha t copying o f th is thesis is allowable only fo r scho la rly purposes, consistent w ith " f a i r use" as prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests fo r extensive copying or reproduction o f th is thesis should be re ferred to Un ive rs ity M icrofilms In te rn a tio n a l, 300 North Zeeb Road,; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, to whom I have granted "the e xc lu s ive r ig h t to reproduce and d is t r ib u te copies o f the d isse rta tion in and from m icro film and the r ig h t to reproduce and d is tr ib u te by abstract in any format." Signaturesj^ C Date & / / / _________ i v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The au thor wishes to express sincere g ra titude to Dr. Eric Strohmeyer, cha ir o f her graduate committee, whose continual support, guidance, and sense o f humor provided a ca ta lys t fo r the completion o f the doctoral degree. Appreciation is also extended to the members o f the committee, Dr. Ralph Brockett, Dr. Dianne Peters, Dr. Connie. D illo n , Dr. G loria Gregg, and Dr. Donald P ierre , fo r th e ir continued encouragement. The author also extends appreciation to the members o f the Montana State Un ivers ity Extension Service fo r th e ir w illingness to ass is t in the study, in add ition to the Montana p riva te pestic ide a p p lic a to rs who v o lu n ta r i ly p a r t ic ip a te d in the data co lle c tio n process. The researcher also g ra te fu lly acknowledges the support o f the Montana State Un ive rs ity Center fo r Adult Learning Research, funded by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, in provid ing f in a n c ia l, equipment, and personnel support throughout the d isse rta tio n process. A note o f special appreciation is extended to my husband, Robert, and to my ch ild ren , Jenn ife r, Brian, and Jason, w ithout whose constant support and encouragement th is goal could not have been accomplished. To my parents, appreciation is extended fo r th e ir constant fa ith . I t is to the memory o f my fa the r tha t th is document is dedicated. VTABLE OF CONTENTS Page APPROVAL........................................................ i i STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE........ ......................................................... i i i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................... ...................................................... . -Jv TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................... v LIST OF TABLES.................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................ x i i ABSTRACT........................................................................................................... x i i i CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ I Background......................................... Statement o f the Problem.............. S ign ificance o f the Study............ General Questions to Be Answered................... I l General Procedures........................................... 12 L im ita tions and D e lim ita tions ................................................. 13 D e fin it io n o f Terms............... 14 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...^................................................................. 20 Providers o f Adult Education................................................... 20 Adult Education and the Rural Learner......................... 24 The Rural Scene in the United States.............................. 24 The ru ra l learner in an ag ricu ltu re s e tt in g ......... 25 Cooperative Extension Service........................................... 27 Characte ris tics o f the Cooperative Extension Service......................... 27 Program development........ ................................................. 29 Montana State Univers ity Extension Service.................... 30 Montana Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Program.................... 31 Mandatory Education and the Adult Learner.......................... 35 Mandatory Adult Education............................. 38 C reden tia ling ................. 40 Licensure........................... 41 r-4 I O Page Mandatory Continuing Education......................................... 43 A ttitudes Toward Mandatory Continuing Education (MCE)................................................................. 45 Rationale in favor o f MCE............................................. 45 Rationale against MCE..................................................... 46 Professional and occupational a t t itu d e .................... 47 . Andragogy and Pedagogy: Methodologies fo r In s tru c tio n ........................... 57 Philosophical O rig ins ......................................................... ] 62 Evolution o f andragogical o r ie n ta tio n ...................... 63 Andragogy as a Teaching-Learning Transaction.............. 64 Ins truc tiona l Design and the Adult Learner........................ 70 Learning Theory and Ins truc tiona l Design...................... 71 Learning theory................................................................. 71 Ins truc tiona l design....................................................... 75 Systems design................................................................... 78 Selection o f Ins truc tiona l Method.................................... 81 Ins tru c tio na l S tra teg ies ..................................................... 85 Lecture s tra tegy ................................................ 87 Group discussion............................................................... 89 Small group discussion................................................... 91 Case study............................... 93 Research Findings Regarding Lecture and Discussion S tra teg ies..................................................... 95 A ttitudes and Ins truc tiona l S tra teg ies .......................... 101 3. PROCEDURES............................................................................................ 103 Population.............. ! ...................................................................... 103 Research Design............................................................................. 105 Quasi-experimental Design................................................... 105 Equivalence o f groups..................................................... 105 Post-test only, non-equivalent m u lt ip le - group design................................................................. 106 Extraneous va riab les ....................................................... 106 Data Co llection Procedure............ ............................................ 107 Authorization and I n i t ia l Contact.................. ................. ' 107 Variables and Instrumentation.......... ....................................... I l l Dependent Variab le ................................................................. I l l V a l id ity ......................................... I l l R e l ia b i l i ty ......................................................................... 112 Format................................................................................... 112 Independent V a riab les ......................................................... 113 Ins truc tiona l s tra tegy ................................................. * 113 A ttitu d e va r ia b le s ......................................................... 113 v i TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued Page Demographic v a r ia b le s ............... 115 S ta t is t ic a l Hypotheses..,................................................. 115 Data Ana lys is ...... .......................................................... 118 4. FINDINGS AND ANALYSES....................................................................... 119 Descrip tive Findings....................................... 119 Demographic Information....................................................... 119 . General Questions to Be Answered........................................ 123 Research Question #1.............................................. 123 Research Question # 2 ..................................................... 124 S ta t is t ic a l Hypotheses............................................................... 127 Hypotheses................................................................................. 127 Hypothesis I ....................................... 127 Hypothesis 2................................... 128 Hypothesis 3 ..................... 129 Hypothesis 4....................................................................... 129 Hypothesis 5................................................. 130 Hypothesis 6....................................................................... 130 Hypothesis 7............. 131 Hypothesis 8.................................................. 131 Hypothesis 9................. 133 Hypothesis 10 ............. V.............................. ..................... 133 Hypothesis 11................................... 134 Hypothesis 12........... 137 Hypothesis 1 3 . . . . .................................................... 138 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................. 140 Conclusions............. .................................................................. 140 Recommendations............................................................................. 149 Recommendations fo r Future Research......................... 149 Recommendations fo r P ractice ............................................. 152 REFERENCES CITED.............................................................................................. 155 APPENDICES A. CORRESPONDENCE WITH COUNTY EXTENSION PERSONNEL...................... 169 B. MAP OF PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION PROGRAM BY DISTRICT................ ..................... •..................................................... . 174 C. PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION; QUESTIONS: SAFETY.......................... .176 v i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS—Continued ■ Page D. ATTITUDE TOWARD MANDATORY PESTICIDE EDUCATION/ INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY SCALE (AMPE-ISS)................................... 179 E. GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE (GIQ)................................... 182 ix LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Categories as an organizing framework fo r overview o f adu lt education o rgan iza tions............................ 22 2. Pesticide app lica to r re q u a lif ic a tio n schedule by county s i te ................................................................. 109 3. Breakdown by county o f population number................................ 109 4. Frequencies and percentages fo r demographic cha rac te ris tics o f 654 pestic ide app lica to rs . D is t r ic t V, Montana................... 120 5. Contingency tab le showing re la tionsh ip between in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and age.......... ......................... 121 6. Contingency tab le showing re la tionsh ip between in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and level o f education completed................................................... 122 7. Contingency tab le showing re la tionsh ip between in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program................................ 122 8. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to the question: I f the pestic ide education program had NOT been mandated by Montana law, would you have attended a program o f th is type v o lu n ta r ily ? ..- ....................... 123 9. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to the question: Do you th in k a pestic ide education program such as you are p a rtic ip a tin g in should be le g is la t iv e ly mandated?............................................................. 124 10. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to questions regarding the appropriateness o f strategy received (le c tu re or small group discussion) 125 X• LIST OF TABLES— Continued Table Page 11. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response, to questions regarding ro le played by experience.................................. 12. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to questions regarding use o f supportive m a te ria ls .......... ..................... 13. Means and standard deviations fo r dependent variab le o f learning outcome by treatment........................ . . . 127 14. Two-way ANOVA determining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio na l strategy and a tt itu d e toward' mandatory pestic ide education and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent v a r ia b le s ............... 128 . 15. Two-way ANOVA determining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio na l strategy and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l strategy received and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent va riab les ................ . . . 129 16. Mean scores fo r main e ffe c t o f a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received.............................. . . . 130 17. Two-way ANOVA determining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio na l strategy and age and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent va riab les ................ . . . 131 18. Two-way ANOVA determining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio na l strategy and level o f education completed and main e ffec ts among levels o f independent v a r iables........ .................................................. . 19. Mean scores fo r main e ffe c t o f level o f education completed......................................................... ........ 20. Two-way ANOVA determining in te ra c tio n between in s tru c tio na l strategy and years in the pes tic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent va riab les ................ . . . 134 21. Corre la tion coe ffic ie n ts between the dependent and independent variables plus in te r-co rre la tio n s between independent va riab les ............................................... LIST OF TABLES—Continued Table Page 22. Stepwise m u ltip le regression fo r entry o f s ix independent va riab les ................................................. ................... 139 x i x i i LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Conceptual framework fo r mandatory, adult education w ith emphasis on c re den tia ling ............................... 37 2. Systems design approach fo r developing in s tru c tio n ....................... 82 3. Communication pattern represented by small group d iscuss ion ,................................................... 93 4. Communication pattern represented by formalized teaching method o f le c tu re ...................................... 93 5. Map o f pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program by d i s t r i c t . ................................................. 175 xiii ABSTRACT The primary purpose o f the study was an inves tiga tion o f the teaching-learning transaction by determining the e ffe c t o f selected in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies on learning outcome o f adults enrolled in a le g is la t iv e ly mandated pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. A ttitudes and selected personal descrip tors which might a ffe c t learning outcome were also examined. The population fo r the study was 654 p riva te pes tic ide applicators applying fo r re licens ing . Ranging in age from 16 to 83, the pestic ide app lica to rs represented D is t r ic t V o f the Montana Pestic ide R e c e r t if i­ cation Program, encompassing 11 counties. The re c e r t if ic a t io n program was comprised o f a s ix-hour block o f in s tru c tio n which included seven c r i te r ia deemed necessary in order to be licensed to purchase and apply res tric ted -use compounds. The f i f t h c r i te r ia , Pesticide Safety, served as the subject matter content fo r the development o f the in s tru c tiona l s tra teg ies id e n t if ie d as lec tu re , representing a pedagogical methodology, and small group discussion, rep re sen tin g an andragogical methodology. Upon conclusion o f the sa fe ty in s tru c tio n , pa rtic ipan ts were asked to complete three data co lle c tio n instruments, which included a measure o f learn ing outcome, an a tt itu d in a l scale, and a general information questionnaire ascer­ ta in ing personal descrip to rs . Sixty-seven percent o f the pa rtic ipan ts would have pa rtic ipa ted v o lu n ta r i ly had the program not been le g is la t iv e ly mandated; 45% indicated th e ir agreement in favor o f a le g is la t iv e ly mandated program. N inety-four percent o f the pa rtic ipan ts were favorable to the strategy they rece ived w h ile 80% indicated th e ir p r io r experience did not e lim inate the need fo r the safety in formation. S ig n ific a n t differences were found to e x is t fo r the independent variab le o f in s tru c tiona l stra tegy, w ith mean scores on learn ing outcome higher fo r the group re ce iv in g the le c tu re s tra te g y . The group having completed an education level o f 13 to 16 years demonstrated a s ig n if ic a n t ly higher score on learning outcome. In add ition , learning outcome was s ig n i f i ­ c a n tly re la te d to the two a t t i tu d e va r ia b le s . A ttitu de toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received accounted fo r 58% o f the variance in learning outcome. Service providers o f one-time, mandated educational a c t iv it ie s need to consider the learning environment, a ttitudes o f the learner, and personal descrip to rs , especia lly age and level o f education, when se lecting in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies . Experience o f the learner should also be considered as an important va riab le . ICHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background Subtle but s ig n if ic a n t changes in the sequence o f major tra n s i­ tions in people's liv e s are responsible fo r the increasing numbers o f adults engaged in some form o f learning experience. Aslanian and B ricke ll (1980) c ite l i f e changes — past, present, and fu tu re — as reasons to I earn. Cross (1981) id e n tif ie s the e ffec ts o f technology, social and economic changes, p o lit ic a l developments, and the increasing amount o f ava ilab le information as impetus fo r adults to seek out and pa rtic ip a te in learning opportun ities o f a l l types. A spec ific issue o f concern o r ig in a tin g from social and p o lit ic a l pressures, id e n tif ie d as mandatory educa tion , has in flu enced the need fo r licens ing , c e r t i f ie d - l ic e n s in g , re c e r t if ic a t io n , and continuing education v ia sh o rt- te rm and/or one-time educa tiona l a c t iv it ie s . Furthermore, le g is la t iv e ly mandated educationa l programs, such as p e s tic id e a p p lic a to r r e c e r t i f i c a t io n , re q u ire p a r t ic ip a t io n and, in some ins tances , exam ination p r io r to the issuance o f a license. To accommodate fo r such a v a r ie ty o f e x is t in g needs, organizations fos te ring the education o f adults are considered to be providers o f formal and nonformal educational a c t iv it ie s as well as managers o f a system o f learning resources. 2Numerous organizations provid ing education fo r adults rea lize tha t very few adu lt education enterprises in the United States are indepen­ dent. Rather, program o ffe rings are usually a pa rt o f, and often subordinate to , some la rger en terp rise . The adult education programs offered at the county level by the Montana State U n ive rs ity Extension Service, fo r example, are an in teg ra l pa rt o f a county, s ta te , and federal partnership w ith expectations at a ll leve ls fo r changes in behavior, evaluation, and accoun tab ility . In more spec ific terms, education is the primary mission o f the Cooperative Extension Service (CES). As stated in Extension in the 'SO's (United States Department o f A g ricu ltu re /N a tiona l Association o f State U n ive rs ities and Land Grant Colleges [USDA/NASULGC], 1983, p. 2), the mission is "to improve ag ricu ltu re and strengthen American fam ilies and communities through the dissemination and app lica tion o f research-generated knowledge and leadership techniques." To carry out th is mission, the CES is designed as an educational resource fo r the people o f the United States fo r extending research resu lts and advances in technology. C r it ic a l to the CES plan o f action is an aggressive information and communications program, targeted toward spec ific needs and concerns, inc lud ing : (1) The improvement o f the in te rna l and external v i s ib i l i t y o f the agency and i t s educational programs, and (2) The organization serving as a ca ta lys t and focal po int fo r the development and adoption o f new communication techno log ies and a lte rn a t iv e s to serve as de live ry methods (USDA/NASULGC, 1983). 3Of c r i t ic a l concern to the Extension Service is tha t a ll partners in the system seek to enhance the educational mission o f the organiza­ tio n by implementing "appropriate s tra teg ies bnd technologies w ith 'tiiose partners in the system includ ing educators o f adu lts . Ind iv idua ls dealing w ith adu lt populations are, there fore , confronted w ith the need fo r a decision-making process designed to : (a) id e n t ify program need at the county le ve l, (b) develop program in s tru c tio n to meet tha t need at both the county and sta te le ve ls , and (c) implement evaluation and accoun tab ility a t county, s ta te , and federal leve ls . W ithin the Cooperative Extension Service organizational s truc tu re , i t is the adu lt educator's re sp o n s ib ility to design and/or develop the learning experience in a manner tha t is appropriate fo r acquiring the needed in formation, knowledge, or s k i l ls . Personnel, however, are faced w ith a dilemma not uncommon to many educators o f adults : tha t o f being unprepared fo r designing learning experiences appropriate fo r meeting a d u lt I earner needs' and ob je c tive s . Therefore, careful e va lua tio n o f the ta rg e t audience, educational need, purpose o f learning experience, subject-matter content, and learning is c r i t i c a l . In add ition , cha rac te ris tics id e n tify in g diverse learner p a rtic ip a tio n such as mandatory attendance, one-time exposure to the educational a c t iv i t y , p o l i t ic a l invo lvement, or previous experience provide pressure fo r the adu lt educator to develop stra teg ies and methodologies appropriate fo r meeting learner needs. I t is important, then, tha t o rgan iza tio n s as p rov ide rs o f a d u lt education cons ider learner a ttitudes toward the learning environment, motivating factors toward p a r t i c ip a t io n , and personal d e s c r ip to rs such as the cu rre n t 4developmental s tage, education le v e l, and l i f e s t y le commitment. Awareness o f such facto rs may con tribu te s ig n if ic a n t ly to the decision­ making process by educators as they design, develop, manage, and implement in s tru c tio n a l s tra teg ies fo r the adult learner. In add ition to I earner d iv e rs ity , considerations a llow ing fo r the effectiveness o f the teaching-learn ing transaction are also o f concern to the educator o f a d u lts . An understanding o f the conceptual assumptions o f the andragogical and pedagogical models o f learning suggest tha t the adu lt educator must be cognizant o f the part each model plays in the overa ll educative process. Special a tten tion must be d irected toward the in i t i a l assumption underlying both andragogy and pedagogy: Andragogy is a normal aspect o f the process o f maturation fo r a person to move from dependency toward increasing se lf-d irectedness, a t d if fe re n t rates and in d iffe re n t dimensions o f l i f e (Knowles, 1980, p.. 43). In comparison, Knowles also describes the in i t ia l assumption re levant to pedagogy as fo llow s: The ro le o f the learner is , by d e f in it io n , a dependent one. The teacher is expected by society to take fu l l re s p o n s ib ility fo r determining what is to be learned, when i t is to be learned, and i f i t has been learned (Knowles, 1980, p. 43). T ra d it io n a lly , the function o f the teacher or educator has been to teach and the student's ro le has been a re la t iv e ly passive one. The approach, believed to re su lt in a degree o f pass iv ity by the student, is in c o n f l ic t w ith the humanistic philosophy imparted in andragogy, whereby the teacher takes on the ro le o f fa c i l i t a to r , technic ian . 5resource person, co -in qu ire r, or ca ta lys t, ra ther than an expert in the dissemination o f information (Knowles, 1980). The implementation o f andragogy, as an in s tru c tiona l methodology, in to the adu lt education process suggests tha t i t is important fo r the educator to remember tha t each group o f learners is unique and tha t each ind iv idua l in the group is unique. A procedure or strategy su itab le fo r one group o f learners may be inappropria te fo r another group. Educators o f adults must be sens itive to the fa c t tha t they are working w ith a wide va rie ty o f people, tha t s tra teg ies are important, and tha t the appropriate se lection and use o f in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies can mean the d if fe re n c e between in e ffe c t iv e adu lt education and education th a t: (a) a c tive ly involves the learner, (b) stimulates the learner to seek more knowledge, and (c) achieves the spec ific goals fo r which the strategy was designed. Research re la ted to the design and de live ry o f in s tru c tio n has e s tab lished ,a know!edge-base th a t p rovides movement toward the in v e s t ig a t io n o f in s t ru c t io n a l practices (Gage & Berline r, 1979; Gagne1, 1977). "The in s tru c tiona l system is viewed as composed o f va rious in te r re la te d components function ing together to achieve a purpose" '(Hannum & Briggs, 1982, p. 9). A spec ific component o f the in s tru c t io n a l system is id e n tif ie d as Ins truc tiona l S trategies and Media, w ith the de c is io n rega rd ing how the in s tru c tio n w il l be conducted based upon evidence re la ted to the effectiveness of various methods and media. Emphasis is placed upon the se lection and use o f in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g ie s app ro p ria te to the le a rn in g tasks and c h a ra c te r is t ic s o f the I ea rne rs , w ith in the cons tra in ts o f the 6 : s itu a tio n , re in fo rc ing the idea tha t there is no one best medium or s tra te g y fo r a l l in s tru c tio n . . Rather, decisions re levant to the se lection o f the in s tru c tio na l s tra tegy should be based upon considera­ tio n o f the nature o f the ob jec tive to be met, cha rac te ris tics o f the s tuden ts , and em p ir ica l evidence about the effectiveness o f the stra tegy fo r the type o f learning involved and the type o f student (Cronbach & Snow, 1977). Statement o f the Problem The primary purpose o f the study was to investiga te the teaching­ learning transaction by determining the e ffe c t o f selected in s tru c ­ t io n a l s tra te g ie s on le a rn in g outcome o f a d u lts en ro lle d in a le g is la t iv e ly mandated pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. Secondary to the major purpose was the inves tiga tion o f factors which might a ffe c t lea rn ing outcome, s p e c if ic a lly , a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education, a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l strategy received, and the personal descrip tors o f age, level o f education completed, and year in re c e r t if ic a t io n program. Given the d iv e rs ity o f adu lt learners, the conceptual framework o f andragogy and pedagogy characterized as methods o f in s tru c tio n , and the nature o f a le g is la t iv e ly mandated pestic ide education program, the problem o f th is study was th ree -fo ld : ( I ) To determine i f a d iffe rence ex is ts in learn ing outcome between two groups o f pa rtic ipan ts receiving educational information by lectu re or small group discussion while both are enro lled in a le g is la t iv e ly mandated program. 7(2) To determine i f the independent variables o f a tt itu d e and personal d e s c r ip to rs (age, le ve l o f education completed, and years in r e c e r t i f ic a t io n program) in te r a c t w ith in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y rece ived on learning outcome. (3) To determine i f a re la tionsh ip ex ists between learning outcome and: (a) in s tru c tio na l s tra tegy; (b) a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education; (c) a t t i tu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received; and (d) the personal descriptors o f age, level o f education completed, and years in pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. S ignificance o f the Study Findings from the study con tribu te to several broad educational areas. The f i r s t four con tribu tions are re levant to the knowledge-base in the f ie ld o f adu lt education, while the la s t three re la te to the practice o f educating adu lts . The f i r s t con tribu tion is the strength­ ening o f the assumptions underlying pedagogy and andragogy as models o f learning appropriate fo r both ch ild ren and adults . U n til the early pa rt o f the 1980‘ s, a large p a rt o f the lite ra tu re in the f ie ld o f a d u lt education advocated the se lection o f one spec ific model o f assumptions, coined "andragogy," to be used as th& conceptual framework fo r teaching adu lts . The model advocated a co llabo ra tive , fa c i l i ta t iv e 8mode o f in s tru c tio n . The a lte rn a tive , presented as a dichotomy in the l i te r a tu r e , was pedagogy, a teacher-centered approach t ra d it io n a lly used as a methodology fo r teaching ch ild ren . However, in the la te 1970's, Knowles recanted andragogy's exclusive app lica tion fo r adu lts , suggesting tha t the implementation o f andragogy and pedagogy should be con textua lly determined. In 1980, viewing andragogy as one in s tru c ­ tiona l methodology, Knowles redefines the implementation o f the model, suggesting tha t andragogy is : . . . simply another model o f assumptions about learners to be used alongside the pedagogical model o f assump­ t io n s , the reby p ro v id in g two a lte rna tive models fo r te s t in g out the assumptions as to th e ir ' f i t ' w ith p a rt ic u la r s itua tions (1980, p. 43). Lindsay (1984) suggests tha t there are s im ila r it ie s and differences between pedagogical and andragogical p ractice and tha t recommendations also e x is t w ith in andragogical p ractice which, upon te s tin g , w il l need m o d if ic a t io n i f not abandonment. Additional research is needed, th e re fo re , to explore these ind ica to rs fu rth e r, to determine what s tra te g ie s and " re p e r to ire s " — o f thought as well as action — teachers o f adults use. Lindsay (1984, p. 5) suggests, "We s t i l l need to know how these s tra teg ies and reperto ires in te ra c t w ith adult learner motivation and c a p a b ilit ie s , in terms o f both achievement and sa tis fa c tio n w ith the learning experience." In the present study, the examination o f in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies representing andragogical and pedagogical pe rspec tives con tr ib u te to the substan tia tion o f the i* statement posed by Knowles re levant to the f i t o f the model to the le a rn in g s i tu a t io n . The find ings help in the c la r ify in g o f the appropriateness o f an in s tru c tio na l method by adult educators, based on 9an understanding o f the ru ra l adu lt learner, the context in which the learning takes place, the learning environment, and the a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received. . Since few receh t studies have d irected e ffo r ts to the ru ra l ' i I e a rne r's educational needs or th e ir focus on learning a c t iv it ie s (McCannon, 1983), a sdcond con tribu tion o f the study is the addition o f demographic and a t t i t u d in a l data re levan t to the ru ra l learner. C u rre n tly , designers o f ru ra l postsecondary education programs are lim ited by a dearth o f information about rura l adu lts ' educational in te re s ts , cha ra c te ris tic s , motivations, and p a rtic ip a tio n patterns, as l i t t l e a tten tion has been paid to the educational needs o f ru ra l adults beyond the emphasis on i l l i t e r a c y in the 1970‘ s (Treadway, 1984). In add ition , Dubin (1972) has c ited a 35-year information gap in the understanding o f learning by adu lts , learning tha t occurs between the ages o f 30 and 65. The present study contributes needed data re levant to loca tion o f residence, a c ce s s ib ility o f educational o ffe rin g s , age, and years o f formal education . These data can help to provide additiona l information fo r estab lish ing a p ro f ile o f the rura l learner in a mandatory educational se ttin g . A th ird con tribu tion is found in the addition o f data relevant to ru ra l I earner a t t itu d e s toward education , s p e c if ic a lly mandatory education. Adolph and Whaley '(1967, p. 152) suggest: An in d iv id u a l's favorable or unfavorable a ttitudes toward the idea o f adult education may in part aid him in making decisions to support or re je c t adu lt education programs. I t is o f in te re s t then fo r professional adult educators to investiga te the a ttitudes toward adult education of various socia l groupings as p a rt ia l ind ica tion o f support fo r adult education programs. 10 With, minimal research in to the area o f mandatory education and govern ing p o l ic ie s , the fin d in g s o f th e ' study con tribu te to the decision-making process by the governing agency, adm in is tra tion , and the adu lt educator. This study is the f i r s t attempt in the h is to ry o f the le g is la t iv e ly mandated Montana Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Program to ascertain p riva te app lica to r a tt itu d e toward the mandated program. In add ition , information can be provided to the Montana le g is la tu re fo r use in id e n tify in g the fu tu re need, a tt itu d e , and success o f le g is la ­ t iv e ly mandated programs. A fo u r th b e n e f it o f the study is to the service provider, id e n t if ie d as the Montana State Un ivers ity Extension Service. I f a dm in is tra to rs are to add do lla rs fo r developing new techniques, methods, and s k i l l s in order to provide a meaningful educational experience, research is con tinua lly needed to id e n tify those in s tru c ­ t io n a l s tra te g ie s which are most app rop ria te fo r the le a rn in g s itu a t io n . Data from the present study id e n tify ind ices o f the effectiveness o f selected in s tru c tiona l stra teg ies v is -a -v is learning outcome, as w e ll as a t t i tu d e s , toward the in s tru c tio na l strategy received. A f i f t h con tribu tion o f the study re la tes to the area o f in s tru c ­ tiona l development, w ith spec ific a tten tion to using a systems design model fo r the design o f the educational a c t iv ity . The use o f a systems model provides the opportun ity to investiga te the teaching-learning transaction by observing the effectiveness o f the. model based on an id e n tif ie d sequence o f s te p s '( i .e . , id e n t if ic a t io n o f goal; ob jectives, learner cha ra c te ris tic s , and so on). T ra d itio n a lly , in s tru c tio n has 11 been designed based on subject matter content or te s t items to be administered, ra ther than on an id e n tif ie d educational goal and stated ob jectives. Also, a continued, c r it ic ism in the in s tru c tio na l develop­ ment l i te ra tu re re la tes to the lack o f empirical research inves tiga ting the effectiveness o f e x is ting in s tru c tio na l models as compared w ith the often practiced mode o f simply in i t ia t in g a new model. This study's implementation o f an ex is ting systems model adds to ex is tin g data. General Questions to Be Answered Given a le g is la t iv e ly mandated pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program, th is study sought to answer seven major questions. The order o f the questions is based on the presentation o f the find ings , as noted in Chapter 4. (1 ) . What is the a tt itu d e o f ru ra l adult learners toward a le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program?- (2) What is the a tt itu d e o f ru ra l adult learners toward the in s tru c tio na l strategy received? (3) Do the variab les o f a tt itu d e and personal descriptors (age, le ve l o f education completed, and years in r e c e r t i f ic a t io n program) o f the ru ra l adu lt I earner in te r a c t w ith le a rn in g outcome and in s t ru c t io n a l . stra tegy implemented? ■■ ■■ (4) Does the in s t ru c t io n a l s tra tegy implemented make a d iffe rence in learning outcome o f pa rtic ipan ts? (5T Do re la tionsh ips ex is t between the learning outcome o f a d u lts e n ro l le d in a mandatory program and the 12 independen t, v a r ia b le s ' o f in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y , a ttitudes o f the pa rtic ip an ts , and personal descriptors o f the learner? (6) Do in te r -e o r re l a t io n (s ) e x is t among the independent v a r ia b le s o f in s t ru c t io n a l "s tra te g y , a tt itu d e , and personal descriptors? (7) What is the r e la t iv e c o n tr ib u tio n o f in s tru c tiona l s tra tegy, a tt itu d e , and the personal descrip tors to the variance in the dependent variab le o f learning outcome? General Procedures The researcher made con tac t.w ith the Associate D irecto r fo r the Montana S ta te U n iv e rs ity Extension Service, seeking permission to conduct the study w ith the assistance o f the Montana county extension agents/' Upon receiving approval., names o f county agent personnel, designated as providers o f the 1987 D is t r ic t V pestic ide re c e r t if ic a ­ tio n program, were obtained. An informal discussion o f the study and the researcher's request fo r 'assistance from county personnel were presented du ring the D is t r ic t V p e s tic id e re c e r t if ic a t io n agent tra in in g session in December 1986. ■ In add ition , a ten ta tive schedule o f counties provid ing pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n programs during 1987 was obtained. Formal contact by the researcher w ith personnel from each o f the counties provid ing re c e r t if ic a t io n programs was made by le t te r during January 1987 (Appendix A) / Implementation o f the ins tru c tiona l program, id e n tif ie d as pestic ide sa fe ty , was included in each o f the 13 six-hour pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n programs held during the months o f February, March, and A p ril o f 1987. The data needed fo r the study were co llected upon completion o f the portion o f the in s tru c tio na l program re levant to pestic ide safety. Lim itation's and Delim ita tions L im ita tio n s o f the study, id e n tif ie d as the re s tr ic t io n to a p a rt ic u la r number or fa c to r, and de lim ita tions o f the study, noted as the se tting o f l im its , are l is te d below. The lim ita tio n s include numbered items one through fou r; the de lim ita tions include numbered items f iv e and s ix . (1) County s ites involved in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program de live ry were assigned a selected in s tru c tiona l stra tegy by the researcher, id e n tif ie d as lec tu re or small group discussion, as compared to providing the p a r t ic ip a n ts w ith a s tra tegy o f choice. Availab le county f a c i l i t ie s re s tr ic te d the number o f small groups tha t could be accommodated in the small group discussion format. (2) A ll subjects comprising the population were asked to pa rtic ip a te v o lu n ta r ily in the study; some subjects may have chosen not to p a rtic ip a te , thus l im it in g the use of the en tire population applying fo r re c e r t if ic a t io n . (3) An instrument fo r measuring learning outcome sp e c ific ­ a l ly , re levant to the Pesticide Safety c r i te r ia was not ava ilab le . The researcher was, therefore , lim ited to 14 questions measuring learning outcome extracted from the o r ig in a l Montana P riva te A pp lica to r R ece rtifica tio n Examination. (4) Although consistency in format and content was b u i l t in to the in s tru c tio na l design and ins tru c tiona l strategy using a systems design model, persona lity characte ris­ t ic s o f the ind iv idua ls de live ring and p a rtic ip a tin g in the dissemination process may have varied. (5) The study has as i t s only focus the pestic ide re c e r t i­ f ic a t io n program in D is t r ic t V o f the state o f Montana. (6) The study was d e lim ite d to on ly those applicators applying fo r re licensure in Montana during the months of February, March, and A p ril o f 1987. . D e fin it io n o f Terms For the purpose o f th is study, the fo llow ing terms are defined (1) Adult Education — A set o f organized a c t iv it ie s carried on by a wide va rie ty o f in s t itu t io n s fo r the accomplish­ ment o f spec ific educational ob jectives. [ I t is ] a process tha t is used by adults fo r th e ir s e lf development, both alone and w ith others, and i t is used by in s t itu t io n s o f a ll kinds fo r the g row th and development o f th e ir employees, members, and c l ie n ts . I t " is ah educational process tha t is often used in combination w ith p roduc tion processes, p o l i t ic a l processes, or service processes (Knowles, 1980, p. 25). (2) Andragogy - - A model o f assumptions about learners id e n t i fy in g the concept o f the le a rne r as a s e lf 15 d ire c tin g one, the ro le of- the lea rne r's experience as cumulative, readiness to learn based on a need to learn, and an o r ie n ta t io n to learning as one o f immediate app lica tion . Andragogy represents a body o f theory and p ractice on which se lf-d ire c ted learning is based. (3) A t t i t u d e Toward Mandatory P e s t ic id e Education- Ins truc tiona l Strategy Scale (AMPE-ISS) — An 11-item ques tio nna ire designed to id e n t ify , by L ike rt scale format, app lica to r a tt itu d e toward a mandatory pestic ide . education program and a tt itu d e toward ins tru c tiona l stra tegy received. Questions numbered 3 and 10 were designed to id e n tify a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education. Questions numbered I , 2, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8, 9, and 11 were designed to id e n t i f y a t t i tu d e toward in s tru c tio na l strategy received. (4) Case Study Format — A va ria tion o f small group discus­ sion; a learning discussion beginning w ith consideration o f a s p e c if ic problem or "case" about which group members exchange pe rcep tio ns , id eas , and possible, so lu tions (B r ilh a r t , 1982). (5) C e rtif ie d App lica tor — Id e n tif ie s any ind iv idua l who is licensed and c e r t if ie d or issued a special-use permit to ' use or supervise the use o f any res tric ted -use pestic ide covered by h is /he r c e r t if ic a t io n (Montana Pesticide Act o f 1986). 16 (6) Continuing Education — Formalized learning experiences or sequences designed to enlarge the knowledge or s k i l ls - o f p ra c tit io n e rs . These experiences "tend to be more spe c ific , o f generally shorter duration, and may re su lt in c e r t if ic a te s o f completion or spec ia liza tion , but not in formal degrees" (Rizzuto, 1982, p. 38). (7) Cooperative Extension Service — A system which i l lu s ­ tra tes a way in which soc ie ty , through the national and state governments, has established re la tionsh ips w ith the in te res ts o f ind iv idua ls in local communities. The national a g ricu ltu ra l extension system represents one of the la rgest nonpro fit adu lt education organizations in the United S ta tes , w ith the education o f America's fam ilies i t s primary mission. (8) General In fo rm a tion Q uestionna ire - - O pera tiona lly defined as an instrument designed to secure descrip tive in fo rm a t io n about p r iv a te p e s tic id e a p p lic a to rs inc lud ing : age, le v e l. o f -education completed, years in re c e r t if ic a t io n program, years in county residence, and app lica to r s tatus. (9) Ins truc tiona l Design — The en tire process o f analysis o f learning needs, and goals and the development o f a de live ry system to meet the needs; includes development of. in s tru c tiona l materia ls and a c t iv it ie s , and tryou t and rev is ion o f a ll in s tru c tio na l and learner assessment a c t iv it ie s (Briggs, 1977). 17 (10) Ins truc tiona l Strategy — A teaching method; a vehicle or technique fo r in s tru c to r -s tu d e n t communication, described by four categories: ins truc to r-cen tered , in te ra c tiv e , ind iv idua lized , and experien tia l (Weston & Cranton, 1986). (11) Lecture — "A discourse given before an audience or class" (Penrose, 1981, p. 12); "a c a re fu lly prepared oral and formal presentation by a q u a lif ie d speaker" w ith the purpose being the presentation o f factual information in a d ire c t and log ica l manner (Cooper, 1982, p. 39). (12) , Licensure — Defined by Bratton and Hildebrand (1980, p. 22) as: . . . a mandatory legal requirement fo r ce rta in professions in order to pro tect the. pub lic from incompetent p ra c tit io n e rs . Licensing procedures are established or implemented by a p o lit ic a l governing body tha t prescribes practice w ithout a Iicense. The re c ip ien t o f the credentia l is the in d iv id u a l, not a program. (13) . Mandatory A du lt Education — Education which is mandated by: (a) d ire c t regula tion in sta te I i censure laws, (b) in d ir e c t regu la tion through professional membership, employment requirements, and specialized c e r t i f i c a t e s , and (c) in fo rm a l so c ia l sanctions (R ockh ill, 1983). 18 (14) Mandatory Con tinu ing Education — The adoption of re lic e n su re or re c e r t if ic a t io n requirements by many p ro fe ss io na l and trade assoc ia tion s (Long, 1983); considered^ to be more im po rtan t fo r es tab lish ing general professional standards tha t w il l p ro tect the health, safe ty, and welfare o f the pub lic . (15) Montana Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Program — An educa­ t io n a l program based on the Federal In se c tic id e , I ■ Fungicide and ■ Rodenticide Act o f 1947, amended by Congress in 1972, requ iring licensure o f applicators who use res tric ted -use pestic ides. (16) Pedagogy — A model o f assumptions about learners iden­ t i fy in g the concept o f the learner as a dependent one, the ro le o f the lea rne r's experience as. o f l i t t l e . worth, readiness to learn- organized in to a standardized cu rr ic u lum , and o r ie n ta t io n to I earn as subject- centered. Pedagogy , represents the body o f theory and p ractice on which teacher-directed learning is based. (17) Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Exam; Safety (PRES) -'- Opera­ t io n a l ly de fined as .a 20 -item , forced-choice te s t re levant to the c r i te r ia o f Pesticide Safety, id e n ti­ f ie d as P rotective Clothing and Protective Equipment. The te s t is designed to measure the knowledge-base deemed necessary by the Environmental Protection Agency and the Montana Pesticide Task Force in the safe use of res tric ted -use compounds. 19 (18) P ra c tic a l Knowledge — The possession o f pe rtinen t fa c ts and the a b i l i t y to use them in dealing with s p e c if ic problems and s itua tions (Montana Pesticide Act o f 1986). (19) Private App lica tor (Farm/Ranch App lica tor) — A farmer or rancher who applies or supervises the app lica tion of re s tr ic te d pes tic ide (s) fo r the production o f ag ricu l­ tu ra l commodities on property owned or rented or as an exchange o f services on another p riva te app lica to r's property. P rivate applicato rs must be relicensed every f iv e years by acquiring add itiona l hours o f tra in in g or by w ritte n examination. (20) Rural — A residence, on a farm, in open countryside, or in areas o f fewer than 2500 residents; also includes ind iv idua ls l iv in g in areas o f extended c it ie s with population density o f less than 1000 persons per square m ile (CRESS-NOTES, 1983/1984). (21) Small Group Discussion — A small group o f persons ta lk in g to each other face-to -face in order to achieve a goal, such as increased understanding or a so lu tion . to a shared problem (B r ilh a r t , 1982). . , (22) System - - "An in tegra ted plan o f operation o f a ll components (sub-systems), o f a system, designed to solve a problem or meet a need" (Briggs, 1977, p. 6). T i i CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The primary purpose o f th is study was the inves tiga tion o f the teaching-learning transaction followed by the determination o f factors which might a ffe c t learning outcome in a mandatory se ttin g . The review o f l i te ra tu re chapter includes four major areas centra l to the purpose o f the study: (a) an overview o f service providers o f adu lt education, w ith spec ific a tten tion to the national Cooperative Extension Service; (b) mandatory or compulsory adult education w ith a tten tion directed toward governmental and/or le g is la t iv e ly mandated licens ing programs; (c) assumptions underlying conceptual models o f learn ing, id e n tif ie d as andragogy and pedagogy, w ith emphasis d irected toward the models as methods o f in s tru c tio n ; and (d) in s tru c tio na l design l i te ra tu re as i t re la tes to the teaching-learn ing ' transaction . Special a tten tion is d irected toward systems design and the. selected in s tru c tio na l s tra te ­ gies o f lec tu re and small group discussion. Providers o f Adult Education While the comparability o f figures regarding numbers o f adults p a r t ic ip a tin g .in learning a c t iv it ie s d if fe rs from survey to survey, the fa c t tha t the United States is becoming a nation o f adults is apparent. Cross (1981) suggests tha t by the year 2000> the la rgest age group w il l be 30 to 44 years old w ith a r is in g curve fo r adults 45 to 64 years o f 20 Iage. For those adu lts , the learning process can be defined by a va rie ty o f formats, as noted by .Tough (1971), inc lud ing de libera te e f fo r ts to acqu ire knowledge or a s k i l l . As an example o f the increase , Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) c i te a national survey conducted by the Educational Testing Service which suggests tha t in 1972, one out o f every three adults between the ages o f 18 and 60 pa rtic ipa ted in some form o f adult education, includ ing se lf-education . Research re levant to p a rtic ip a tio n suggests tha t adult education is the most rap id ly growing segment in a ll education, increasing by 17% between 1978 and 1981 (Cross & McCartan, 1984). The National Center fo r Education S ta tis t ic s (1982) estimates tha t in 1981, 21 m illio n adults pa rtic ipa ted in some organized educational a c t iv i ty , w ith nearly s ix m ill io n , or 28%, l iv in g in ru ra l areas. The increase in the number o f adults in the population accounts fo r nearly h a lf o f the growth, while the. remaining h a lf is a ttr ib u ted to the increased need and desire o f adults to Team. The need fo r life lo n g learning was id e n tif ie d as stemming from te chno lo g ica l and soc ia l changes in a d d it io n to occupational obsolescence and the needs o f special in te re s t groups. I n s t i t u t i o n s id e n t i f i e d as business and in d u s try , labo r and p ro fe ss io na l o rg a n iz a t io n s ;= governmental agencies, and community organizations provided 46% o f a l l courses taken by adults in 1981 (Cross & McCartan, 1984). Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) describe environments o f adult learning and education w ith p a rt ic u la r a tten tion to in s t itu t io n s and organizations provid ing educational opportun ities fo r adults.. Types of learning environments are described as h igh ly informal to h igh ly formal 21 22 w ith the conno ta tion o f in fo rm a lity representing "any purposeful, systematic, and sustained learning a c t iv ity tha t is not sponsored, planned, or d irected by an organization" (p. 152). Four categories used by the authors as an organizing framework fo r the overview o f adult education organizations are noted in Table I . Table I . Categories as an organizing framework fo r overview o f adult education organizations. Agency Type Categories Educational Public school adu lt education Community college Four-year colleges and un ive rs itie s Cooperative Extension Service Non-Educational Business and industry Government agencies Armed forces Unions Correctional in s t itu t io n s Hospitals Trade associations Chambers o f Commerce Quasi-Educational Cultural organizations Community organizations Occupational organizations Independent Organizations Community-based agencies Proprie tary schools External degree agencies Also important to the f ie ld o f adu lt education are those organiza­ tions nurturing and g iv ing d ire c tio n , in addition to the defin ing o f the adult educator ro le based on the organizational c lim ate . Categori­ zation o f organizations has been considered based upon who benefits from the a c t iv i t ie s . One example o rig ina tes from Blau and S co tt's 23 (1962) cm bono typology which y ie ld s .a modified version o f categories pe rtinen t to the d is t in c t iv e c lie n te le s in adult education, inc lud ing: (a) general pub lic or some portion o f i t ' ; (b) employees (inc lud ing vo lun tee rs ); (c) members; and (d) c lie n ts , pa tien ts , or customers. Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) note the crudeness o f the modified typology, but id e n tify the value o f such categories in the way they correspond to major types o f provider organizations (e .g ., schools and colleges, business and industry , professional associations.). As a part o f both adult education theory and p rac tice , knowledge o f c lie n te le categories provides an avenue fo r the id e n tif ic a t io n o f characte ris­ t ic s , which can u ltim a te ly play a ro le in de fin ing goals and methods o f adult education, as well as the re su lting program development process. A problem th a t does e x is t, however, is tha t many adu lt education organizations w i l l f a l l in to more than one category. D is tinc tions between formal and informal education, teacher-centered or lea rner- centered approaches, and t ra in in g or performance-oriented adult education become confusing. However, Knowles (1964) and Houle (1969) suggest the p o s s ib il i ty o f a broad c la s s if ic a t io n schema, w ith the education o f adults playing a primary, secondary, or sole function w ith in the organ ization . The national Cooperative Extension Service, as an example, serves as an educational organization, w ith i ts sole mission the dissemination o f research-based educational information to the general pub lic , w ith spec ific a tten tion to the broad program areas o f a g ricu ltu re , home economics, community development, and youth. A discussion, o f the ru ra l learner and the Cooperative Extension Service 24 fo llows since the learner category and organization play a c r i t ic a l ro le in the context o f the current study. Adult Education and the Rural Learner The Rural Scene in the United States The geographic ru ra l areas in the United States are engaged in a process o f change. Although, d is tingu ishab le by a d ire c t economic dependence on resources o f the land, an immediate re la tionsh ip between the social and the natural environment, low population density per squa re .m ile , and the presence o f small, c lose ly k n it communities, changes are apparent. The continental, countryside contains more than 16,000 towns o f 15,000 or less population where more than 70 m illio n people l iv e (McCannon, 1985). However, Treadway (1984) suggests tha t fewer than two m illio n o f the. 22 m illio n ru ra l people who are g a in fu lly employed labor in a g ricu ltu re , fo re s try , or fis he rie s . Dominant demographic and economic conditions are associated w ith being ru ra l. Barker (1985) characterizes the rura l United States by an ag ricu ltu re tra d it io n , sparse population, and is o la t io n . Also noted are communities being long distances from goods and services, c u ltu r­ a l ly homogeneous, and having minimal pub lic transpo rta tion . There are usually fewer cu ltu ra l a ttra c tio n s , lim ite d public services, and less o p p o rtu n ity to a t t r a c t federal and state funding fo r educational programming. The urban to ru ra l m igration, in add ition to the d iv e rs ity o f c u ltu ra l arid economic fac to rs , has increased the awareness by the fede ra l government o f th e . educational needs o f the ru ra l adu lt, 25 in c lu d in g a concern fo r educationa l e q u ity fo r ru ra l c itiz e n s . Unemployment, advances in technology, re c e r t if ic a t io n requirements, career changes, and the con tinua lly growing knowledge base prevalent in a changing socie ty provide a very real need fo r ru ra l adu lt learners to continue th e ir education. The ru ra l le a rn e r in an ag ricu ltu re s e tt in g . In 1974, the National Advisory Council on Adult Education suggested tha t the outlook fo r the occupational group id e n tif ie d as "ag ricu ltu re " was dec lin ing . S p e c if ic a l ly , i t was noted tha t farm work as an occupation would decline by 48% between 1972 and 1985. These figures substantiate the projected decrease in ag ricu ltu re as an occupation from 37.5% in 1900 to 3.6% in 1973. However, the mechanization o f ag ricu ltu re , improve­ ments in communications and transporta tion systems, in d u s tr ia liz a t io n , and the growing demand fo r research development, s c ie n t if ic and technical experience, and ecological development have changed the face o f the farmer and rancher. Rural adu lts are therefore turn ing increasing ly to educational providers as a means o f accommodating fo r needed change in th e ir liv e s . , Added to the noted soc ie ta l changes and expectations is the. consideration o f motivation behind the need fo r learn ing. Houle (1961) id e n t i f ie s adult learners as having three types o f o rien ta tion to le a rn in g : goa l-o rien ted w ith an emphasis on accomplishing f a i r ly c lea r-cu t ob jec tives; a c t iv ity -o r ie n te d , id e n tif ie d as ind iv idua ls who take part fo r reasons other than content; and lea rn ing -orien ted , those who seek knowledge fo r i t s own sake. Other researchers (Cross, 1981; 26 Knowles, 1980) suggest tha t adults enter learning s itua tions w ith a p a rt ic u la r focus in order to meet an immediate need. Recent iso la ted studies in the lite ra tu re propose the notion tha t in the past, ru ra l adu lt learners, have selected learning a c t iv it ie s fo r reasons o f personal development ra ther than fo r vocational advancement. Again, however, w ith the increased need fo r c e r t if ic a t io n and licens ­ ing, mandated continuing education requirements have been on the rise fo r va rious occupa tions , in c lu d in g ag ricu ltu re . Treadway (1984) suggests tha t motivation to pursue learning is driven by r e a l- l i fe needs. The re s u lta n t con tin u in g education and tra in in g a fte r a person's f i r s t formal round o f learn ing, therefore , is taking place at more and more junctures in a person's l ife t im e . Residents o f ru ra l communities are also described by Treadway (1984) as being o lde r, having fewer years o f formal education, and having a tendency to be more a like than are people in large c it ie s . With the number o f farmers/ranchers dec lin ing , the farm population is le f t w ith a h igh ly skewed age d is tr ib u t io n . Persons over the age o f 45 are therefore a s tead ily increasing portion o f the to ta l . The median age o f farm operators in the United States rose from 43 years in 1920 to 50 in 1960 (Hathaway, 1965). Treadway (1984) fu r th e r emphasizes the age fa c to r o f ru ra l adults by noting tha t in non-metropolitan areas, 38% o f the population is over 44 years o f age. Another fa c to r re levant to a descrip tion o f ru ra l learners is the leve l o f education completed. The occupational schooling medians, presented by the National Advisory Council on Adult Education (1974), ind icates the median years o f schooling completed fo r farm occupations 27 was 10.7 years in 1973. Those employed in farm occupations w ith 12 years o f schooling or more comprised ju s t over 40% o f the to ta l number employed in a g ricu ltu re . The National Center fo r Education S ta tis t ic s (1982) reported tha t in 1981 nearly s ix m illio n adu lts , p a rtic ip a tin g in some form o f adu lt education, were from the ru ra l United States. Cooperative Extension Service In the e a r ly 1800 's , acts designed to fu r th e r estab lish a re la tionsh ip on the pa rt o f the federal government to the cause o f education were enacted. The impetus tha t followed to estab lish centers o f le a rn in g fo r the non -p ro fess iona l classes contributed to the enactment o f the M o rr ill Land-Grant Act o f 1862, provid ing the m a jo rity o f s ta te s w ith p o te n tia l le g is la tio n fo r land-grant in s t itu t io n s . Expansion o f the le g is la tio n continued w ith the Hatch Experiment Act o f 1887, followed by other le g is la tio n supplementing the Hatch Act and adding resources fo r teaching. Subsequent le g is la t io n , id e n tif ie d as the Smith-Lever Act, became the legal basis fo r the national coopera­ t iv e extension system "and provided the most massive program o f adult education the world has ever seen" (Burlingame & B e ll, 1984, p. 34). Characte ris tics o f the Cooperative Extension Service. The char­ a c te r is t ic s o f the Cooperative Extension Service are defined by the report o f the jo in t United States Department o f Agricu ltu re /Nationa l A ssoc ia tio n o f S ta te U n iv e rs it ie s and Land-Grant Colleges (USDA- NASULGC) Extension Committee on Cooperative Extension (1968) as: ( I ) I t is educational in program content and methodology, not regula tory or f in a n c ia l; thus, is adm in is tra tive ly 28 attached d ire c t ly to the pub lic un ive rs ity system and is a major pa rt o f i t , ra ther than being attached d ire c t ly to sta te government. (2) I t p rov ides in fo rm a l, non-cred it education conducted p rim a rily beyond the formal classroom, and fo r a l l ages. (3) I t helps people solve problems and take advantage of opportun ities through education. (4) I t features the ob jective presentation and analysis o f factual information fo r decision-making by the people themselves. I t is ty p ic a lly research-based w ith free , flow o f communication among research, extension, and re s id e n t teach ing functions o f the. state un ive rs ity system, and also w ith the resources o f the United States Department o f A g ricu ltu re and other agencies, pub lic and p riva te . (5) I t fun c tion s through local o ff ic e s , which are semi- autonomous un its accessible to and subject to influence by local residents. (6) I t in vo lves coope ra tive bu t not ne cessa rily equal sharing o f financ ia l support among federa l, s ta te , and county or local leve ls . (7) I t re qu ire s coopera tive but not ne cessa rily equal sharing o f program development among federa l, s ta te , and county or local leve ls . (8) I t is p ra c t ic a l, problem-centered, and situation-based. Extension education s ta r ts w ith he lp ing people to 29 id e n tify , and understand th e ir needs and problems and to use new technology or information in solving them. (9) The fund ing and adm in is tra tive re la tionsh ips permit e d u c a t io n a l programs d ire c te d a t broad na tiona l p u rp o se s , ye t se rv ing s p e c if ic lo ca l needs w ith p r io r i t ie s determined lo c a lly . (10) I t ' i s a professional function s ta ffed by college tra ined personnel s p e c if ic a lly q u a lif ie d fo r th e ir pos itions. Program development. Program development w ith in the Cooperative Extension Service is designed as a process o f planning, implementing, and eva lua tin g an educational e f fo r t and consists o f a series o f de libe ra te , thoughtful considerations tha t lead to a prepared and w e ll- executed plan o f.a c tio n . Prawl, Medlin , and Gross (1984) id e n tify four basic points which serve as a guide in the program development process, inc lud ing : (a) expressed needs o f people, (b) analysis o f environment and other conditions o f socie ty, (c) emerging research re su lts , and (d) a dm in is tra t iv e response to recommendations and pressures o f Cooperative Extension support groups. H is to r ic a lly , the Cooperative Extension Service has been organized in to four major program areas: (a) ag ricu ltu re and natural resources, (b) home economics, (c) 4-H youth development, and (d) community resource development. With regard to a g ricu ltu ra l and natural resource programs, the Extension Service and i t s personnel extend in to a va rie ty o f ag ricu ltu re areas ranging from conducting experimental t r ia ls on farmers' and ranchers' f ie ld s to in te rp re tin g facts on public po licy issues a ffe c tin g ag ricu ltu re . Reviewing program p r io r i t ie s has become 30 an essentia l component o f the program development process w ith the need fo r b e tte r coopera tion and coordination w ith other United States Department o f A g ricu ltu re agencies and agribusiness concerns essen tia l. Montana State Un ive rs ity Extension Service In 1893, when the A g ricu ltu ra l College was established, Montana was ju s t beginning to consider i t s e l f an ag ricu ltu ra l s ta te . Although enrollment in the four-year academic program in ag ricu ltu re was low, a b risk demand soon appeared fo r short courses o f a p rac tica l nature. The Experiment S tation a c t iv it ie s , the re fo re , f i t the immediate needs o f ru ra l Montana, w ith research on the many untouched problems confronting ag ricu ltu re considered a necessity. To ass is t in answering questions from both the Farmer's In s t itu te pa rtic ipan ts and those not in attendance, the Experiment S tation began to publish b u lle tin s . Personnel, find ing themselves immersed in extension work, constantly looked fo r organizations which could ass is t in the educational e ffo r ts . With continued growth, inc lud ing special a g ricu ltu ra l tra in s , dry farm experiments, and the development o f a series o f Dry Farming Congresses, the demands fo r extension a c t iv it ie s increased. A fte r a number o f years o f continued educational work, the 1913 Montana Leg is la tive Assembly approved a Department o f A g ricu ltu ra l Extension at Montana State College, w ith the organization o f an extension d iv is io n la rge ly a matter o f tu rn ing over the resources tha t had been provided fo r the already function ing Farmers' In s t itu te O ffice and changing the name to Extension S e rv ice . W ith the establishment o f the Department o f A g ricu ltu ra l Extension and the continued p a rtic ip a tio n by the counties, / 31 Montana was in an appropriate pos ition to take fu l l advantage o f the national assistance leg is la ted by the Congress o f the United States in 1914. Montana Pesticide R ece rtif ica tio n Program Extension education can play a v ita l ro le in the formation and implementation o f a g ricu ltu ra l po licy . The task o f the ag ricu ltu ra l policymakers is described by Maunder (1972, p. 8) as: . . . to determine the d ire c tio n o f growth o f a g r ic u l­ tu re , to set goals fo r development, to devise means of achieving these goals, to evaluate progress pe riod ic ­ a l ly and to revise goals and programs when necessary. I t is usually necessary also fo r policymakers to devise le g is la t io n required fo r the implementation o f the po lic ie s which have been adopted. A g r ic u ltu ra l po licy is formulated by government o f f ic ia ls and touches upon the in te res ts o f a l l segments o f the population. However, the execution o f p o lic y begins w ith changes in the a ttitudes and a red irec tion o f action by the masses o f primary producers, the farmers and ranchers. Without cooperation o f the population, very l i t t l e change w i l l occur. The re fo re , appropria te ly conducted extension programs can serve as a lin e o f two-way communication between po lic y ­ makers and the people o f the s ta te . Questions re levant to the needs o f ru ra l people, the e ffe c t a given po licy w il l have upon the c lie n te le welfare, how ru ra l people w i l l react to a p a rtic u la r po licy , and what adjustments must be made to f i t local s itua tions are a ll answerable through the ag ricu ltu ra l extension concept. The Montana Pesticides Act Adm in istra tive Rules o f 1986, cooperatively administered and imple­ mented ,by the Montana State. Un ive rs ity Extension Service and the 32 Montana Department o f A g ricu ltu re , stands as an example o f the roles played by ag ricu ltu ra l extension and a le g is la t iv e policymaking body. The re su lting educational program, o ffered by the Extension Service, is an example o f a le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program formulated by a p o l it ic a l governing body and offered by a n o n -p ro fit, educational agency based in a land-grant system. P rio r to the m id-60's, s ta te involvement w ith the use o f p e s ti­ cides was handled by the Montana Department o f Health. In 1966, le g is la to rs began a dialogue re levant to .th e passage o f a law comprised o f severa l elements, in c lu d in g a procedure fo r the licensing o f pestic ide app lica to rs . Although defeated in le g is la t iv e committee in 1968, a special committee w ith in the le g is la t iv e council was created to study the po ten tia l fo r the development o f a pestic ide law. Basic components o f the law were defined to : (a) revise the process fo r the re g is tra tio n o f products; (b) create a licensing program fo r commercial and government a p p lica to rs , inc lud ing operators tha t worked under app lica to rs ; and (c). create a licensing program fo r dealers, w ith both areas (applicators and dealers) having to take an exam to q u a lify . In the law, the committee also ind icated tha t standards could be estab­ lis h ed fo r a p p lic a to rs to m a in ta in some sort o f q u a lif ic a tio n s ; however, th is was only fo r commercial and government app lica to rs . In terms o f p r iv a te pestic ide app lica to rs , id e n tif ie d as farmers and ranchers, the law empowered the Department o f Health to re s t r ic t a compound and, by so doing, required any app lica to r handling tha t compound to meet some sort o f q u a lif ic a t io n . The le g is la tio n was '■ ■ passed in 1970, based on active communication between the ag ricu ltu re 33 community and. le g is la to rs representing environmental concerns (Gingery, 1987). The f in a l version o f the law was based on the American Association o f Pesticide Control “model b i l l " in add ition to sta te laws from across the s ta tes. Negotiation between the ag ricu ltu re le g is la to rs and the le g is la to rs representing environmental in te res ts were held, w ith both groups wanting the law. Emphasis was placed on the questions o f: "What is licensing?" "Why should there be an exam?" and "What type o f exam would be appropriate?" (Gingery, 1987). The need fo r ind iv idua ls to have greater knowledge was assumed, w ith additiona l support from ag ricu ltu re le g is la to rs who f e l t very strong ly tha t fo r commercial and governmental app lica to rs , advanced education was needed. However, w ith in the discussions, the top ic o f how the educational information would be s tru c tu red , other than the agencies to be involved, was missing (Gingery, 1987). In the o r ig in a l le g is la t iv e proposal, the Department o f Health retained a l l the re g is tra tio n aspects; the Department o f A g ricu ltu re was responsible fo r the licensing functions. When the b i l l was f in a l ly passed, the Department o f A g ricu ltu re was assigned the re spon s ib ility o f both the re g is tra tio n and the licens ing functions (Gingery, 1987). During the f i r s t year, 1971, the licensing program was developed fo r both commercial and government app lica to rs . At the same time, Congress passed, the amended Federal In s e c t ic id e , Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), which required c e r t if ic a t io n o f applicators handling res tric ted -use pestic ides. . P rio r to tha t po in t in time, the law was s t r ic t ly a re g is tra tio n law w ith no licensing or c e r t if ic a t io n 34 in vo lved . The on ly education offered was tha t normally provided through county extension agents and a few o f the agencies tha t wanted to be involved in the educational aspect. In the m id-70's, when the Environmental P rotection Agency (EPA) passed ru les on c e r t if ic a t io n fo r commercial, governmental, and farm/ ranch app lica to rs , plans fo r p riva te app lica to r c e r t if ic a t io n came in to being. "Montana was e ith e r the f i r s t or second sta te to submit i t s approved c e r t i f ic a t io n program to EPA" (Gingery, 1987). The plan was approved and u ltim a te ly developed cooperatively between the Department, o f A g ricu ltu re and the Montana State Un ivers ity Extension Service. The e d u ca t io n a l program b a s ic a lly requ ired people wanting to use re s tr ic te d -u s e compounds to be c e r t if ie d by exam or by tra in in g . However, because a poor mechanism fo r m a in ta in ing q u a lif ic a tio n existed, representatives from the licensing agency and the educational provider began a series o f meetings in the early 80 's. These meetings culminated in a new system fo r c e r t ify in g app lica to rs■(Gingery, 1987). Not on ly was the process o f c e r t if ic a t io n reviewed, but the . question o f how qua lity , was to be maintained was also considered. The process in 1984 was considered to be one o f q u a lity ; however, a few le g is la to rs disagreed w ith the program and in 1985, modifications re su lte d in a reduction in the tra in in g requirements fo r p riva te a p p lic a to rs . As a re su lt, the Department o f A g ricu ltu re and the Extension Service again met and a lte red the system to meet le g is la t iv e requirements. For re c e r t if ic a t io n , an app lica to r needed to attend s ix hours o f tra in in g every f iv e years as compared to the 1984 system o f 35 mandatory attendance at three tra in in g programs in f iv e years (Gingery, 1987). The process involved in the issuance o f a license is based on several steps. I n i t i a l ly , a q u a lif ic a tio n sheet or document is sent to the Extension Pesticide S pec ia lis t, which is then returned to the Department o f A g r ic u ltu re bearing the names o f people tha t are requa lify ing in a p a rt ic u la r d is t r ic t (Montana is composed o f f iv e pestic ide d is t r ic t s ) . Based upon tha t l is t in g , the Department sends a p p lic a tio n s d ir e c t ly to those ind iv idua ls tha t have been in the system. The app lica tio n (s) are then returned w ith the licensing fee. The c reden tia l, id e n tif ie d as a c e r t i f ic a te , is then issued by the Department. For people who are not q u a lif ie d , a l i s t is sent to the county agent who then has the re sp on s ib ility o f contacting those applicators and ind ica ting the months in which re c e r t if ic a t io n tra in in g w i l l be provided. Upon completion o f the re c e r t if ic a t io n program, the county agent signs the app lica tion form to ind ica te attendance and p a r t ic ip a tio n in the program. The license is then issued by the Department o f A g ricu ltu re upon rece ip t o f the agent's l i s t . Mandatory Education and the Adult Learner H is to r ic a lly , adu lt education has been considered to be la rge ly voluntary, and compulsory adult education a repulsive idea. Forcing ind iv idua ls to fu r th e r th e ir education . . . somewhat concealed in promotion considerations which requ ire advanced degrees or c e r t if ic a t io n . . . is a n tith e tic a l to the ideals which the early American adu lt education movement cherished (Day, 1980, p. 5). 36 The concern is e ith e r fo r the ind iv idua l learner or i t is not; i f i t is , then the in d iv id u a l's r ig h t to a va rie ty o f q u a lity learning opportun ities — programs, networks, in s t itu t io n s — and especia lly to accept or re je c t any or a ll o f these opportun ities must be respected (Day, 1980). However, the no tion th a t some o f the educational a c t iv it ie s w ith in the life lo n g .le a rn in g process may also be the re su lt \ o f any number o f socie ta l pressures on the learner is becoming more apparent. Providing a basis fo r the often controversia l issue o f mandatory adult education, compulsory adu lt education, or forced adult le a rn in g is the pressure a ris in g from consumer p ro tection groups, p ro fe ss io na l a s so c ia tio n s , and lic en s in g boards in an e f fo r t to accommodate fo r socie ta l and occupational change. Although the purpose o f the fo llow ing l i te ra tu re review is ,not to debate the pros and cons o f mandatory education, a b r ie f discussion is appropriate since the context o f the present study is set w ith in the realm o f a le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program. With the existence o f a va rie ty o f in te rp re ta tio ns re levant to the components o f mandatory education, the researcher has provided a conceptual framework from which the l i te ra tu re review fo r the present study is s tructured (Figure I ) . Specific a tten tion is d irected to the areas o f lic e n su re and the process o f re licensure v ia mandatory con tinu ing : education w ith in the context o f a governmentalIy mandated educational se ttin g . V C r it ic a l to an understanding o f "mandatory" adu lt education is an in te rp re ta tio n o f the context in which the term mandatory is used (tha t is , the adu lt education environment)', as the concept represents, a wide 37 CERTIFICATION LICENSURE PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATION MANDATORY A D U L T EDUCAT I ON (Mandatory license mechanism regulat­ ed by sta te govern­ ment, but voluntary in nature of selec­ tion) (Voluntary regula­ tion by professional association or org­ anization) (Mandatory legal requirement adminis tered by p o l i t ic a l body) T Mandatory R ecert i f ica t io n t R ecert if Icat ion I *~1 Mandatory Mandatory Continuing Professional Education Continuing Education T Relicensure rS Mandatory R e c e r t i f i - Continuing cation Education Figure I . Conceptual framework fo r mandatory adult education with emphasis on c reden tia l ing. range of meanings. In the prelim inary data report on pa r t ic ip a t io n , the Nationa l Center fo r Education S ta t is t ic s (1980) defines adult education as consisting o f courses and other a c t iv i t ie s , organized by a teacher or sponsoring agency, and taken by persons beyond compulsory school age. In i t s more technical meaning, Knowles (1980) describes adult education as a set of organized a c t iv i t ie s carried on by a wide va rie ty of. in s t itu t io n s fo r the accomplishment o f spe c ific educational ob jectives. Complementary to the notion o f adult education as a set o f organized, a c t iv i t ie s , Knowles (1980, p. 25) fu rth e r sta tes: Adult education is a process tha t is used by adults fo r th e ir s e lf development, both alone and w ith others, and i t is used by in s t itu t io n s o f a ll kinds fo r the growth and development o f t h e ir employees, members, and c lie n ts . I t is an educational process tha t is often used in combination w ith production processes, p o l i t i ­ cal processes, or service processes. A more recent d e f in it io n o rig ina tes from Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) s ta ting tha t adu lt education is a process whereby persons, whose major so c ia l ro le s are c h a ra c te r is tic o f adult s ta tus, undertake system atic and susta ined le a rn in g a c t iv i t ie s fo r the purpose o f bring ing about changes in knowledge, a ttitu de s , values, or s k i l ls . The key fa c to r in the above d e fin it io n s , and others o f a s im ila r nature, however, is the assumption tha t adu lt education is voluntary and tha t adults p a rtic ip a te in learning a c t iv it ie s o f th e ir own v o lit io n . .3 8 Mandatory Adult Education The conclusions o f the Adult Education Association o f the United States o f America Task Force Report on Voluntary Learning (Heaney, 1980, p. 3) challenges the concept o f compulsory adu lt education as "incompatible w ith the ideals o f socia l democracy and fu rthe rs t o t a l i ­ ta r ia n , monolith ic tendencies in our soc ie ty ." Rockhill (1983, p. I l l ) , provid ing an overview o f the issue o f mandated education, s tates: The extension o f education to be mandated over the e n t i r e . l i f e span o f the ind iv idua l may be one o f the most s ig n if ic a n t social developments o f our time w ith ram ifica tions analogous to the common school movement, compulsory secondary school attendance, and the advent o f mass higher education in the post World War I I era. 39 In te rp re ta t io n o f the term "mandatory education" involves a va rie ty o f meanings and uses w ith in numerous educational contexts. A popu la r g e n e ra liz a t io n c ite d in the sociology l i te ra tu re is tha t occupations are becoming "professionalized" w ith the label loosely applied to increasing spec ia liza tion and tra n s fe ra b il ity o f s k i l ls , as noted in the process o f licens ing , or c e r t i f ic a t io n (Wilensky, 1964). The. ra tiona le underlying compulsory or mandatory education is compe­ tence, a very much re la ted notion to obsolescence, w ith shared concerns fo r keeping up w ith or maintaining some evolving standards. Shimberg (1978, p. 215) suggests th a t "the major ju s t i f ic a t io n fo r state regula tion o f an occupation is . to p ro tect the pub lic from those who are u n f it to p ra c tice ." The concept o f mandatory education appears to extend beyond the desire.by socie ty to provide the pub lic w ith w e ll-q u a lif ie d , up-to-date p ro fess iona l services. The m a jo rity o f national data re levant to mandatory adu lt education is lim ited to examples o f s ta te regula tion through lic e n su re law s. An example o f the current emphasis o f mandatory education was noted in a te lev ised in te rv iew invo lv ing a dialogue between representatives o f a national te le v is io n network and a representative o f the F lorida State Legislature and the F lorida Parks and Recreation Department (Bumble, 1987). The proposed le g is la tio n would require any adu lt applying fo r a license to operate a recrea­ t io n a l, motor-powered boat to attend a one-day educational program on boating safe ty. To re license, applicants would be required to continue p a r tic ip a tio n in the educational programs at regular in te rva ls , as mandated by the s ta te . 40 A s im ila r requirement is seen in the Environmental Protection Agency mandate re levant to the purchase and app lica tion o f re s tr ic te d - use p e s t ic id e compounds by commercia l, governmental, or p riva te pestic ide app lica to rs . In the sta te o f Montana, fo r example, p riva te pestic ide applicato rs are le g is la t iv e ly mandated to attend s ix hours o f educationa l programming, w ith in a five -yea r period, in order to re license and le g a lly be able to purchase and apply res tric ted -use p e s tic id e chemicals. Although mandated o r ig in a lly by the federal Environmental P rotection Agency, the Montana state le g is la tu re enacted a more spec ific law w ith the in te n tion o f providing continued compe­ tence in the use o f dangerous ag ricu ltu re compounds (Montana Pesticide Act o f 1986). C redentia lin g . Compounding the nature o f mandatory education are the numerous processes id e n tif ie d as a "means to an end." The Co llins D ic tio n a ry o f the English Language (Hawks, 1982, p. 351) defines credentia l as " . . . something tha t e n tit le s a person to confidence, a u th o r ity . . . . a le t te r or c e r t i f ic a te g iv ing evidence o f the b ea re r's id e n t i t y or competence." Bratton and Hildebrand (1980) suggest tha t a c lea rer d is t in c tio n could be made between the creden­ t ia l ! ' ng processes i f three factors are reviewed: (a) the re c ip ien t o f the c re den tia l, (b) the c e r t ify in g body, and (c) the degree o f volun- teerism required fo r each. Galbraith and G ille y (1985) purport the need to d is tingu ish between the processes used in mandatory adu lt education, id e n tif ie d as accred ita tion , licensure, and c e r t i f ic a t io n . While each attempts to regulate the measurement o f competencies, the methodology, population, and purposes o f regula tion d i f fe r . Bratton I' 4 1 and Hildebrand (1980, p. 22) provide the fo llow ing d e fin it io n s and d is tin c tio n s between the terms: 1 a) Accred ita tion is the process whereby an agency or a sso c ia tio n grants pub lic recognition to a school, co llege, u n ive rs ity , or specia lized study program tha t meets c e r ta in predetermined q u a lif ic a tio n s or stan­ dards. b) Licensure is a mandatory legal requirement fo r c e r ta in professions in order to protect the public from incompetent p ra c tit io n e rs . Licensing - procedures are generally established or implemented by a p o lit ic a l govern ing body th a t p roscribes practice w ithout a license. c) C e rt if ic a tio n is the process by which a profes­ sional organization or an independent external agency recognizes the competence o f ind iv idua l p ra c tit io n e rs . The d ire c tion o f the present study is toward the inves tiga tion o f a governmentalIy leg is la ted licensing program. Specific comments re la ­ t iv e to licensing l i te ra tu re fo llow in the paragraphs below. Licensure. "Society expects tha t p ra c titio ne rs o f a l l d isc ip lin es should be p ro fess iona l, and competent" (Galbraith & G ille y , 1986, p. I ) . A va rie ty o f mechanisms e x is t fo r id e n tify in g and determining compe­ tence, one o f which is licens ing . Galbraith (1987, p. 15) defines the process o f licensure as "the c reden tia ling o f ind iv idua ls by a p o l i t i ­ cal body which is mandatory i f the ind iv idua l is to p ractice in the p ro fess ion ." Friedman (1962, p. 145) defines licensing as requ iring : . . . some demonstration o f competence. . . . and any­ one who does not have a license is not authorized to p ractice and is subject to a fin e or a j a i l sentence i f he does engage in p ractice . Gross (1978) suggests t h a t l i c e n s in g is used in th e l i t e r a t u r e to r e f e r bo th to the arrangement whereby p r a c t i c e is r e s t r i c t e d as w e l l as . t o a l l c o l l a b o r a t i o n between a s t a te and a p ro fe s s io n , in c lu d in g 42 re g is tra tio n and t i t l e c e r t if ic a t io n s . The re c ip ien t o f the license is the ind iv idua l and not the program. A license is a c re den tia l, respected by soc ie ty , assuming tha t those so endorsed have demonstrated competencies in spec ific areas. The process and procedures associated w ith licensure involve questions o f e th ics , q u a lity o f service, types o f standards, and p rice o f service by c o n tro l o f supply fo r both p ro fess iona l and non-professional occupations. I t appears to be the pu b lic 's b e lie f tha t the possession o f a license by a p ra c tit io n e r is evidence tha t a sta te agency has checked the app lican t's q u a lif ic a tio n s and administered appropriate tests to ensure tha t the ind iv idua l is f u l ly competent. I t is also believed tha t licens ing boards monitor th e ir licensees to ensure tha t they have maintained th e ir competence and are s t i l l f i t to p rac tice . In add ition , the continued question o f competence, suggesting a ce rta in level o f tra in in g and achievement re levant to a p a rt ic u la r level o f s k i l l , continues in the fo re fro n t o f the licensure discussion. Spector and Frederick (1952) suggest three major trends in the 20th century regarding the licensing process: (a) fo r licensing to include an even greater number o f occupations, (b) fo r the type o f licensing to go from t i t l e c e r t if ic a t io n s to compulsory licensing o f p rac tice , and (c) fo r the ra is ing and tigh ten ing o f standards. Moore (1961) suggests tha t the existence o f licensing laws ind icates a s h if t o f opinion in the la s t century from the notion tha t people know what is best fo r themselves to the notion tha t society is the best judge. In re trospect, Goode (I960) suggests tha t the pressure fo r licensing is 43 greatest fo r occupations tha t deal w ith c lie n ts as ind iv idua ls and where competence cannot be eas ily demonstrated. Mandatory Continuing Education Stuart (1975) defines continuing education as encompassing a ll those learning a c t iv it ie s tha t occur a fte r an ind iv idua l has completed h is /h e r basic education. " Rizzuto (1982) provides a more spec ific d e fin it io n o f continuing education as formalized learning experiences or sequences designed to enlarge the knowledge or s k i l ls o f p ra c ti­ tione rs . Continuing education opportun ities and experiences "tend to be more spe c ific , o f generally shorter duration, and may re su lt in c e r t i f ic a te s o f completion or s p e c ia liz a tio n , but not in formal degrees" (1982, p. 38). The American Hospital Association, in i t s landmark statement o f 1979, suggests tha t continuing education is a planned series o f a c t iv it ie s tha t enables an ind iv idua l to acquire the s k i l ls , knowledge, and behavior needed to meet current job requirements or to remedy id e n tif ie d de fic ienc ies . The need fo r continuing learning in order to remain current in practice is w idely recognized. A tten tion to ra p id ity o f change has re su lte d in increased opportun itie s fo r adults to continue th e ir education, both w ith in the employment se tting and through external jo b - re la ted programs. Edwards and Green (1983) suggest tha t continuing education is a required condition fo r the renewal o f a professional, l ic e n se , the renewal o f a spec ia lty c e r t i f ic a t io n , and continued membership in a professional association. However, the growing concern w ith in both the professional and non-professional occupations is the 44 issue o f mandatory continuing education (MCE). As a re su lt, continuing education requirements are receiving a tten tion in three areas, as noted by Egelston (1974): (a) es tab lishm en t o f v o lu n ta ry continuing education recognition programs developed by professional associations, (b) development o f se lf-assessm ent exam inations managed through professional associations, (c) m odifica tion o f licens ing laws to make continuing education a requirement fo r re -re g is tra t io n or re licensure. How s ta te p ro fe ss io na l and occupa tiona l groups view continu ing educa tion , however, c r i t i c a l l y in flu ences whether or not s ta te licensing boards develop mandatory continuing education requirements. Cunningham and Hawking (1980, p. 13) define mandatory continuing education as "educa tion which is required o f an adult to e ith e r maintain c e r t i f ic a t io n or licensure in a vocational pu rsu it or to meet/ avoid requirements fo r a special reward/punishment." Rockhill (1983) suggests tha t education is mandated by: (a) d ire c t regula tion in sta te l ic e n s u re law s ; (b) in d ir e c t re g u la tio n through p ro fe ss io na l membership, employment requirements, and specialized c e r t if ic a te s ; and (c) informal social sanctions. Regulatory o f f ic ia ls and le g is la to rs , as an example, have considered ways to ensure tha t licensees are not only i n i t i a l l y competent, but tha t they maintain th e ir competence. One op tion invo lves conv inc ing the s ta te le g is la tu re to pass a law requ iring a ll licensees to show they have engaged in some minimum amount o f continuing education as a condition o f license renewal. At question, as noted by Rockhill (1983), is whether licensure laws, and the o fte n concom itant mandatory con tin u in g educa tion , e x is t in 45 pro tection o f the pu b lic 's in te re s t or in order to p ro tect se lf-se rv ing in te res ts o f occupational groups. A ttitudes Toward Mandatory Continuing Education (MCE) Apps (1980) suggests two reasons why states mandate continuing education: (a) Society is experiencing a knowledge explosion and professionals must be forced to keep abreast o f re levant developments, and (b) consumers are in s is t in g on competent and caring professionals. Statements purporting a ra tiona le in favor o f mandatory continuing education inc lude such comments as: (a) MCE is an assurance o f con tinued competence, and (b) MCE is promoted as an a lte rna tive acceptable to professional groups, fo re s ta llin g demands fo r pe riod ic examination fo r re licensure or re c e r t if ic a t io n or fo r a system o f peer review. Lisman and Ohliger (1978) suggest the trend toward mandatory con tin u in g education is espec ia lly evident in those fie ld s where education is a mandatory condition o f re licens ing , c it in g tha t some form o f continuing education was. required fo r 14 professions in 45 sta tes. More recen tly , P h illip s (in Jaschik, 1986) noted a to ta l o f some 40 states in which 16 professions mandate continuing education fo r re licensure . In add ition , many lo ca l, s ta te , and federal employees such as p o lic e o f f ic e r s , f i r e f ig h te rs , and ag ricu ltu ra l extension agents are required to enro ll in continuing education o ffe ring s , w ith s im ila r pressures on a rch itec ts and members o f the c le rgy. Rationale in favor o f MCE. Statements purporting a ra tiona le in fa vo r o f mandatory continuing education include comments such as: (a) MCE is an assurance o f continued competence; and (b) MCE is 46 promoted as an a lte rn a t iv e acceptab le to p ro fe ss io na l groups, fo r e s ta l l in g demands fo r p e r io d ic examination fo r re licensure or re c e r t if ic a t io n or fo r a system o f peer review. The main argument in favor o f mandatory continuing education is tha t professionals must continue th e ir education in order to remain current in th e ir f ie ld . Underlying the argument about professional obsolescence is the concern r e la t iv e to professional competence. In response to the pressure from the p u b lic se c to r, p ro fe ss io na l assoc ia tions and governmental regula tory agencies have taken steps to ass is t p ra c t i­ tioners in maintaining competence. The American Hospital Association (1979), fo r example, suggests th a t le g is la tu re s enact s ta tu tes requ iring continuing education as a condition fo r license renewal. Rizzuto (1982, p. 38) provides an example in a statement re levant to mandatory continuing education "in the f ie ld o f nursing: Inherent in the mandatory continuing education laws are the assumptions tha t ,knowledge gained w il l be applied in the p ro fess iona l's p ractice and tha t the amount o f educational time required fo r re licensure is s u ff ic ie n t to prevent outdated or incompetent p ractice . Rationale against MCE. Ohliger (1981, p. 5) suggests, "Not only is there no evidence tha t MCE guarantees worthwhile learn ing, but there is a growing awareness tha t, indeed, i t undermines i t . " This is c le a rly a statement in .oppos ition to the value o f mandatory continuing education. In response to the need fo r mandatory continuing education, as demonstrated' by pub lic pressure, Ohliger suggests tha t the recent th rus t represents p r im a rily the spread o f the in d u s tr ia l model in i t s dying days from workers in fac to ries who could not escape MCE to pro­ fessionals who u n t il recently were the imposers, not the imposed-upon. 47 The view th a t mandatory continu ing education is a safeguard against incompetence is also discounted by Edwards and Green (1983, p. 44) who sta te tha t "there is l i t t l e evidence tha t suggests any clear re la tionsh ip between p a rtic ip a tio n in continuing education as i t now ex is ts and continuing professional competence." S tuart (1975, p. 11) suggests the necessity in keeping p ractice re levant and fu tu re - oriented, but provides an added caution re la tiv e to mandated education: Educational theory te l ls us c le a rly tha t adults learn best when ob jectives are re levant to needs. In t r in s ic motivation is more productive than e x tr in s ic motiva­ t io n ; the re fo re , the person seeking education to meet legal requirements may be less se lective in materia l to be I earned and less involved in the learning process. P ro fess iona l and occupa tiona l a t t i t u d e . Cooper (1973), in re fe rence to nursing l i te ra tu re , stresses tha t learning cannot be forced. Buckner (1974) concurs, suggesting the greatest danger o f mandatory continuing education is tha t i t may focus on the ind iv idua l needs o f the le a rn e r ra th e r than encourage a process o f s e lf - assessment by the learner. Kotzan and Jowdy (1970), c it in g the work o f Yamamto, Thomas, and Karus, provide the fo llow ing : Perceptions should not be ignored by cu rr icu lum planners since meaningful ness, and, hence, the motiva­ t io n fo r le a rn in g , w i l l la rg e ly depend upon the psychological s ign ificance and in te re s t each subject matter holds in the student's mind (p. 21). Examples o f a ttitudes toward the concept o f mandatory continuing education are found in a wide range o f professional and occupational l i te ra tu re bases, a substantia l con tribu tion being made by the health f ie ld s , s p e c if ic a lly nursing. Whitis (1972) surveyed a random sample \ o f 300 registered nurses regarding th e ir a tt itu d e toward mandatory 48 continu ing education; 83% o f those responding f e l t tha t continuing education should be on a vo luntary basis. Mattson (1974), using a random, sample o f 150 nurses, found 68.4% to be in favor o f voluntary continuing education, while 23.7% were in favor o f mandatory continuing education. A s ig n if ic a n t re la tionsh ip was found to ex is t between educational level o f respondents and th e ir support o f a voluntary or mandatory approach to continuing education. Those respondents holding bachelor's or master's degrees supported the voluntary approach less frequently than those ind iv idua ls holding a diploma or an associate degree. In other words, the study suggests tha t ind iv idua ls w ith a h igher le ve l o f education were more favorable toward a voluntary continuing education program. ■ The purpose o f . a study by M ille r and Rea (1977) was also to determine a ttitudes and opinions o f a group o f nurses in northern I l l i n o i s concern ing mandatory con tin u in g education. A 25-item, . m u ltip le -cho ice questionnaire was d is tr ib u te d to 30 nurses resid ing w ith in 50 miles o f a large northern I l l in o is c i ty . A 100% return rate was observed. Of the respondents (80% o f them holding diplomas), 70% indicated tha t mandatory education was a step forward fo r nursing, while 23% disagreed and 6% were undecided. A to ta l o f 229 questionnaires were d is tr ib u ted by Larocco and P o lit (1978) w ith a 50% return ra te . An analysis o f the L ike rt items ind icated tha t the large m a jo rity o f respondents were h igh ly supportive o f continuing education, although a ttitudes toward MCE were not as favorable. . There was a tendency fo r younger nurses and less experi­ enced nurses to be more favorable toward continuing education and more 49 l i k e ly to fa vo r mandatory con tinu ing education. The la t te r was especia lly true fo r the two younger age groups (20-25 and 26-35), who cons is ten tly demonstrated more po s itive a ttitudes than the older groups (ages 36-45, 46-55, and 56 and o ld e r) . Higher leve ls o f education were also associated w ith more favorable a ttitudes toward MCE. With regard to length o f experience, there was a marked tendency fo r nurses w ith I re la t iv e ly few years o f experience to have a more favorable opinion o f mandatory continuing education. A ttitu d e scores o f the group w ith f iv e years o r less experience d iffe red s ig n if ic a n t ly from the a tt itu d e scores o f the other two groups, id e n tif ie d as having 6-15 years and 16 years o r more experience . With regard to s ig n if ic a n t p red ic to r variab les, age and number o f years, o f experience were found to have the strongest re la tionsh ip to a ttitudes toward MCE. Mathews and Schumacher (1979) found tha t 48% o f the 150 respon­ dents s tro n g ly agreed or agreed tha t continuing education c red its should be required by state law fo r nursing I i censure renewal. Schoen (1979) found 40 o f 58 nurses enro lled in a community college health education c lass approving o r s tro n g ly approving o f le g is la t io n re q u ir in g con tin u in g education as a condition fo r re licensure to p ractice nursing. Peay (1979) conducted a survey o f 1200. registered nurses licensed in Utah. . Seventy-seven percent ind ica ted they thought mandatory continuing education. fo r re licensure would become a re a l i ty w ith in the next f iv e years; 56% said they would be in favor o f MCE. Schoen (1982), from a study population o f 95,191 registered nurses licensed w ith the sta te o f I l l in o is , drew a random sample o f 395 subjects fo r the purpose o f in ves tiga ting the issue o f voluntary and 50 mandatory continuing education. A L ike rt scale was used to assess subjects ' a ttitudes toward continuing education as a requirement fo r re lic e n su re , w ith ju s t over 50*. o f the responses representing a pos itive d ire c tio n . The researcher found no s ig n if ic a n t re la tionsh ip between age and a tt itu d e . One f in a l study re levant to nursing was conducted by Arneson (1985), who investigated the a ttitudes o f Iowa nurses toward mandatory continuing education and the re la tionsh ips among a tt itu d e s , educational le ve l, and length o f professional experience. Using an a tt itu d e scale o f 15 statements on a n ine-po in t L ike rt scale, the researcher drew a random sample o f 1000 subjects from a population o f 21,910 registered nurses. Of the 1000 questionnaires, 673 usable instruments were returned. Regarding a tt itu d e toward MCE, 73% held e ith e r a favorable or s trong ly favorable a tt itu d e . Supportive w ritte n statements endorsed the importance o f mandatory continuing education. Arneson makes one d is t in c t io n , however, in the in te rp re ta tio n o f the data. The nurses p a rtic ip a tin g in the study were experiencing the re a li t ie s o f mandatory continuing education, in contrast to many o f the previous studies where MCE was treated as a p o s s ib il i ty . Nineteen percent o f the respondents demonstrated a more neutral a tt itu d e and 7% were unfavorable, resenting the idea o f being coerced in to p a r t ic ip a t in g . Of the personal cha rac te ris tics investiga ted, a s ig n if ic a n t re la tionsh ip was found to e x is t between nurses' a ttitudes and th e ir educational le ve l. Favorable a tt itu d e s toward MCE were more frequently associated w ith advanced leve ls o f educational preparation; tha t is , the nurses holding e ith e r 51 baccalaureate or higher degrees tended to have more po s itive a ttitudes than those holding e ith e r diplomas or associate degrees. Viewing mandatory continuing education from a d if fe re n t perspec­ t iv e , other members o f the a ll ie d health f ie ld , id e n t if ie d as hospital adm in istra tors, believe continuing education is so important tha t i t should be made mandatory. To determine the e ffe c t o f MCE on level o f performance o f hospita l adm in istra tors, a s t r a t i f ie d random sample o f 706 hospita ls was drawn. A sample o f adm inistrators was selected w ith a to ta l o f 1733 respondents. The find ings o f the study (Boissoneau, 1979) ind icated the fo llow ing : (1) Fo rty -e igh t percent o f the adm inistrators reported tha t the impact o f MCE would re su lt in a "moderated increase in e ffec tiveness"; 27% indicated "no change in e ffec - . tiveness." (2) , In regard to years o f experience, nearly 50% o f the respondents in d ic a te d a p re fe rence fo r the choice "moderate increase in e ffec tiveness." Level o f educa­ tio n was not a fac to r o f d iffe rence ; both adm inistrators graduating from a program in the f ie ld and those who did not suggested MCE would have the impact o f a "moderate increase in e ffec tiveness." (3) Age was not a fa c to r. In reviewing the MCE lite ra tu re , the a tt itu d e by a va rie ty o f states has been tha t the enforcement approach holds fo r th the l i k e l i ­ hood tha t at least some unsafe or margina lly safe p ra c tit io n e rs would be id e n t if ie d , exposed to remediation, or deprived o f th e ir licenses. 52 Iowa was the f i r s t s ta te to mandate continuing education fo r profes­ sional engineers and land surveyors. The Report o f the Regulatory Force fo r C a lifo rn ia , although provid ing implementation fo r a con tin ­ uing education program, has suggested tha t there is in fa c t no evidence tha t the C a lifo rn ia requirement fo r pharmacists has any bearing on pub lic health, sa fe ty , or welfare (Shimberg, 1978). A s im ila r comment was made w ith respect to the Dental Board. The a tt itu d e o f professionals in the area o f C e rtif ie d Public Accounting (CPA) has also been demonstrated throughout the h is to ry o f the profession. Future pro jections by the year 2000 (Schlosser, Lee, & Rabito , 1987) include: (1) Al I American In s t itu te o f C e rtif ie d Public Accountants (AICPA) members w i l l be required to p a rtic ip a te in • continuing education programs. (2) The national curriculum w il l be the foundation fo r a ll acceptable 'CPE programs approved fo r required continuing professional education. (3) CPE programs w il l be less instructor-dependent and the educationa l techno logy o f d e liv e ry w i l l be vas tly - improved. * (4) Mandated programs o f CPE w i l l be part o f the profes­ s ion 's peer review process. * W ith in the span o f years s ince the ,inception o f compulsory education fo r c e r t i f ie d p u b lic ’ accountants, a va rie ty o f a ttitudes and procedures have been id e n tif ie d , For example, a 1970 report suggested le v e ls o f acceptab le con tinu ing education fo r the sta te o f Iowa 53 (Lembke, Smith, & T idwe ll, 1970). In order to s a tis fy the requirements o f compulsory continuing education, formal educational experience was required, defined as an experience composed o f a predetermined subject and format ava ilab le to a group o f persons at a scheduled time w ith a q ua lif ie d leader in charge. However, in 1972, the question relevant to formal programs was brought fo r th , w ith changes in the d e fin it io n o f "fo rm al" ' and a change in the level o f acceptable education; tha t is , "The committee has concluded tha t .as a general ru le those who engage in extensive se lf-s tudy also pa rtic ip a te in formal programs o f education" (Beamer, 1972, p. 34). In 1971, a survey o f the American In s t itu te o f CPA's council, state soc ie ties , and the State Board o f Accountancy was conducted w ith 170 respondents re turn ing the survey instrument. Ninety percent agreed tha t the profession should adopt a requirement fo r continuing education (Beamer, 1972, p. 35). In reviewing the a lte rna tives fo r imposing the continuing education requirement,; s ta te regulations or statutes were recommended w ith respondents to the survey demonstrating an 80% rate in favor o f state regu la tion . ■In 1972, Brenner and Strawser reported find ings from a survey o f 379 CPA's selected at random from the membership o f the American In s t itu te o f CPA's. I n i t ia l ly , 1000 ind iv idua ls were contacted by mail w ith a re turn ra te fo r the survey instrument o f 37.9%. S ix ty - f iv e percent o f the respondents ind icated they were in favor o f MCE fo r th e ir profession. When asked i f some type o f continuing education should be a. condition precedent to re -re g is tra t io n or renewal o f permit 54 to p rac tice , 53% reported tha t such a requirement should be a condition fo r va lid a tio n . In 1985, the membership o f the AICPA was asked to take a fresh look at standards fo r professional conduct due to leadership concern about pub lic confidence and de fic ienc ies in performance and compliance. At issue was the question, "What should be the nature and scope o f education fo r accountants?" (E llyson, Nelson, & MacNei 11 , 1985, p. 95 )., As a re su lt, one o f the four broad areas fo r which recommendations were made was the establishment o f AICPA membership requirements fo r both continuing professional education and basic education to enter the profession. Studies conducted over the years by organizations, such as the Commission on Aud ito rs ' R espons ib ilities and the Federation o f Schools o f Accountancy, va lida ted the In s t itu te 's support o f the concept o f mandatory continuing professional education. Such va lida tion culmin­ ated in the 1984 Model Public Accountancy B i l l , a po licy which embodied an educationa l experience fo r CPA's. Support fo r the mandatory requirement was noted in one po ll taken in 1984, ind ica ting tha t 65% o f Texas CPA's in pub lic p ractice supported a five -yea r education requ ire ­ ment. In F lo rida , ju s t a few months p r io r to the Texas inqu iry , a po ll was taken ind ica ting tha t 70%.o f the sta te socie ty members supported ' the le g is la tio n mandating continuing education (Ellyson et a l . , 1985). Support was also noted in other sta tes, includ ing C a lifo rn ia , I l l in o is , New York, and Utah. The American In s t itu te o f CPA's believes there is a need to improve the q u a lity o f p ractice through greater adherence to standards. 55 However, i t is thought the profession, not government, should do th is . The goal is to improve a ll q u a lity o f p rac tice . That is seen as the advantage o f using a se lf-regu la to ry approach in the p riva te sector compared to being subject to governmental review by regula tory agencies (Co llins & McRae, 1987). As noted e a r lie r , one o f the two bases fo r c reden tia ling in the United S tates was teacher c re d e n t ia l ing w ith models o f teacher c e r t if ic a t io n continuing to serve as licensing mechanisms. The case fo r c e r t i f ic a t io n , as defined by the AACTE Task fo rce , include three fundamental observations. F irs t, in those cases where incompetent p ractice in an occupation may lead to harm or in ju ry , the state has the r ig h t and the o b lig a t io n to determ ine whether an ind iv idua l is competent to p ractice before the ind iv idua l is allowed to do so. A second basis fo r c e r t i f i c a t io n re la tes to the complexity o f the teaching process; tha t is , no c e r t i f ic a t io n examination or short-term performance evaluation can fu l ly assess the f in a l set o f competencies required fo r teaching. In add ition , a certa in amount o f education and t r a in in g is requ ired in order to perform complex tasks, and the education and tra in in g program should contain m u ltip le opportun ities fo r assessment o f the fu l l set o f competencies. A th ird basis fo r c e r t i f ic a t io n is b u i l t upon the recognition by some o f a body o f research evidence ind ica ting tha t ind iv idua ls who are fu l ly c e r t if ie d are more e ffe c tiv e teachers and more sa tis fie d employees than those who are not f u l ly c e r t i f ie d . However, the la t te r basis is one o f a h igh ly controversia l nature and much discussion both pro and con is present in the teaching education l i te ra tu re . In 1986, a su rvey s tu d y o f s ta te d ire c to rs o f teacher c e r t if ic a t io n was conducted to obtain opinions regarding: (a) estab­ lishm ent o f a N a tiona l Board o f Standards fo r c e r t if ic a t io n o f teache rs , (b) a u th o r ity an cl ju r is d ic t io n o f a National Board o f Standards, (c) use o f a tw o -c e rt if ic a te system fo r the issuance o f in s tru c tio na l licenses, and (d) past and proposed changes in licens ing laws and procedures (Hunt, 1987.). To access d ire c to rs ' opinions, a questionnaire was mailed to d irec to rs o f teacher c e r t if ic a t io n in June, 1986, in the 50 states and the D is t r ic t o f Columbia. Two follow-up questionnaires were mailed in August and September, 1986, w ith a 78% re tu rn . Findings included the fo llow ing : (1) Establishment o f a National Board o f Standards governing c e r t i f ic a t io n was not favored by 52.5% o f the d ire c to rs . (2) I t was ind icated by 85% o f ,the d irec to rs tha t state f teacher c e r t if ic a t io n should not be subordinate to a ■ ■ i. National Board. (3) A tw o -c e rt if ic a te system fo r issuance o f in s tru c tiona l licenses, w ith one c e r t if ic a te re ferred to as en try- level teacher's c e r t i f ic a te , was favored by 77.5% o f the d ire c to rs . (4) D irectors recommended changes in teacher licens ing laws and procedures. (5) Th irteen states reported issuing fewer licenses than f iv e years previous, 14 states reported issuing more, and 11 states reported issuing about the same number. 57 D ire c to rs d id not appear to be re s is tan t to change, inc lud ing a recommendation to estab lish performance-based c e r t i f ic a t io n . A second recommendation was to. become more f le x ib le and increase re c ip ro c ity among the states in terms o f licens ing teachers, adm in istra tors, and the school personnel. Andragogy and Pedagogy: Methodologies fo r Ins truc tion In the ea rly 1970's, Dubin and Okun (1973, p. 3) suggested tha t "no s ing le learning theory is applicab le in a ll educational se tt in g s ." Andrews (1981, p. 11) continues w ith statements re levant to the design o f educational programs: . Educational programs are not designed fo r adu lts . They are designed p rim a rily by ins truc to rs who use what they have I earned (or more l ik e ly have experienced) about teaching ch ild ren , adolescents, or college students. Butle r (1985) suggests tha t educators have long needed a comprehensive, generalizable model o f the teaching-learning process tha t would serve as a p rac tica l guide in making decisions about the in s tru c tio na l design o f cu rr ic u la . Lindsay (1984) notes tha t educators are knowledgeable in terms o f educa tiona l theory, as i t applies to the in s tru c tio n o f c h ild re n (pedagogy), but may be in a p p ro p r ia te ly app ly ing these pedagogical processes to adult learners. Compounding the problem o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l approach i s the pace a t which change has taken p la ce w i t h i n s o c ie t y . In p u t o f new knowledge, te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a t io n , v o ca t io n a l d isp la cem en t, p o p u la t io n m o b i l i t y , and change in p o l i t i c a l 'and economic systems no lo nge r extends ove r g e n e ra t io n s . The r e s u l t 58 - fo r the learner, ch ild or adu lt, is the fa c t tha t knowledge gained at any one po in t in time is la rge ly obsolete w ith in a span o f a few years. In an attempt to understand the adult learner and the learning environment, a va rie ty o f research endeavors have been undertaken. Descrip tive case studies and survey designs focused on the in te rna l processes o f a d u lt le a rn in g during the 1950's and early 1960's. Houle's (1961) typology suggesting the existence o f three groups o f a d u lt learners, id e n tif ie d as goal-oriented, a c tiv ity -o r ie n te d , and le a rn in g -o r ie n te d , set a precedent fo r adult motivational studies. Rogers (1969) challenged the tra d it io n a l schooling model, asserting the theo ry o f s tuden t-cen te red education, followed by Tough's (1971) inves tiga tion in to the area o f natural learning ca p a b ility . Early in the 1970's, Knowles introduced in to his w rit in g the term "andragogy," defined as "the a r t and science o f helping adults lea rn ," in contrast to the term "pedagogy," defined as "the a r t and science o f helping ch ild ren le a rn ." Yonge (1985, p .,160 ), however, re s tr ic ts the context o f andragogy to "those s itua tions where an adult (or adults) assists and accompanies . . . another adu lt (adu lts ). . . . " C r it ic a l d ifferences between s itua tions id e n tif ie d as andragogical or pedagogi­ ca l, as noted by Yonge (1985) include: (a) A s itu a tio n id e n tif ie d as pedagogical always involves an adu lt ass is ting a c h ild to become an adu lt; (b) the s truc tu re o f the re la tionsh ip between the pa rtic ipan ts , which includes t ru s t , understanding, and au tho rity , must e x is t between a d u lt and c h ild in a pedagogical s itu a tio n w ith more emphasis on au tho rity ; and (c) there are d iffe rences in the nature and pos ition o f the adult and the ch ild w ith in a socie ta l context. Knowles (1972), in 59 a continued e f fo r t to id e n tify spec ific elements the educator o f adults would want to include w ith in the in s tru c tio na l development process, suggested the fo llow ing : (1) Establish ing a climate conducive to learn ing, ■ (2) Creating a mechanism fo r mutual planning, (3) Diagnosing the needs fo r learn ing, (4) Formulating program ob jectives tha t w i l l s a tis fy these needs, (5) Designing a pattern o f learning experiences, (6) Conducting these lea rn ing experiences w ith su itab le techniques and m ateria ls , and (7) E va lua ting the le a rn in g outcomes and rediagnosing learning needs. Andragogy is .an unusual and d is t in c t iv e term, a ttra c tin g a tten tion from any number o f adu lt educators, in add ition to ind iv idua ls outside the f ie ld . As a re s u lt, the review o f the underlying assumptions o f andragogy and published c r it ic ism o f the model became an in tegra l pa rt o f the adu lt education l i te ra tu re during the la te 1970's and early 1980's. Houle (1972) perceived andragogy as a technique o r set o f techniques, while McKenzie (1977) suggested the notion o f andragogy as the basis fo r a philosophical po s ition . Knowles (1978) continued in ve s tig a tin g andragogy as a. learn ing theory, while Carlson (1979) suggested the consideration o f andragogy as a p o l it ic a l re a li ty . E lias (1979) questioned the need to consider d ifferences in adults and ch ild ren as ju s t i f ic a t io n fo r a varied educational approach. 60 At the onset o f 1980, Knowles acknowledged tha t adults learn be tte r from pedagogical approaches under ce rta in circumstances, thus viewing andragogy more as a technique than a theory. Andragogy and pedagogy were viewed as poles on a continuum. Four assumptions provided the basis fo r each end o f the continuum, representing andragogy and pedagogy, as stated below: (1) Andragogy is a normal aspect o f the process o f matura­ t io n fo r a person to move from dependency toward increasing se lf-d irectedness, a t d if fe re n t rates 'and in d if fe re n t dimensions o f l i f e . (2) As people grow and develop they accumulate an increasing reservo ir o f experience, w ith more meaning attached to learnings gained by experience as compared to learnings acquired passively. (3) People become ready to learn when they experience a need to learn in order to cope more sa tis fy in g ly w ith re a l- l i f e tasks or problems. (4) Learners view education as a process o f developing increased competence to .ach ieve th e ir f u l l po ten tia l in l i f e .(Knowles, 1980, p.,43)-. These assumptions, recognized as being part o f the l i te ra tu re o f adult education, developmental psychology, and humanistic psychology, have led to im po rtan t d iffe ren ces between the educational designs fo r ch ild ren and adu lts , as noted in the contrasting assumptions re la tiv e to pedagogy: (1) The ro le o f the learner is , by d e fin it io n , a dependent one. The teacher is expected by society to take fu l l re sp on s ib ility fo r determining what is to be Iearnedi when i t is to be learned, and i f i t has been learned. (2) The experience learners bring to a learning s itu a tio n is o f l i t t l e worth; accordingly, the primary techniques in educa tion are tra n sm it ta l te chn iques ' — le c tu re , assigned readings, audio-visual presentations. \ 61 (3) People are ready to . learn whatever socie ty says they ought to learn, provided the pressures on them ( lik e fea r o f fa ilu re ) are great enough. Learning should be organized in to a f a i r ly standardized curriculum , w ith a uniform, step-by-step progression fo r a ll learners. (4) Learners see education as a process o f acqu iring subject-matter content, most o f which they understand w i l l be useful only a t a la te r time in l i f e . People are sub je c t-ce n te red in t h e i r o r ie n ta t io n to lea rn ing (Knowles, 1980, p. 43). Based on these premises, the fo llow ing conclusions were id e n tif ie d re levant to the appropriate methodologies to be implemented in adu lt education: (1) Adult education should be learner-centered. (2) The teacher should function as fa c i l i t a to r and guide ra ther than as a conveyor and evaluator. Responsib ility fo r the learning rests w ith the learner ra ther than w ith the teacher or provider o f the educational experience. Despite the va rie ty o f in te rp re ta tio ns regarding the basis fo r andragogy, researchers in the la te 1970's and ea rly 1980's began e ffo r ts to define, opera tiona lize , and evaluate the concept. Research in the area o f educational o r ie n ta tio n , as measured on an andragogical/ pedagogical scale, suggested tha t andragogy could be operationalized and tha t educational o rie n ta tion might vary by gender, department, in s t i t u t io n a l s e t t in g , and d is c ip l in e (Davenport, 1984). These find ings helped to provide an empirical base fo r the discussion o f andragogy in l ig h t o f educational program planning and curriculum development. Research in to s tuden t o rie n ta tio n followed as did investiga tions and dialogue regarding philosophical o rie n ta tions , an area c o n tr ib u t in g h e a v ily to the andragogi cal-pedagogical debate re levant to in s tru c tio na l methodologies. Philosophical Origins .Beder (1985, p. 14) notes, "The issue o f how adults should be educated is centra l to the pro fess ion," and fu rth e r suggests tha t the predominant view o f andragogy is derived from progressive and humanist philosophy. E lias and Merriam (1980) sta te tha t the progressive model purports the teacher-learner re la tionsh ip as reciproca l w ith experien­ t ia l learning emphasized. The process o f learning is stressed ra ther than the content. A descrip tion o f the humanist viewpoint places greater emphasis on the learning process as compared to the teaching exchange. The teacher serves as fa c i l i t a to r o f the process ra ther than * • I as a disseminator o f knowledge. In con trast, E lias and Merriam (1980) also note the lite ra tu re supporting the lib e ra l and behav io ris t philosophical o r ien ta tions . They id e n tify lib e ra l education as an embodiment o f the teacher as subject matter expert charged, w ith transm itting h is /he r expertise to neophyte learners. The behavio ris t philosophy, although d if fe re n t in many respects, shares s im ila r it ie s in tha t the educator "engineers" the learning experience by manipulation o f the learning environment, and provides reinforcement which, in tu rn , may encourage the learner to learn what the educator desires. Both pos itions, lib e ra l and behavior­ is t , are teacher-centered w ith the re sp on s ib ility fo r learning w ith the teacher and the educational system. Both positions aire representative o f the term pedagogy. 62 IEvolution o f andragogical o r ie n ta tio n . The questions o f .teacher versus learner-centeredness, locus o f re sp on s ib ility fo r learn ing, and whether the teacher should function as expert/conveyor or f a c i l i t a to r have become a dominant component in the discussion o f methodology appropria te fo r adu lt I earners. W ithin the l i te ra tu re re la ted to p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r ie n ta t io n s , Knowles (1978) reviewed two bas ic metaphysical o r ie n ta t io n s . Here, he con trasted the mechanistic model w ith the organismic model. . The mechanistic model denotes a de te rm in is tic - in te ra c tive perspective o f humankind, while the organ­ ism! c model represents a pe rspec tive v iew ing the ind iv idua l as u ltim a te ly free and c re a tiv e ... Knowles (1974) i n i t i a l l y selected the organismic model deeming i t a more accurate representation o f human­ kind. McKenzie (1977) suggested ex is ten tia lism was at the base o f Knowles' theory, w ith the centra l concern o f needs and goals s trong ly associated w ith a main tenet o f ex is ten tia lism , namely, the sovereign freedom o f the in d iv id u a l. By -addressing the issue in what McKenzie (1977, p. 225) ca lls a phenomenological ta c t, Knowles viewed andragogy as fo llows: As a person matures he experiences a change in s e lf - concept from a condition o f dependency to a condition o f se lf-d irectedne 'ss, he accumulates a rese rvo ir o f experience and becomes a resource fo r learn ing , his readiness to learn is ordinated toward developmental tasks and soc ia l ro le s , and h is time perspective changes from one o f postponed app lica tion o f knowledge to immediacy o f app lica tion . The la t te r phenomenon in c lin e s the a d u lt to problem-centered ra ther than subject-centered learn ing. In a ffirm ing the Maslowian concept o f s e lf-a c tu a liz a tio n , Knowles ■ (1974) fu rth e r grounded andragoby in the philosophical o rie n ta tion o f 63. 64 humanism, manifest by aspects o f sub jective tru th and the c e n tra lity o f the in d iv idua !-in -the -w o rld . He fu rth e r stated tha t as a p ra c tit io n e r o f andragogy, the adu lt educator must consider tha t human beings are e ssen tia lly good and capable o f se lf-d ire c ted learn ing . The task o f the educator is not to d ire c t or motivate, but to fa c i l i ta te . With regard to p rin c ip le s o f teaching, diverse competencies o f fa c i l i ta t io n are urged, based on the cha rac te ris tics o f the adult learner. Andragogy as a Teaching-Learning Transaction Boyer (1984) provides an overview o f the need to rea lign the goals, assumptions, and practices o f education whenever and wherever learning is to occur. The author fu r th e r acknowledges the inc lus ion o f d ire c t pedagogical approaches in some instances, but id e n tif ie s the firm b e lie f tha t the theory o f freedom in se lf-d ire c ted inqu iry is the most appropriate design in many environments fo r most ages. The long­ standing commitment to humanistic idea ls , in add ition to the recogni­ tio n o f an existence o f an "organismic" s e lf tha t is present at b ir th , suggests an in te rweb o f program design based on a humanistic ph ilo sophy . . The statements by Boyer (1984) re in fo rce the la te r thoughts by Knowles (1980) in which the assumption invo lv ing s e lf - directedness is considered along w ith , ra ther than in opposition to , the need fo r a pp rop ria te f i t . o f methodologies to the learn ing environment. Truskie (1981) incorporated the "organismic" model in to management development tra in in g , encouraging the design o f educational programs based on the diverse needs and in te res ts o f in d iv id ua ls . The concept 65 emphasizes an a tt itu d e toward the student, encourages d iv e rs ity o f ind iv idua l opportun ity , and stresses the ro le o f tra in in g as the source o f development. M an ife s ta tio n s o f t h i s : tre n d , in c lu d in g n.bn- t r a d i t io n a l study and e x te rna l degree programs, have evolved r e ite r a t in g the purpose o f education in descrip tive terms as the continuous development o f the ind iv idua l throughout the lifespan. The model represents a person as an organized e n tity whose parts gain meaning and function from the whole in which they are in tegra ted. The organismic model provides an avenue, fo r in d iv id ua liz in g the process o f learning to be more c lose ly a ll ie d w ith the functions and responsi­ b i l i t i e s o f the p r a c t i t io n e r , , re cogn iz ing in d iv id u a l needs and encouraging the learner to be proactive in seeking appropriate learning opportun ities . In add ition , the model provides f le x ib i l i t y perm itting the learner to be self-paced and se lec tive in id e n tify in g methods o f in s tru c tio n compatible w ith the lea rne r's s ty le . Early-on, Knowles (1974) delineated the organismic model as a more accurate re p re sen ta tio n o f the in d iv id u a l, a model which depicts learning as the h o lis t ic development o f the in d iv id u a l's ca p ab ilit ie s fo r perceiv ing, knowing, th in k ing , fe e lin g , va lu ing, and doing, in order to cope more con fiden tly /with l i f e . This d e f in it io n o f learning requires tha t we educators s h i f t the focus • o f our a tten tio n from transm itting con ten t to he lp ing learners develop the s k i l ls o f in qu iry , and providing environments tha t are r ich in the resources needed fo r various kinds o f inqu iry (Knowles, 1974, p. 302). Knudson (1980), in ves tiga ting the andragogical/pedagogical issue, chose a d i f fe re n t approach to educational programming fo r adu lts , 66 re fe r r in g to an a lte rna tive model as "humanogogy." Stressing the development o f the whole human be ing , humanogogy represents the d ifferences and s im ila r it ie s between adults and ch ild ren as learning human beings. Humanogogy approaches learning as a matter o f degree, not. kind; adults are not d if fe re n t in kind from ch ild ren , but only d if fe re n t in degree. The po in t suggested by Knudson1s model is tha t a d u lt educators need to examine c r i t i c a l ly th e ir teaching-learning approaches and keep in mind tha t human l i f e is a process which cannot .be adequately described in terms o f "e ith e r/o r" approaches. . A s im ila r model proposed by Rinke (1982), termed "h o lis t ic education," focuses on the whole teaching-learning s itu a tio n and varies the teaching-learn ing strategy to meet the needs o f the learner, the teacher, and the s itu a tio n in an e f fo r t to a tta in educational outcomes which are greater than the sum o f the parts . The inference is tha t both the teacher and the learner bring certa in persona lity t r a i t s , teach ing -lea rn ing s ty le preferences, and other socia l-psycho!Ogicalx constructs to every teaching-learning encounter. The h o lis t ic educator .is f u l l y cogn izan t o f the s itu a tio na l variables which a ffe c t the teaching-learning process and varies the approach accordingly. Such va r ia b le s inc lude environment, tim e , and m o tiv a tio n a l fa c to rs ; knowledge, in fo rm a tion and/or s k i l ls to be transm itted ; budgeting constra in ts ; equipment c a p a b ilit ie s ; and any other fac to rs which might impinge on the educational process. In p ractice , a h o lis t ic educator might fo llow a pedagogical model a t one time and at another time act as a fa c i l i t a to r observing andragogical p r in c ip le s . I f appropriate, a mix o f the two may occur. 67 H o lis t ic education, as in te rpre ted by Rinke (1982), is dedicated to ass is ting learners to reach th e ir own unique po ten tia l and empha­ sizes the promotion o f learning as a life lo n g process. The h o lis t ic model incorporates several key concepts, inc lud ing: (1) Recognition tha t learning needs o f adults vary exten­ s ive ly ; (2) Acknowledgement tha t overa ll mental development o f an a d u lt , depending on environmental circumstances and in he ren t a b i l i t ie s , may be located anywhere along a continuum; (3) Recognition tha t learners do not have to progress to the extreme r ig h t o f the continuum to reach p o te n tia l; (4) The hypothesis tha t s k i l ls or competencies to be learned by adults may be viewed as h ie rarch ica l and overlapping in nature; (5) A b e lie f tha t there is nothing permanent except change; the re fo re , as adults move along a learning continuum, they also move along a continuum o f change. Beder (1985), however, contends tha t the controversy over the selection o f an appropriate teaching-learning transaction is not one on ly o f ph ilosophical o rie n ta tio n , but o f confusion regarding what adu lt education re a lly is . If,.', in fa c t, the issue revolves around consideration o f the process o f educating adults , two important factors must be considered, inc lud ing the c la s s if ic a t io n o f adu lt learning and the s truc tu re o f knowledge sought by the learner. 68 A va rie ty o f c la s s if ic a t io n s o f adu lt learning have been id e n t i­ f ie d in the l i te ra tu re , inc lud ing education which occurs in a natural or unplanned se ttin g and tha t delivered through learning organizations. Tough (1971) in it ia te d the use o f the term "s e lf-p la n n e d /s e lf- in it ia te d le a rn in g " in c o n tra s t to those learning from e ffo r ts planned by educational agencies. A th ird element has been added by B rookfie ld (1984) defined as experien tia l learning in addition to the natural and formal se ttin g . B rad ford (1958) p re v io u s ly re ite ra te d the importance o f the teaching-learning transaction by s ta tin g two basic assumptions. F irs t , the teaching-learn ing process is a human transaction invo lv ing the teacher, learner, and learning group in a set o f dynamic in te r re la ­ t io n s h ip s . Teachers and learners engage in a complex process o f exp lora tion and diagnosis o f needs fo r and resistances to learning and change, o f experimentation. and fa c t- f in d in g , o f te s tin g and planning fo r , t h e u t i l i z a t io n o f le a rn in g and change in the l i f e o f the ■ in d iv id ua l. The second assumption states tha t the ta rge t o f education is change and growth in the ind iv idua l and h is /he r behavior, and thus in h is /he r world. These two assumptions lay a basis fo r a re-examination o f a teach ing-learn ing theory. They ind ica te the need to combine teaching procedures and understandings of the m o tiva tiona l, emotional and cognitive cha rac te ris - . t ic s o f the teacher and I earners, w ith s k i l ls o f working w ith learners and learn ing group in creating cond itions fo r learning and change (Bradford, 1958, p. 135). A dd itio n a l d e s c r ip to rs o f the va rie d c la s s if ic a t io n systems in c lu d e : (a) id e n t i f ie d p ro v ide rs o f educa tion ; (b) goals o f 69 educational experience such as whether knowledge, s k i l ls , or a ttitudes are to be acquired; (c) id e n t if ic a t io n and meeting o f needs o f the learner; and (d) c la s s if ic a t io n based on who w il l b ene fit. The question, however, o f what teaching behavior or strategy is a pp rop ria te under what c ircumstance is , a t bes t, confusing and unanswered. To address th is issue, Beder (1985) suggests a c la s s if ic a ­ tio n system based on the s truc tu re o f knowledge sought, id e n tif ie d as formal/segmented knowledge and problem-oriented knowledge. Formal/ segmented knowledge represents an in tegra ted, cumulative body o f knowledge tha t begins w ith basic p rin c ip le s and culminates in complex and often abstract p r in c ip le s . . In order fo r the ind iv idua l to master the higher order p r in c ip le s , the learner must master the basics. In add ition , the meaning o f higher order p rin c ip les is known only to the teacher who is charged w ith the dispensation o f knowledge. To organize the formal knowledge c la s s if ic a t io n , the body o f content is segmented in to un its which bu ild on each other. Fa ilure to master in i t ia l un its o f knowledge leads to eventual fa ilu re a t mastering the whole o f the body o f knowledge; in order to ascertain the mastery, evaluation becomes the function o f the teacher. In the educational process, the learner begins w ith the id e n t if ic a t io n o f a task to be performed. Learning ob jectives are set fo r each s k i l l and a sequen tia lly ordered in s tru c tio na l program re su lts . This approach p a ra lle ls the behavio ris t philosophy in which "learn ing by ob jec tive " is the key element. 'In con tras t, the problem-oriented knowledge perta ins to d is t in c t information or s k i l ls an ind iv idua l needs to learn in order to solve or cope w ith a problem posed by the environment or l i f e s itu a tio n . The 70 p rob lem -o rien ted knowledge is in te g ra ted w ith experience i t s e l f ; learners themselves are accountable in problem-oriented learn ing. The h ig h ly in d iv id ua lize d approaches cha rac te ris tic o f teacher-centered education are therefore warranted. However, the teaching is appropri­ a te ly learner-centered and non-evaluative. A large portion o f adult learning fa l ls in to the realm o f problem-oriented knowledge w ith d ire c t im p lica tion to se lf-p lanned, s e lf - in i t ia te d learn ing. Examples include le a rn in g de rived from a need to perform l i f e ro les and learning in it ia te d by l i f e changes which comprise some 80% o f adu lt learn ing, according to Aslanian and B ricke ll (1980). Ins truc tiona l Design and the Adult Learner What is needed is a dynamic general strategy enabling learners to. se lect at any moment the p a rt ic u la r ta c t ic . th a t is optimal fo r th e ir unique configurations o f aptitudes at tha t moment in time. . . . They must have a wide va rie ty o f ta c tic s ava ilab le to them but not so many th a t they are overwhelmed by the number o f choices. They must be provided a procedure fo r adapt­ ing slow ly to th is dynamic in s tru c tiona l environment s ince a l l th e ir previous experience has been fixed treatments which have been administered to them and over which they have had l i t t l e or no control (M e rr il l, 1975, p. 219). Numerous trends and issues rep resen ting paradoxes faced by educators o f adults suggest an increasing need fo r both c re d it and non­ c re d it educational a c t iv it ie s and wider adoption o f nontrad itiona l schemes fo r c e r t ify in g learning (Long, 1983). An a c t iv i ty tha t s ta rts at b ir th and can be expected to continue fo r a l ife t im e , learning can be accidental and co in c iden ta l.. However, in classrooms and tra in in g cen te rs , f a c i l i t ie s and personnel, representing education, business, 71 in d u s try , and government are employed to p rov ide learners w ith education opportun ities and a c t iv i t ie s . The design o f tha t education opportun ity is to prepare a ll students to work and pa rtic ip a te in the socie ty in which they l iv e . The view implying the need fo r a dynamic q u a lity w ith in the educator/1 earner re la tion sh ip , especia lly regarding the involvement o f the learners, is c r i t i c a l . Mahan and Bollman (1968) contend tha t i t is p rec ise ly a t th is po in t tha t the educational process may f a i l , not in the content competencies o f the educator nor in the learning a b i l i t ie s or motivation o f the learner, but in the re la tio n ­ ship between the two. In th is sense, . . . education is defined as 'any learning process' re su lting in a change o f behavior on the part o f the. learner. Process means the dynamic in te rac tio n between the educator and the learner (Mahan & Bol I man, 1968, p. 101). Learning Theory and Ins truc tiona l: Design Learning theory. The in te rp re ta tio n o f in s tru c tio n involves a s tudy o f the fa c to rs in f lu e n c in g le a rn in g by whatever means. Romiszowski (1981) in te rp re ts the purpose o f in s tru c tio n as the promotion o f learning in in d iv id ua ls , w ith theories o f in s tru c tio n based, on theories o f learn ing. . In reviewing research studies o f learn ing, Gagne' (1970) notes three questions re la tiv e to in s tru c tio n : (1) How should the learning task be presented? (2) What kinds o f a c t iv it ie s on the part o f the student should be required or encouraged? (3) What provis ion must, be made to ensure re ten tion and fu tu re use? 72 Current theo re tica l viewpoints on learning and in s tru c tio n provide c la r i ty to an area o f constant change. Romiszowski (1981), in a review o f learning theories , notes the behav io ris t pos ition , as exemplified by Skinner, is based on a d e fin it io n o f learning as an observable change in behavior, not caused by physical maturation or growth. The s truc tu re o f in te rna l th ink ing and learn ing pro­ cesses is considered ir re le va n t to the process o f in s tru c tio n , which is, seen as the s tru c tu ring o f the environment in such a way as to maximize the probab il­ i t y o f the desired new behavior being learned (p. 166). The process is based on the p r in c ip le o f reinforcement where the in s tru c to r : (a) arranges the stimulus, (b) observes the lea rne r's response, and (c) re in forces desired responses and withholds re in fo rce ­ ment i f responses are not desired. Romiszowski (1981) continues w ith the neo-behaviorist viewpoint, suggested by Gagne', which purports ce rta in cha rac te ris tics remaining throughout a decade o f gradual change and evo lu tion . Two points which d is tingu ish Gagne' from s t r ic t behaviorists include the b e lie f in a va rie ty o f types o f learn ing, w ith each type associated w ith spec ific s tra teg ies o f in s tru c tio n , and an in te re s t in the function ing o f the in te rna l mental processes which govern learn ing. Eight, categories o f learn ing, id e n tif ie d by Gagne' (1985), suggest a hierarchy proceeding from very simple cond ition ing-type learning to complex learning such as p rob lem -so lv in g . In add itio n / lower leve ls o f learning, are pre­ requ is ite to higher leve ls . The e igh t categories include: signal learn ing, stimulus-response, chaining, verbal chaining, d iscrim ina tion learn ing, concept learn ing , ru le learn ing , and problem-solving. 73 Romiszowski (1981) a lso reviews the cognitive/developmenta l viewpoint exemplified by Piaget and Bruner, proponents o f the discovery approach as i t re la tes to in s tru c tio n . Ausubel (1968), a powerful influence on in s tru c tio na l th in k ing , was noted in opposition to the d iscove ry movement, arguing tha t much in s tru c tio n , p a r t ic u la r ly at higher leve ls o f education, is successfu lly performed by the process o f exposition leading to meaningful reception learn ing. The learning task does not involve independent discovery on the part o f the learner; the en tire content o f what is to be learned is presented to the learner in f in a l form. The approach is in contrast to discovery learning in which the p rinc ipa l content o f what is to be learned is not given but must be discovered by the learner before he/she can incorporate i t meaningfully in to h is /he r cogn itive s truc tu re . ■ The cybernetic viewpoint places emphasis on problem-solving; and ru le -fo llow ing a c t iv it ie s as compared to lower-level types o f learn ing. The premise underlying the model, based on work w ith older students, s ta te s .th a t i t is impossible to solve an in te lle c tu a l problem w ithout I ca rry in g out s p e c if ic in te lle c tu a l operations (Romiszowski, 1981). Rule learning is not considered complete u n til the learner can apply the ru le co rre c tly and on the appropriate occasions. S im ila r it ie s are noted between Gagne'! and Landa in tha t Gagne1 is much more concerned I w ith the teaching o f the rules or in te l le c t s k i l ls th a t are re levant to - ; ■ • ■ p a r t ic u la r in s tru c tio n a l domains,. “ For Gagne', the ob jectives o f ! in s t r u c t io n are in te l le c tu a l s k i l l s or ca p ab ilit ie s tha t can be specified in operational terms, can be task analyzed, and then can be taught" (Romiszowski,; 1981, p. 177). y 74 As an a lte rn a t iv e to r e p e t i t io n o r p ra c tic e , Gagne1 (1970) suggests th a t the most dependable condition fo r the assurance o f learning is p r io r learning o f p re requ is ite c a p a b ilit ie s , often ca lled "spe c ific readiness or enabling conditions" fo r learn ing. Implications fo r the design o f in s tru c tio n can be derived from Gagne's work w ith spec ific a tten tion to three fac to rs : (a) co lle c tio n o f previously learned p re requ is ite s k i l ls , (b) the set o f p re requ is ite s k i l ls not ye t mastered, and (c) consideration o f period ic and spaced reviews in comparison to additiona l p rac tice . An act o f learning requires the presence o f a va rie ty o f in te rna l states tha t have previously been learned, id e n tif ie d by Gagne1 and B riggs (1974) as in fo rm a tio n , in te lle c tu a l s k i l ls , and cogn itive s tra teg ies . Factual information can occur in three ways. I t can be communicated to the I earner in a form th a t remains accessible, previously learned, or by process o f re tr ie va l from previous learning and storage. In te lle c tu a l s k i l ls must be reca lled by the learner in order fo r learning to occur, w ith previous learning more e ffe c tive fo r re ca ll than fo r immediate new learn ing. Strategies o f attending to a complex s tim u la tion , o f se lecting and coding parts o f the stimulus, o f solving problems, and o f re tr ie v in g what has been learned are dependent on "se l f-management" c a p a b i l i t ie s o f the I earner, w ith learning supported by s tim u la tion provided by the teacher. As the learner gains experience in le a rn in g , dependence on in te rna lized stra teg ies is heightened w ith the learner becoming more o f a "s e lf- le a rn e r ." Motor s k i l ls and a ttitudes are also considered a part o f the va rie ty o f in te rna l learning events, w ith the la t te r representing the "a ffe c tiv e " 75 domain. "The e ffe c t o f an a tt itu d e is to amplify an in d iv id u a l's pos itive or negative reactions to a person, or th ing , or s itu a tio n " (Gagne1 & Briggs, 1974, p. 25). Investiga tion in to the learning emphases in in s tru c tio n suggests tha t concentrating in s tru c tio n on any one type o f ca p ab ility alone, or any two in combination, is in s u ff ic ie n t. M u ltip le aims fo r in s tru c tio n must be considered w ith the human learner a tta in ing several va rie tie s o f learning c a p a b ilit ie s . Romiszowski (1981) suggests tha t there is no one theory o f in s tru c tio n appropriate fo r a ll learning s itu a tio n s . The suggestion is made, however, tha t both nature (hered ity) and nurture (experience) p lay im po rtan t pa rts in the learn ing process. In add ition , some things (bare fac ts ) are best learned by ro te , while other th ings (concepts) are be tte r learned in some meaningful context. One may have a va rie ty o f d if fe re n t aims (ob jectives) fo r teaching a to p ic and these may require a va rie ty o f d if fe re n t in s tru c tiona l methods and techniques. In s t ru c t io n a l design. Reigeluth (1983) defines in s tru c tiona l design as a decision-making process by which the most appropriate in s tru c tio na l method is selected to teach a given ob jective under a . ' p a rtic u la r set o f conditions. Gagne’ and Briggs (1974) suggest fou r basic assumptions underlying the in s tru c tiona l development process: (1) Ins truc tiona l planning must be fo r the in d iv id ua l. (2) Ins truc tiona l design has phases tha t are both immediate and long-range. (3) Systematically designed in s tru c tio n can g rea tly a ffe c t ind iv idua l human development. 76 (4) The design o f in s tru c tio n must be based upon knowledge t o f how human beings learn in addition to fu l ly account­ ing fo r learning conditions tha t need to be established. Designers o f in s tru c tio n , however, o fte n . fin d . themsel ves caught between ,two factors over which they have l i t t l e c o n tro l. F irs t is the content, which is usually predetermined by general ob jec tives. Second is the learner who brings to the learning s itu a tio n a set o f a tt itu de s , fee lings , p r io r experiences, and knowledge which the educator accepts as a given. In add ition , in s tru c tio na l designers must se lec t, adapt, develop, and re fine a wide va rie ty o f in s tru c tiona l processes and products which can be placed on a continuum from tigh tly -o rgan ized to loose ly-s truc tu red . A key decision re levant to the in s tru c tiona l design process is the se lection o f. an in s tru c tio na l model tha t is congruent w ith the forces, goals, and framework fo r the learning o f events and outcomes. A v a r ie ty o f th e o re t ic a l and q u a l i ta t iv e a c tio n models e x is t , inc lud ing : (a) the learner generative model, (b) the ins tru c tiona l systems model, and (c) the learner-educator co llabo ra tive model. Smith (1983) defines the learner generative model as a model which focuses on the learners throughout the learning process. The learners have the p rim ary re s p o n s ib i l i t y fo r id e n t i f y in g , des ign ing , deve lop ing , implementing, and evaluating the desired learn ing. In th is model, the decision points are always based w ith in the lea rne r's framework w ith the designer assuming a ro le o f provid ing stimulus information and a c t iv it ie s fo r learner exp lora tion and by adapting these inputs through interpersonal dialogue fo r use by the learner. 77 The learner-educator co llabo ra tive model recognizes the importance o f id e n tify in g and acknowledging the learning level and resources o f learners, but also recognizes tha t the knowledge and expertise o f the content s p e c ia lis t and the in s tru c tio na l expertise o f the educator are equally im po rtan t.. The end product w i l l be tha t learners w il l acquire (learn) knowledge and s k i l ls tha t both they and the educators consider to be necessary (Smith, 1983, p. 100). The in s t ru c t io n a l systems model is grounded in a ra t io n a l, systematic, empirically-based s truc tu re w ith emphasis on the profes­ sional educator as the designer o f e ffe c tiv e learning experiences. Kasworm (1983, p. 10) suggests th is model has .. . . proved to be valuable in designing learning experiences fo r adults who must demonstrate spec ific knowledge and. s k i l ls fo r a p a rt ic u la r task se ttin g , job requirement, or c e r t i f ic a t io n standard. Some o f the elements o f the model are also evident in the programming fo r ru ra l adu lts and undereducated adu lts , showing a p re ference fo r an in s tru c to r-g ro u p format. I t is considered an e ffe c tiv e in s tru c tio na l design approach fo r adults who enter a learning experience d e s ir in g e x p l ic i t d ire c t io n and e xp e rtis e from the in s t r u c to r . "O ften , th is model fa c i l i ta te s learning in a rap id , tang ib le fashion, in contrast to the process-oriented learner genera­ t iv e model" (Kasworm, 1983, p. 11). Cited as p r in c ipa l assumptions underlying the in s tru c tio na l systems model are the fo llow ing : ( I ) Learning occurs through: in s tru c tio n based on the p r in ­ c ip les o f cogn itive psychology. 78 (2) Program design is conducted in a systematic, sequential series o f steps based on empirical data co lle c tio n . (3) Learning is structured according to definable learning outcomes tha t are ob jec tive , measurable, and testab le . Each event in the system is predetermined to lead to a change in knowledge, s k i l ls , or a tt itu d e . (4) Major issues focus on learning conditions tha t should be established fo r desired outcomes. \ (5) Learning con ten t is defined through systematic task analysis, which provides a c la s s if ic a t io n o f measurable ob jectives fo r in s tru c tio n . (6) Learner cha rac te ris tics are predetermined and screened. Learners enter the program a fte r meeting spe c ific pre­ program c r i te r ia , and they e x it the program only a fte r exemplifying the learning outcomes. (7) The professional educator's ro le is predominantly based on the s k i l ls and knowledge required fo r conducting task analyses, de fin ing behavioral ob jectives, determining and sequencing app rop ria te le a rn ing s tra teg ies fo r achieving learning outcomes, and developing appropriate pre - and post-assessment systems. Systems design. The systems approach orig ina ted in the f ie ld o f systems eng ineering .and was' i n i t i a l l y applied to the design o f e le c tron ic , mechanical, m il i ta ry , and space systems. Training then became a ta rge t fo r systems design and by the la te 1950's and early 1960's, an in teg ra l pa rt o f education. Approaches to in s tru c tiona l 79 development and de live ry have been applied to the tasks o f developing in s tru c tio na l m ateria ls , learning modules or u n its , in s tru c tio na l pro­ grams, and large-sca le in s tru c tio na l systems (Hanrium & Briggs, 1982). The term "system," in the present context, is considered to be an in teg ra ted plan o f operation o f a l l components (sub-systems) o f a system, designed to solve a problem or meet a need (Briggs, 1977). The planning represented by a systems approach implies the analysis o f the various components o f the system in a log ica l order, w ith careful coordination o f the to ta l e f fo r t and w ith f le x ib le sequence allow ing fo r s e l f - c o r re c t io n . Wileman and Gambill (1983) suggest systems analysis deals w ith the inves tiga tion o f the component events o f a task or a process and the re la tionsh ip o f these events to each other and to the environment. The sys tem atic process o f developing in s tru c tio n is usually present in the form o f a model, ranging from simple to complex. Basic steps in the process include: (a) se lection o f an o b je c tiv e (s ), (b) task analys is, (c) a n a ly s is .o f tasks to allow fo r manageability, (d) design o f in s t ru c t io n a l s t ra te g ie s , (e) f i e ld te s tin g , and ( f ) continued f ie ld tes ting u n t il acceptable c r ite r io n is reached. Dick and Carey (1978) suggest a systems model which provides a basis fo r design, production, evaluation, and rev is ion techniques. The model, i n i t i a l l y used w ith courses a t F lo r id a S ta te Un ivers ity . beginning in. 1968, does not represent a s im p lis tic or complex design, but is described as a behavioralIy oriented model which stresses the id e n t if ic a t io n o f s k i l ls students need to learn, and the co lle c tio n o f data from students to revise in s tru c tio n . The authors suggest two 80 tra d it io n s which have contributed the most to the growth o f system­ a t ic a l ly designed in s tru c tio n . These tra d it io n s are characterized by the humanistic approach and the behavioral science or systems approach to in s t r u c t io n . The authors contend tha t educators who consider themselves to be representative o f the humanistic approach have a genuine in te re s t in the to ta l development o f ind iv idua l ch ild ren . Recognition o f the importance o f ind iv idua l d ifferences and a strong focus on the personal growth and development o f the ind iv idua l are o f high p r io r i ty . In essence, humanistica lly oriented teachers believe tha t there is no best; way to manage a yC lassroom or to organize a learning experience. They believe there is no s in g le formula fo r good teaching, but ra ther a number o f approaches, one or more being appropriate fo r the needs o f a p a rt ic u la r student (Dick & Carey, 1978, . p. 3 ). Educators who p re fe r a behavioral approach to teaching view the teacher as one responsible fo r in s tru c tio n in cu ltu ra l heritage, social, re s p o n s ib ilit ie s , and spec ific subject matter. Emphasis is placed on a c a re fu l ly prepared lesson plan, lo g ic a lly organized m a te ria l, and spec ific educational ob jec tives. "In essence, these teachers p re fe r a systematic approach which u t i l iz e s research knowledge on the conditions o f learning required fo r students to achieve c le a rly defined outcomes" (Dick & Carey, 1978, p. 3 ). Both the humanistic and the behavioral in s t ru c t io n a l approaches, howbyer, emphasize the s ign ificance o f in d iv id u a l d iffe rences and the necessity fo r provid ing appropriate in s tru c tio n to the student. The systems approach fo r designing in s tru c tio n suggested by the authors brings together many o f the concepts previously stated. The 81 model includes e igh t interconnected boxes w ith a major lin e ind ica ting feedback from the la s t component to the e a r lie r boxes (Figure 2). A f in a l step, and the f i r s t step in a repeat cycle, is rev is ing the in s t r u c t io n based on data summarized from the various formative . I evaluations. Summative evaluation is the culm inating evaluation o f the effectiveness o f the in s tru c tio n and is not considered a part o f the design process. "The model described here is intended to be used at tha t po in t when the in s tru c to r is "ab le to id e n tify a spec ific in s tru c ­ tiona l goal" (Dick & Carey, 1978, p. 11). Selection o f Ins truc tiona l Method Approaches to in s tru c tio na l improvement have taken many forms and have been guided by a v a r ie ty o f philosophical o rien ta tions and assumptions. Some approaches have emphasized the systematic design o f in s tru c tio n , while others have begun w ith the assumption tha t personnel need tra in in g in spec ific teaching s k i l ls . S t i l l others advocate the design o r redesign o f courses ■ as the po in t fo r improvement. In add ition , c la r if ic a t io n as to what is meant by the term " in s tru c tio n a l (teaching) method" is a c r i t ic a l, pa rt o f the review o f in s tru c tiona l development l i te ra tu re . Verner and Booth (1964) attempted to analyze and c la ss ify the purposes and operations o f adult education by proposing a d is t in c tio n among methods, techniques, and devices as processes o f adu lt education, de fin ing each as fo llow s: ( I ) Method was defined as the re la tionsh ip established by the in s t i tu t io n w ith a po ten tia l body o f pa rtic ipan ts Identify Instructional Goal(s) Source: Revise Instruction Develop Instructional Strategy Write Performance Objectives Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation Develop Criterion- Referenced Test Items Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation Identify Entry Behaviors, Characteristics Develop and Select Instructional Materials Conduct Instructional Analysis OO PO Dick & Carey, 1978, p. 9. Figure 2. Systems design approach fo r developing in s tru c tion 83 fo r the purpose o f system atica lly d iffu s in g knowledge among a prescribed but not necessarily f u l ly id e n tif ie d pub lic . (2) Technique was id e n t if ie d as the re la tionsh ip estab­ lished by the in s tru c tio na l agent (adu lt educator) to f a c i l i t a t e learning among a p a rtic u la r and prec ise ly defined body o f pa rtic ipan ts in a spec ific s itu a tio n . (3) Device(s) was. id e n tif ie d as the mechanical instruments or environmental factors used by the adu lt educator to augment the methods and techniques employed. Method described the way in which people were, organized fo r in s tru c tio n , while technique, described what an adu lt educator did to help adults learn. App lica tion o f the c la s s if ic a t io n o f processes suggests tha t once the method has been determined, a broad range o f techniques and devices become ava ilab le fo r se lection and implementa­ tio n in order to f a c i l i t a te a va rie ty o f types o f learning in spec ific s itua tions . The emphasis placed on method as a c la s s if ic a t io n o f process pa ra lle ls to some degree Knowles' (1980) reassessment o f pedagogy and andragogy as " in s tru c tio n a l methodologies." Philosophical o rien ta tions o f a d u lt education, as defined by E lias and Merriam (1980), c a ll a t te n t io n to the c h a ra c te r is t ic s . o f the lib e ra l and behavio ris t ph ilo soph ies as teache r-cen te red compared to the progressive and humanist o rien ta tions characterized as co llabo ra tive and fa c i l i t a t iv e . Davenport and Davenport (1985) suggest an educator adhering to the set o f pedagogical assumptions would advocate an in s tru c tio na l climate tha t 84 was formal, au tho rity -o rien ted , and competitive. The in s tru c to r would have the re sp o n s ib ility fo r diagnosing o f needs, planning, formulation o f ob jectives, and evaluation, w ith the design o f the in s tru c tiona l process dependent upon the log ic o f the subject matter and content u n its . T rad itiona l formats would be used to transm it information from in s tru c to r to student, w ith in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies inc lud ing lec tu re , assigned readings, and canned audio-visual presentations. The authors o ffe r an opposite approach stemming from andragogical assumptions, suggesting an in s tru c tio na l climate tha t is mutually respec tfu l, in formal, and co llabo ra tive . In s tru c to r and student would work toward a mutual process re la tiv e to diagnosing o f needs, planning, formulation o f ob jec tives, and- evaluation. C r it ic a l to the design o f the in s tru c tio n would be the student readiness to learn, w ith learning occurring from experien tia l techniques a c tive ly invo lv ing the learner. In s truc tiona l s tra teg ies or techniques would include group discussion, ro le p la y in g , s k i l ! - p ra c t ic e e xe rc ises , f ie ld p ro je c ts , a c tio n p ro jec ts , laboratory methods, consu lta tive supervision, demonstration, seminars, the case method, and the c r it ic a l- in c id e n t process. The ind iv idua l responsible fo r the learning s itu a tio n , previously id e n t i­ f ie d as the in s tru c to r , would be more properly viewed as a fa c i l i t a to r o f le a rn in g ra th e r than as a disseminator o f in formation. Both in s tru c tio na l methodologies — pedagogy and andragogy — represent the systematic d iffu s io n o f knowledge by an o rgan iza tion /ins titu tion /agency to a prescribed audience. A lte rna tive in te rp re ta tio ns regarding the terminology o f in s tru c - . * - t t io n a l methods in c lude an awareness o f tra d it io n a l stra teg ies to 85 in s tru c tio n such as lec tu re , assigned readings, and use o f textbook and re c ita tio n , as compared to what is termed "n o n -tra d it io n a l" techniques such as ind iv idua lized in s tru c tio n , c re d it fo r experience, performance con tracting , fa c i l i t a t iv e s e lf- tra in in g workshops, and technology as a mode o f s e l f - in s t r u c t io n ( i . e . , cable te le v is io n , audio cassette in s tru c tio n , in te ra c tiv e computer programs). Laska (1984) suggests the existence o f four basic methods of. in s tru c tio n w ith each o f the fou r c o n s is tin g o f a number o f spec ific techniques. The four methods include presentation, p rac tice , discovery, and reinforcement. Specific s tra te g ie s or techniques fo r p re se n ta tio n , fo r example, include lec tu re , f i lm , f ie ld t r ip , or demonstration. An a lte rna tive to the presentation method is seen in the discovery method invo lv ing s truc tu re and student involvement in discovery a c t iv it ie s w ith the knowledge coming from w ith in the learner. Ins truc tiona l Strategies The se lection or development o f teaching s tra teg ies is a very complex, ye t often overlooked area. Dick and Carey (1978, p. 106) suggest tha t an . . . 'in s tru c tio n a l s tra tegy ' describes the general components o f a set o f in s tru c tio na l materia ls and the procedures tha t w il l be used w ith those materia ls to e l i c i t p a rt ic u la r learning outcomes from students. Five major components comprise an in s tru c tiona l s tra tegy, inc lud ing : (a) p r e - in s tru c t io n a l a c t iv i t ie s , (b) in fo rm a tio n p resen ta tion , (c) student p a rt ic ip a tio n , (d) te s tin g , and (e) fo llow -through. The term " in s tru c tio n a l s tra tegy" is used to describe both the teaching method and the materia ls used in the teaching process, and is 86 d e fin e d as the v e h ic le o r te c h n iq u e fo r in s tru c to r -s tu d e n t communication. Ins truc tiona l stra tegy can be described as comprising at least four categories: (a) ins truc to r-cen te red , (b) in te ra c tive , (c) ind iv idua lized , and (d) e xpe rie n tia l. The most fam ilia r o f the instructo r-cen tered methods is lec tu re , characterized by the teacher being p r im a rily responsible fo r conveying information to a group o f students; the d ire c tio n o f communication tends to be one-way, from the in s tru c to r to the audience. At the lower leve ls o f the cogn itive domain, the goal o f the in s tru c tio n is to expose students to informa­ tio n or concepts or values. Students are expected to demonstrate only tha t they have received and retained the information; they do not have to use i t . Weston and Cranton (1986, p. 260) s ta te : The lec tu re is an e f f ic ie n t and e ffe c tive method fo r in s tru c tio n at the lower leve ls (knowledge and compre­ hension) o f the cogn itive domain, p a r t ic u la r ly in large c lasses ; s tudents are passive ra th e r than active pa rtic ipan ts in the teaching and learning process. In te ra c tive methods u t i l iz e communication among students, as well as between in s tru c to r and students, and are characterized by active p a rt ic ip a tio n . Class discussion, a commonly used in te ra c tiv e method, is p a r t ic u la r ly e ffe c tiv e fo r in s tru c tio n in the upper leve ls o f the cogn itive domain (analys is, synthesis, eva luation), and in a ll leve ls o f the a ffe c tiv e domain. When the group is la rger, students' in te res ts are varied, or when students fee l .more comfortable w ith a smaller number o f in d iv id ua ls , discussion groups can be used in place o f class d iscu ss io n . "The na ture o f th is .type o f learning requires tha t students in te ra c t w ith the concepts in some way or th a t they in te ra c t w ith other students, the in s tru c to r , or in a s itu a tio n in the real 87 world " (Weston & Cranton, 1986, p. 278). Instructo r-centered and in te ra c t iv e in s tru c t io n a l s tra teg ies represent techniques commonly implemented in to learning experiences fo r adults . A more deta iled discussion o f the lec tu re and small group discussion techniques is provided in the paragraphs tha t fo llow , since they represent the in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies fo r the present study. Lecture s tra tegy . "Lecture occurs whenever a teacher is ta lk in g and students are lis te n in g " ( Lowman, 1984, p. 96). Penrose (1981, p. 12) defines lec tu re as "a discourse given before an audience or class, e tc ." Cooper (1982, p. 39) defines lectu re as "a ca re fu lly prepared oral and formal presentation by a qua lif ie d speaker" w ith the purpose being the presentation o f fac tua l' information in a d ire c t and log ica l manner. The stra tegy is p a r t ic u la r ly appropriate fo r tha t information not re ad ily ava ilab le elsewhere. Although what constitu tes a lec tu re appears obvious, the l i t e r a ­ tu re suggests v a r ia t io n s from the teacher ta lk in g to a group o f s tuden ts , who are presumably lis te n in g , to teachers who encourage questions on the part o f the students, dr ask questions themselves. Wallen and Travers (1963, p. 481) suggest, "About the most d e f in it iv e statement one can make about the lec tu re method is tha t during most o f the time the in s tru c to r is 'ta lk in g to ' the students." A va rie ty o f lectu re .types e x is t, ranging from a formal oral essay to the lectu re laboratory w ith va ria tions in between, includ ing the e xp os ito ry le c tu re , p rovoca tive le c tu re , le c tu re demonstration, question -lectu re , and le c tu re -re c ita tio n (Lowman, 1984). Sweeney and Reigeluth (1984) emphasize the va ria tions o f the general lectu re model 88 as the in te ra c t iv e le c tu re , the demonstrational lec tu re , and the in te ra c tive demonstration. Advantages and disadvantages o f the lectu re stra tegy have been debated fo r years in the educational l i te ra tu re . Weaver (1980) suggests one o f the greatest advantages is tha t lec tu re is an exce llen t vehicle fo r presenting human models to a group ( i . e . , e ffe c tive in creating in an audience a sense o f re la tionsh ip between, the model and the subject the model is presenting). That is to say, The presentation o f the subject matter by the person­ a l i t y has an a ffe c tiv e impact on the audience in tha t i t w il l make d ire c t associations between the value of the in fo rm a tio n and the impressions i t has o f the speaker (Sweeney & Reigeluth, 1984, p. 7 ). Other advantages include the suggestion tha t lectu re is an economical stra tegy, is f le x ib le , and is read ily transcribed or recorded and can be re-used eas ily . Cashin (1985, p. 2), however, states nine weak­ nesses o f the tra d it io n a l lectu re stra tegy as: (1) Lectures lack feedback to the in s tru c to r about the student's learn ing. (2) In lec tu res, the students are passive. (3) Students' a tten tion wanes qu ick ly (in 15 or 25 minutes according to s tud ies). (4) Information learned in lectures tends to be fo r ­ gotten qu ick ly . (5) Lectures presume tha t a ll students are learning at the same pace and level o f understanding. (6) Lectures are not well suited to higher leve ls o f learning such as app lica tion , analysis, synthesis, in fluenc ing a ttitudes or values, developing motor s k i l ls . (7) Lectures are not well suited to learning complex, de ta iled , or abstract m a te ria l. (8 ) . Lectures require an e ffe c tiv e speaker. 89 (9) Lectures emphasize learn ing by lis te n in g , which is a disadvantage fo r students who pre fe r to learn by reading, doingi or some other mode. Gagne' (1977) e a r l ie r suggested the lack - o f effectiveness o f the tra d it io n a l teaching methods, most o f which were centered around the le c tu re , in tha t they do not promote the kind o f involvement and re sp on s ib ility needed fo r e ffe c tiv e learn ing. In regard to appropriate use o f the lectu re s tra tegy, Sweeney and ReigeTuth (1984, p. 8) suggest the fo llow ing times and places fo r implementation: (a) when large numbers o f students must, or can be, in s tru c te d a t the same time; (b) when the group is homogeneous; (c) when there is a need to arouse in te re s t in a subject; (d) when information is urgent; and (e) when information changes rap id ly or f re q u e n tly . However, Osterman and Coffey (1980) suggest spec ific s itua tions where the lec tu re stra tegy is inappropria te, includ ing the fo llow ing : (a) when subject matter is h igh ly abstract or complex, (b) when long-term re ten tion is necessary, (c) when immediate evalua­ tio n o f ind iv idua l understanding is required, and (d) when ind iv idua l student record management is required. Group d iscussion. Rogers (1969) advocates the transformation o f students in to a community o f learners. The premise is based on a b e lie f tha t students need to be assisted in becoming active in the learning process w ith the teacher becoming a f a c i l i t a to r o f learning ra ther than the tra d it io n a l dispenser o f knowledge. Bri I hart (1982) suggests the view tha t learning is much more than the acqu is ition o f actual information and s k i l ls . "Learning has come to mean any change th a t comes about in a person due to experience; education as the 90 s tru c tu r in g o f s itu a t io n s in which change w i l l be fa c i l i ta te d " (p. 290). Three kinds o f circumstances are c ited by Harnack and Test (1964) as operating to bring together the members o f a discussion group, includ ing casual circumstances, vo luntary association, or as a re su lt o f some organizational requirement. Implied . . . is tha t the group's goal is to seek—in the best in te res ts o f the group and the circumstances— the tru th , the best answers, the wisest decision, or the most p rac tica l course o f action at any given po in t in time (Potter & Anderson, 1976, p. 2). When deciding to implement group discussion, Woeste (1967) states three important assumptions the adu lt educator is making. F irs t, the educator assumes tha t a climate w i l l e x is t in the group so tha t ind iv idua ls w i l l in te ra c t and feel free to enter in to discussion, te s t th e ir ideas, and evaluate ideas suggested by others. Second, the educator is assuming th a t the members o f the discussion group are fam ilia r w ith and understand the content to be discussed and are able to verba lize th e ir thoughts. Th ird, the educator is assuming tha t the ind iv idua ls involved have s u ff ic ie n t experience in discussion groups to perform e ffe c t iv e ly as group members. Discussion provides an avenue to meet a va rie ty o f educational ob jectives. Lowman (1984) suggests tha t discussion is most useful to teach the process o f learn ing, id e n t if ie d as th in k ing . Discussion is also.considered to be a p a r t ic u la r ly e ffe c tiv e way o f revealing learner a ttitudes in add ition to increasing learner involvement. The technique can also promote learner rapport, independence, and motivation . 91 Small group discussion. B r ilh a r t (1982, p. 4) defines small group as: . . . a group o f a size such tha t members can a ll perceive each other as ind iv idua ls w ith awareness o f the ro le o f each member,, who meet face -to -face , share some id e n tity or common purpose, and share standards fo r governing th e ir a c t iv it ie s as members. Bormann (1975) suggests group discussion re fers to one or more meetings o f a small group o f people who thereby communicate, face -to -face , in order to f u l f i l l a common purpose and achieve a group goal. The d e fin it io n implies several cha rac te ris tics o f the technique as: (1) The number o f members is small enough fo r each to be aware o f and have some reaction to each other (from three to ra re ly more than 15 members). (2) There is a mutually interdependent purpose so tha t the success o f each member is contingent upon the success o f the en tire group in reaching th is goal. (3) Each person has a sense o f belonging, o f being a part o f the group. (4) Oral in te rac tio n is used, invo lv ing speech communication v ia both verbal and nonverbal symbols. I (5) A sense o f cooperation ex is ts among the members. The value o f discussion is noted by Wagner and Arnold (1965) in four ways. F irs t , discussion allows fo r the app lica tion o f empirical thought to the processes o f group de lib e ra tion . Second, some problems can be more a ccu ra te ly and e f f ic ie n t ly solved by groups than by in d iv id u a ls . Th ird is the fa c t tha t those who share in forming decisions are usually w il l in g to support decisions afterward. F in a lly , 92 experience in problem-solving discussion helps to estab lish habits o f th in k in g and communication th a t prove va luab le in o the r human a c t iv it ie s . L im ita tions o f the stra tegy, as noted by Harnack and Fest (1964), include: ( I) Discussion consumes time. (2) Discussion technique spreads re sp on s ib ility fo r q ua lity con tribu tion . (3) Technique may be lim ited by diverse and value systems o f pa rtic ip an ts . c o n flic t in g (4) D iscussion is poorly suited fo r provid ing emergency decisions. (5) Discussion technique may be unable to cope o f status d ifferences w ith in the group. w ith e ffec ts In add ition , id e n t if ic a t io n and/or arrangements fo r the physical set-up fo r small group discussion can provide a ba rr ie r in the use o f the technique. Upon considering small group discussion as a teaching-learning method, the teacher takes a much more subsidiary ro le . Figure 3 dep ic ts the communication process as noted by group discussion in contrast to Figure 4 which depicts communication patterns in formalized teaching, using lec tu re as an example (H il ls , 1979, p. 58). The major ro le o f the educator is to make sure tha t the purpose o f the p a rtic u la r s tra te g y or technique is f u l f i l l e d in addition to encouraging the student to exchange ideas and seek and/or give help. 93 I TEACHER STU D EN T Z=-STUD ENT Figure 3. Communication pattern represented by small group discussion. T E A C H E R ------------S=-STUD ENT Figure 4. Communication pattern represented by formal­ ized teaching method o f lec tu re . Case study. B r ilh a r t (1982, p. 287) defines case discussion as "a learning discussion beginning w ith consideration o f a spec ific problem or 'case' about which group members exchange perceptions and ideas, as possible so lu tio n s ." Cooper (1981) defines a case as a w e ll-w ritte n descrip tion o f a series o f incidents or a p a rtic u la r s itu a t io n ,w r it te n in as much de ta il as possible. 94 In conducting a case study, i t is the teacher who lis te n s and asks questions; the students define the elements, analyze the problem, propose so lu tions , and begin to gain confidence in th e ir a b i l i t y to come up w ith answers (Gorman, 1969, p. 109). Synonyms fo r the term include case analysis technique, case conference discussion, and case method. The case study technique has app lica tion to a wide range o f problems and consists o f presenting a discussion group w ith a descrip­ tio n o f a s itu a tio n which the members are f i r s t to examine and then to suggest procedures fo r handling (Harnack & Fest, 1964). Dunn and Dunn (1978, p. 74) s ta te , "A case study stimulates and helps to develop , ana ly tica l s k i l ls . " The format also provides the fo llow ing : (1) A s tra te g y fo r developing material w ith in the . s tudent's frame o f reference. (2) An approach tha t can be s tim u la ting and meaningful i f student id e n t if ic a t io n is fostered and debate is s tructured to understand d iffe re n t points o f view on recognized problems and s itu a tio n s . (3) Safe, nonthreatening s itua tions fo r students who can enter the analysis w ithout d ire c t personal e ffe c t. (4) T ra in in g and development in problem so lv ing , ana ly tica l s k i l ls , a r r iv in g at conclusions, and planning fo r new d ire c tions in learning s itua tions and in real l i f e (Dunn & Dunn, 1978, pp. 74-75). Format fo r case studies may be w ritte n as very short s to r ie s , audio or videotaped dramatizations, f ilm s , psychodramas, news events, or h is to r ic a l happenings — real or f ic t io n a l. The focus should be on a s ing le event, in c iden t, or s itu a tio n . C r it ic a l to the success o f th is small-group technique is the relevance; tha t is , the re a li ty or p o te n t ia l c r e d ib i l i t y re la te d to the frame o f reference o f the students. Andrews (1960, p, 215) s ta tes, "A good case is the veh ic le 95 by which a chunk o f re a li ty is brought in to the classroom to be worked over by the class and in s tru c to r ." Research Findings Regarding Lecture and Discussion Strategies The effectiveness o f lectu re compared w ith discussion or other in s tru c tio n a l techniques has been documented in the lite ra tu re fo r decades. The fo llow ing statements summarize find ings o f Verner and Dickinson (1967) and other researchers re la tiv e to associated charac­ te r is t ic s and comparative e ffectiveness: ' (1) Popu la tions inc luded p re -adu lt students enro lled in c lasses conducted by educa tiona l in s t i tu t io n s , and adults e ith e r in classes or in other kinds o f in s tru c ­ tiona l s itu a tio n s . (2) Immediate or delayed re ca ll o f factual information has been the major basis fo r measures o f learning achieved. In add ition , learning has also been measured by degree o f m odifica tion o f spec ific a ttitudes toward technique. Bane (1931), based on a series o f experiments w ith le c tu re and discussion employing s ix in s truc to rs in three colleges, concluded two major po in ts : (a) lecture and group d iscuss ion are approx im ate ly equal in effectiveness when the c r ite r io n is immediate re ca ll o f. fa c ts , and (b) discussion resu lts in. greater re tention o f measured information than does lec tu re . (3) Captive p a r t ic ip a n ts comprise popu la tions re a d ily a v a ila b le fo r study and expe rim en ta tion ; research 96 design w ith th is population has involved lec tu re as an in s tru c tio n a l technique used in class method and fo r acqu is ition and re ten tion o f information. In add ition , e ffe c t o f class size on learning has been a po in t o f inves tiga tion w ith the m a jo rity o f studies find ing tha t class size was not a s ig n if ic a n t va riab le . (4) Verner and Dickinson (1967) note the 1953 work by Bloom regarding the variab le o f student response. Lecture was successful in securing a tten tio n , but evoked p rim a rily those thoughts which were appropriate fo r fo llow ing and comprehending o f information. (5) Form o f presentation o f factua l information has been explored re levant to order o f material presented, length o f sentences, d i f f ic u l t y o f m a te ria l, cu ltu ra l level o f s tuden t, re p e t it io n o f m a te ria l, v is ib le actions o f le c tu re r , and de live ry s ty le (H ildebrandt & Stevens, 1963; J e rs iId , 1928; Kramer & Lewis, 1951). Hovland, Jam’ s, and Ke lly (1953) ind ica te tha t variab les such as c r e d ib i l i t y o f the le c tu re r, order o f presentation, presentation o f one side o f an issue versus presentation o f both sides, and em otiona lity o f argument are factors in de te rm in ing the e ffe c t o f a lec tu re . McKeachie (1963) c ite s ,the Yale studies as ind ica ting tha t the greatest change in reported behavior occurred in those groups to which a m inimally fear-arousing lec tu re was given. 97 (6) With respect to immediate re c a ll, a "preponderance o f the evidence ind icates the u t i l i t y o f the lectu re when the in s t ru c t io n a l o b je c t iv e invo lves the immediate re ca ll o f in formation. . . . " (Verner & Dickinson, 1967, p. 89). I t is evident from the work by Verner and Dickinson (1967) tha t as early as the 1930's, researchers were inves tiga ting the s tra teg ies o f lec tu re and group discussion in l ig h t o f acqu is ition and re ten tion o f information. S tova ll (1956, p. 10) posed the question re levant to the inqu iry in to effectiveness o f in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies as: What are the comparative values o f the lec tu re and group discussion fo r increasing students' knowledge, improving th e ir a b i l i t y to th in k c r i t ic a l ly , and as a means o f developing more democratic a ttitudes? Ricard (1946) concluded from a series o f experiments a t Northwestern U n iv e rs ity in v o lv in g p re - te s ts and end-tests , tha t "teacher-led" discussion produced improved resu lts by 17%. A fo llow -up s ix months la te r ind icated the discussion sections scored 56% higher than th e ir matched lectu re sections. Two studies inves tiga ting immediate re ca ll fu rth e r substantiated the e a r lie r find ings by Bane (1931). Gerberick and Warner (1936), in a study comparing le c tu re and discussion s tra teg ies in .th e teaching o f American Government a t the Un ivers ity o f Arkansas, revealed l i t t l e d iffe rence in the a b i l i t y to impart informa­ tio n . Johnson and Smith (1953) also corroborated previous find ings in a study o f e f fe c ts o f d i f fe r e n t types o f leadership in college classrooms, concluding tha t in terms o f immediate re c a ll, no s ig n i f i ­ cant d ifferences in effectiveness o f the two methods existed. 98 Palmer and Verner (1959), in ves tiga ting techniques, conditions, and s itu a t io n a l contexts, compared three in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies : lec tu re , discussion, and lectu re-d iscuss ion . A ir Force o ff ic e rs and cadets comprised the 130 students enrolled in av ia tion physiology classes, ranging in age from 19 to 27. A standardized aptitude te s t was used to determine acqu is ition and reca ll o f knowledge. Using a p re -te s t to measure students' knowledge o f the content at the beginning o f the course, a 50-item tru e -fa lse te s t was constructed and adminis­ tered to the three groups. The same te s t was administered to the three groups at the end o f the course. On the f in a l te s t, no s ig n if ic a n t d ifferences existed :among the three groups. As an added check on the resu lts o f the te s t, the scores fo r the three groups were computed from the resu lts atta ined by the students on an A ir Force standardized te s t, described as a 50-item mu ltip le -cho ice te s t designed to determine students' status w ith respect to minimal content required. The scores from th is te s t showed a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence between lectu re and le c tu re -d is cu ss io n groups ind ica ting a gain in achievement by the lectu re group. In the work by Verner and Dickinson (1967), research id e n tif ie d w ith adult groups outside the in s t i tu t io n a l, classroom se tting has been v a r ie d . V a riab les inves tiga ted include the p a rtic ip a n t, form o f presentation, comparative e ffectiveness, and a ttitudes and behavior. Numerous studies have investigated behavior o f pa rtic ipan ts during a lec tu re . With regard to form o f presentation, studies suggest the i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y o f a lectu re tends to increase as the educational level o f the audience increases. Vernon (1950) suggests th a t, in general, 99 very l i t t l e o f a le c tu re can be reca lled except in the case o f lis tene rs w ith above average education and in te llig e n ce . Goldin (1948) and Vernon (1952) suggest tha t learning from lectu re is re la ted to the formal educationa l level o f the p a rtic ip a n t, arid those w ith more education learn more from a lec tu re than those w ith less. Length o f time has also been established as an important fa c to r; Trenamen (1951) suggests tha t learning begins to dim inish a fte r 15 minutes and at 45 minutes the lea rne r is in danger o f losing much o f the material acquired e a r lie r . Verner and Dickinson (1967) suggest the optimum length o f a lec tu re appears to be somewhere between 20 and 30 minutes. The authors fu rth e r note the importance o f the meaningful ness o f the material to the lis te n e r . Topic and subject matter are more important than the le c tu re r, w ith in te re s t generally greatest when the content is only p a r t ia l ly understood. Variables investigated re levant to comparative effectiveness also include comparisons between the lec tu re technique and learning devices (e .g ., textbook, programmed te x t, teaching machine, i l lu s tra te d manual, f i lm , te le v is io n ), i l lu s t r a t iv e devices (e .g ., charts., graphs), and in s tru c t io n a l processes (e .g ., discussion, dialogue, dramatization, recordings, panel d iscussion). Verner and Dickinson (1967, p. 93) conclude: "O ther in s t ru c t io n a l techniques as w e ll as va rious in s tru c tio na l devices used to augment the lec tu re w i l l increase i t s e ffe c tiv e n e s s w ith a d u lts ." However, w ith regard to a lte rna tive in s tru c tio na l techniques, studies invo lv ing the comparison o f lec tu re and discussion in acqu is ition o f information have shown no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence between the two techniques (Carison, 1953; H i l l , 1960). 100 Oddi (1983), in a continued review o f the l i te ra tu re , notes the fo llow ing re la tiv e to Verner and D ickinson's conclusions in tha t: . .■ . the lec tu re method is an e ffe c tive approach fo r conveying information to adults i f i t is properly used, tha t the nature o f the learning task to be accomplished determ ines whether o r not the le c tu re method is ' appropriate, and tha t other in s tru c tiona l techniques and devices should be used in conjunction w ith lectu re to increase i t s effectiveness fo r adults (p. 222). She goes on to note tha t in the years since the review by Verner and Dickinson, there has been a paucity o f research on the lec tu re technique in the adu lt education f ie ld . The investiga tions noted were conducted in diverse subject areas (e .g ., graduate students, Adult Basic Education, community college students) and the m a jo rity were concentrated in a classroom se ttin g . For the most pa rt, research designs encompassed experimental or quasi-experimental studies w ith random assignment o f treatment to p re -ex is ting groups. Research inves tiga tions , re levant to the effectiveness o f the lectu re method, were, fo r the m a jo rity , conducted over the minimum time period fo r completion o f a g iven course. Most s tud ies measured cogn itive achievement w ith a va rie ty o f instruments used to measure acqu is ition o f knowledge. Oddi (1983) suggests tha t the studies under review were broadly concerned w ith the effectiveness o f lectu re as compared w ith other methods in re la tio n to acqu is ition o f knowledge and a ttitudes o f the learner. A study by Slaten (1973) invo lv ing 72 p re-adu lt learners compared lec tu re to a group laboratory discussion session w ith learners tested fo r app lica tion and reca ll a b i l i t y fo llow ing the course. No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence in mean, achievement scores was found; a trend 101 was noted, however, suggesting le c tu re was be tte r fo r ass is ting learners in the re ca ll o f fa c ts . Rothman (1980), studying a sample o f 48 graduate students, investigated cogn itive gain by implementing the case method/discussion technique and lec tu re . Although marginal, the lectu re technique was found to y ie ld s ig n if ic a n t ly be tte r resu lts in cogn itive gain. A ttitudes and Ins truc tiona l Strategies A va rie ty o f e ffo r ts have been made to determine the e ff ic ie n cy o f a technique in add ition to determining the a tt itu d e toward s tra teg ies o f in s tru c tio n . Palmer and Verner (1959) suggest there are innumerable variables which can influence the e ff ic ie n cy o f a technique inc lud ing in s tru c to r competence, the nature o f "the content, the experience o f the group, and the students' response to the in s tru c tio na l process. To in v e s t ig a te the a t t i tu d e v a r ia b le , the authors continued th e ir in v e s t ig a t io n o f th ree in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g ie s by ascertain ing a ttitudes o f 130 A ir Force o ff ic e rs and cadets. To assess student sa tis fa c tio n w ith the three techniques studied — lec tu re , discussion,' lecture-d iscussion — both oral and w ritte n c ritiq u e s were used. A standard was designed as a measure o f course c r it iq u e , invo lv ing two scales: (a) q u a lity o f course, and (b) morale. In terms o f student sa tis fa c tio n , the lecture-d iscussion group ind icated more sa tis fa c tio n w ith i t s technique than did the other two groups, w ith s ta t is t ic a l ly s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rences between the lec tu re and lecture-d iscussion on both q u a lity and morale. S tova ll (1956) c ites a study wherein e ffo r ts were made by lec tu re to persuade a group o f in d us tr ia l supervisors to 102 accept a change in work methods. The group s p l i t sharply, 50% opposing the change and 50% in favor. As a re su lt o f group discussion,, a s im ila r group was in 95% agreement to accept the change or to compromise. S tova ll (1956, p. 12) fu rth e r states, "The best research which has been reported in th is area ind icates th a t group discussion is d is t in c t ly superior to lec tu re in changing a ttitudes and a ffe c ting behavior." Casey and Weaver (1956) substantiate the previous conclu­ sion, based on th e ir find ings estab lish ing the supe rio rity in a ttitudes fo r sm a ll-g roup discussions as compared to lec tu res. Verner and Dickinson (1967) suggest tha t conclusions are overwhelming regarding the supe rio rity o f discussion in favor o f the lectu re in a tt itu d in a l and behavioral change. However, conclusions must be approached w ith some cau tio n . " In most cases, the studies c ited . . . involve comparisons between two methods o f adu lt education ra ther th a n . two in s tru c tio na l techniques w ith in a s ing le method" (Verner & Dickinson, 1967, p. 93). 103 CHAPTER 3 PROCEDURES The present, study was designed to examine the e ffec ts o f in s tru c ­ tio na l strategies., a tt itu d e s , and various personal descrip tors o f adu lt lea rne rs ' on le a rn in g outcome, w h ile involved in a le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program. In the previous chapter, a review o f the l i t e r a tu r e o ffe re d in fo rm a tio n re la te d to the service provider, mandatory a d u lt educa tion , a conceptual model o f andragogy and pedagogy, and in s tru c tio na l design as i t re la tes to the teaching­ le a rn in g tra n s a c t io n . The procedures chapter focuses upon the methodology tha t was implemented in the study. I t includes a descrip­ t io n o f the popu la tio n s tu d ie d , research des ign , variables and instrumentation, hypotheses, and method o f data analysis. Population In lin e w ith regula tions from the Federal Insec tic ide , Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) as amended (Public Law 92-516) and the Montana Pesticide Act o f 1972, amended in 1983, the Montana le g is la tu re mandated the implementation o f a statewide pestic ide act fo r licensing users o f res tric ted -use pestic ide compounds. W ithin the state o f Montana, there are over 8000 p riva te pestic ide applicato rs who may choose to apply fo r re lic e n su re and p a r t ic ip a te in a mandatory pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. The educational program is o ffered 104 on a ro ta tin g basis in designated requa lify ing s ites throughout the s ta te . The sta te is divided in to f iv e d is t r ic ts ; each d is t r ic t is assigned a spec ific year fo r provid ing the re c e r t if ic a t io n program. The m a jo rity o f p riva te pestic ide app lica to rs w ith in the sta te are farmers and ranchers, applying fo r re licensure in order to purchase ahd apply res tric ted -use compounds deemed as dangerous chemicals by the Environmental P rotection Agency. The procedure followed by the p riva te app lica to r is to attend s ix hours o f educational programming over a five -yea r period, w ith the educational program developed and delivered by the Montana State Un ivers ity Extension Service, in conjunction w ith the Montana Department o f A g ricu ltu re . The population fo r the study included a ll licensed applicators o f re s .tr ic te d -u se p e s tic id e s in the s ta te o f Montana applying fo r rel.icensing during the months o f January through A p r i l, 1987. Eight coun ties served as re q u a lify in g s ite s fo r the I I -county Montana D is t r ic t V ,re c e r t if ic a t io n program, as noted on the map in Appendix B. A. to ta l o f 654 pestic ide app lica to rs comprised the study population, w ith an age range o f 16 to 83 years. For reasons to be discussed in the data co lle c tio n procedure section, four county requa lify ing s ites and spec ific data items from some o f the subjects were not usable. Thus, the to ta l number o f ind iv idua ls from which usable data were gathered was 654. 105 > Research Design Quasi-experimental Design There are many natural social se ttings in which the researcher can in troduce something s im ila r to an experimenta l design in to the scheduling o f data co lle c tio n procedures (e .g ., the when and to whom o f measurement), even though fu l l contro l over the scheduling o f j experimental s tim u li (the when and to whom o f exposure and the a b i l i t y to randomize exposures) is lacking. Wiersma (1986, p. 139) o ffe rs the fo llow ing d e f in it io n o f quasi-experimental research as invo lv ing "the I use. o f in ta c t groups o f sub jec ts in an experiment, ra ther than ass ign ing sub jec ts a t random to experimental treatment." Quasi- experimental designs require tha t the researcher be thoroughly aware o f which spec ific variab les the p a rt ic u la r design fa i ls to con tro l. With the present study employing a quasi-experimental design, the focus o f the research design section is 'd irected toward procedures employed to j contro l such variab les . j Equivalence o f groups. In the use o f two or more in ta c t groups, the c re d ib i l i ty o f the research depends on the extent to which the groups are s im ila r on re levant variab les . Although the groups were not randomly assigned, the presence o f important antecedent information about the groups provides an argument fo r group s im ila r ity . For in te rna l v a l id i ty , the researcher has attempted to estab lish the degree o f equiva lence between groups by cons ide ring cha rac te ris tics or variables tha t may be re la ted to the variables under study. In the p resent s tudy , fo u r o f the independent variab les (age, level o f ' 106 educa tion , years in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program, years in county residence), in add ition to app lica to r s ta tus, were used as antecedent information. Detailed information substan tia ting the s im ila r ity o f the two groups, by three o f the s ix independent variab les , is presented in Chapter 4 (Tables 5, 6, and 7). No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rences existed between the groups on the cha rac te ris tics analyzed, suggesting tha t the groups were s im ila r even though subjects were not selected at random. An add itiona l fa c to r supporting the equivalence o f the population was the previous attendance o f a l l pa rtic ipan ts in an in i t i a l pestic ide app lica to r c e r t i f ic a t io n program, requ iring the passage o f a w ritte n examination monitored by the Montana Department o f A g ricu ltu re . P os t-te s t on ly, non-equivalent multip le-group design. Wiersma (1986) suggests tha t a quasi-experimental design o f th is type d ic ta tes tha t one group receives the experimental treatment while a second group receives a second experimental treatment. In the present study, one group o f p riva te app lica to rs received Experimental Treatment Number One, id e n tif ie d as the in s tru c tio na l strategy o f le c tu re . A second group o f p riva te app lica to rs received Experimental Treatment Number Two, id e n tif ie d as the in s tru c tio na l strategy o f small group discus­ sion, implemented by a case study approach. Extraneous v a r ia b le s . In o rde r to reduce the influence o f extraneous variab les on the dependent va riab le , the fo llow ing were id e n tif ie d as methods o f c o n tro l: ( I ) A ll app lica to rs applying fo r re licensing o f re s tr ic te d - use pestic ide chemicals attended the six-hour re c e r t i­ f ic a t io n program in i t s e n tire ty . 107 (2) A l l a p p lic a to rs rece ived educationa l in fo rm a tio n re levant to the Pesticide Safety c r i te r ia by one o f two methods, lec tu re or by small group discussion, which was pre-assigned to requa lify ing s ites by the researcher. (3) Al I app lica to rs completed the data co lle c tio n in s tru ­ ments imm ed ia te ly fo llo w in g the d e liv e ry o f the in s tru c tio n re levant to the Pesticide Safety c r i te r ia . An add itiona l method used to contro l fo r contaminating variables was to b u ild p o te n t ia l ly extraneous variables in to the design as a ttr ib u te va riab les , providing the opportun ity to observe in te ra c tive or main e ffec ts o f the a tt r ib u te variab les (age, level o f education completed, years in r e c e r t i f ic a t io n program) w ith the designated independent and dependent variab les. Data Co llection Procedure Authorization and I n i t ia l Contact Authorization- from the Acting D irecto r and the Pesticide Spec­ ia l i s t fo r the Montana State Un ive rs ity Extension Service was obtained during November, 1986, enabling the researcher to proceed w ith the data c o lle c t io n process. An i n i t i a l step was to contact the county extension personnel involved in the planning and implementation o f the 1987 pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. During the December, 1986 county agent tra in in g session, the inves tiga to r in fo rm a lly discussed With the appropriate agents the design o f the study and the request fo r assistance. County personnel from the e ight requa lify ing s ites in 108 D is t r ic t V agreed to p a rtic ip a te in the study and, a t the same time, provided pre lim inary estimates o f applicant number by s ite . Since the primary purpose o f the study was the inves tiga tion o f the e ffe c t o f selected in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies on learning outcome, i t became necessary to assign a spec ific stra tegy to each o f the p a r t ic i­ pating re q u a lif ic a tio n s ite s . Estimated applicant number, by s ite , was i n i t i a l l y used as the deciding fa c to r in assigning the in s tru c tiona l stra tegy o f lec tu re or o f small group discussion. Also, a key fa c to r was the a v a i la b i l i ty o f f a c i l i t ie s su itab le fo r the d iv is io n o f a large group in to m u ltip le groups o f seven to ten pa rtic ip an ts . Based on the id e n t if ic a t io n o f re q u a lif ic a tio n s ite s and assign­ ment o f in s tru c tio na l s tra tegy, the next step was to ascertain the program schedule between January 15 and A p ril 30, 1987. Table 2 provides the re c e r t if ic a t io n program schedule fo r the o r ig in a l e igh t counties involved in the study. While the o r ig ina l number o f requa li­ f ic a t io n s ites was e igh t, one county was unable to p a rtic ip a te because o f inadequate f a c i l i t ie s fo r accommodating the small group discussion format. A second county in it ia te d an e f fo r t to provide a lec tu re format, but because o f personnel changes a t the la s t minute, was unable to carry out the program in the necessary format, and therefore could not be included in the study. A th ird county had previously divided the p e s t ic id e , re c e r t if ic a t io n , program in to two consecutive weekly sessions o f three hours each, which was inconsistent w ith the o r ig in a l program plan o f one six-hour session. Therefore, the county could not be included in the study. A fou rth county could not be included because the re c e r t if ic a t io n program was held p r io r to the date the 109 researcher could begin the data co lle c tio n process. The configura tion fo r the implementation o f the in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies in p a rtic ip a tin g counties is provided in Table 3. Table 2. Pesticide app lica to r re q ua lif ic a tio n schedule by county s ite . County Program Date Jud ith Basin January 29, 1987 Big Horn February 10, 1987 Fergus* February 12, 1987 Yellowstone* February 13, 1987 S tillw a te r* March 11, 1987 Carbon* March 11, 1987 Musselshell* March 12, 1987 Sweet Grass March 19, 1987 *Counties p a rtic ip a tin g in the study Table 3. Breakdown by county o f population number. Lecture Small Group Discussion County Number o f Applicants County Number o f Applicants Fergus 181 S tillw a te r 126 Yellowstone 129 Musselshel I 67 Carbon 97 Musselshell 54 Total 461 193 As noted, one county served as the basis fo r the implementation o f both lec tu re and small group discussion. Musselshell County provided an opportun ity fo r the to ta l group to be s p l i t in to two groups ( i . e . , 54 in the lec tu re group and 67 in the small group d iscussion). The HO p a rtic ip a n ts in small group discussion were taken in to a separate f a c i l i t y a t the same time and the other group received the lec tu re . However, p r io r to and fo llo w in g the p resen ta tion o f the safety information, the pa rtic ipan ts were involved in the same sequence o f program events. In add ition to the id e n t if ic a t io n o f the re c e r t if ic a t io n program dates, the process fo r id e n tify in g personnel needed fo r the implementa­ tio n o f each o f the in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies by county was necessary. A fte r discussion w ith county agent personnel, the decision was made to de live r the Pesticide Safety information using the lec tu re stra tegy in the designated counties, scheduling th is component a t the same po in t during the s ix-hour program at each s ite . Plans were also made w ith county agent pe rsonne l, implementing the small group discussion stra tegy, fo r the researcher to meet w ith volunteer discussion leaders. One volunteer from each group o f seven to ten app lica to rs was selected to meet an hour ahead o f the scheduled re c e r t if ic a t io n program. Format, m ateria ls , and procedures were explained to the volunteer group leaders. At the appropriate time in the six-hour program, consistent w ith the tim ing o f the lec tu re stra tegy, the volunteer discussion leaders began the small group discussion strategy by implementing a case study approach. A discussion o f the s tra teg ies and materia ls is provided in the fo llow ing section. Ill Variables and Instrumentation Dependent Variable The dependent v a r ia b le , id e n t i f ie d a s ,le a rn in g outcome, was ascertained by selected questions from the Montana Private App lica to r R ece rtifica tio n Examination. Items re la ted to seven c r i te r ia , mandated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Montana Department o f A g ricu ltu re (DOA), comprise the basis fo r the examination in i t s e n t ir e ty and are based on the body o f l i te ra tu re and knowledge assembled by the EPA and deemed necessary fo r a p p lic a to rs o f res tric ted -use compounds. Twenty items relevant to the f i f t h c r i t e r ­ io n , P e s tic id e Safety, were randomly arranged w ith in the o r ig in a l examination. For the present study, however, the 20 forced-choice questions were extracted from the to ta l examination and arranged in order dup lica ting the sequence o f the o r ig ina l examination. A sample o f the te s t is found in Appendix C. V a li d i t y . " V a l id i t y re fe rs to the appropria teness o f the in te rp re ta t io n o f the resu lts o f a te s t or inventory, and i t is spec ific to the intended use" (Wiersma, 1986, p. 290). In the case o f the Montana Private App lica tor R ece rtifica tio n Examination, a process fo r the establishment o f content v a l id i ty (tha t is , estab lish ing the representativeness o f the te s t items w ith respect to the domain o f s k i l l s , ta s k , o r knowledge) was i n i t i a l l y used by the Extension subcommittee responsible fo r the design o f the te s t items. The general and applied p rin c ip le s were reworded in behavioral terms, compatible w ith re a l is t ic experiences o f the app lica to rs . During 1984, questions were d is tr ib u te d to a i l . members o f the statewide Pesticide Education Task Force fo r evaluation re levant to the representativeness o f each ques tion . In d iv id u a ls w ith e xp e rtis e in the. area o f te x t i le s , c lo th ing , and farm safety were also included in the item evaluation process, as were members o f the Department o f A g ricu ltu re involved in the r e c e r t i f ic a t io n program. Implementation throughout the 1986 D is t r ic t IV re licens ing process provided an add itiona l opportun ity fo r the Extension Service Pesticide Coordinator to id e n t ify and exclude questions surfac ing as problem items by app lica to rs and committee personnel. 1R e lia b i l i t y . Data re levant to the consistency o f the examination in measuring knowledge o f p e s tic id e use were unavailable to the researcher from e ith e r o f the cooperating agencies. Therefore, using the Cronbach alpha formula, the researcher ca lcu la ted the r e l ia b i l i t y c o e ff ic ie n t o f .91 fo r the 20-item instrument, re levant to Pesticide S a fe ty . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t , a measure o f the in te rna l consistency or homogeneity o f the te s t m a te ria l, is in d ica tive o f high in te rco rre la tio n s among the' items on the te s t and suggests tha t the items are measures o f much the same a ttr ib u te . Format. The one-page r e c e r t i f ic a t io n exam ination has two components. The f i r s t 10 questions are tru e -fa lse items. The remaining 10 questions are o f a m u ltip le -cho ice design. Computerized scoring was used to obtain the to ta l number o f co rrec t items, repre­ senting the dependent variab le o f learning outcome. 112 113 Independent Variables The s ix independent v a r ia b le s inc luded in the study were: (a) in s tru c tio n a l s tra tegy, (b) a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide educa tion , (c) a t t i tu d e toward in s t ru c t io n a l s tra teg y received, (d) age, (e) le ve l o f education completed, and ( f ) years in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program. Each o f the variables is described in the -- fo llow ing paragraphs. Ins truc tiona l s tra tegy . Using a systems model from the in s tru c ­ tional. design l i te ra tu re (Dick & Carey, 1978), the educational program was developed. The in i t i a l development o f the in s tru c tio n , noted as the id e n t i f ic a t io n o f the goa l, o b je c tiv e s , c rite rion -re fe renced e va lu a tio n , and implementation schedule was iden tica l fo r the two groups. The p o in t o f d i f f e r e n t ia t io n w ith in the in s tru c tio n a l development p lan was in the se le c tion and implementation o f the in s tru c t io n a l stra tegy and accompanying in s tru c tio na l medium. Two s tra te g ie s were se lec ted fo r use as the avenues o f information dissem ination, lec tu re and small group discussion, w ith the la t te r implemented by a case study format. The lec tu re stra tegy served as Treatment Number One; the small group discussion served as Treatment Number Two. One o f the seven c r i te r ia mandated fo r inc lus ion in the s ta tew ide re c e r t i f ic a t io n program, Pesticide Safety, comprised the subject content fo r both s tra teg ies . A t t i tu d e v a r ia b le s . Selected a ttitudes comprised two o f the independent v a r ia b le s fo r the s tudy . A ttitu de toward mandatory pestic ide education was the f i r s t . A five - item L ike rt scale was used to assess the degree to which pestic ide applicato rs agreed or disagreed w ith a statement re la t iv e to th e ir a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide educa tion . The second, pes tic ide app lica to r a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c t io n a l stra tegy received, was determined by nine questions. Responses were based on f iv e - ite m L ik e r t sca le s , w ith spec ific a tten tion to : (a) in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received, (b) importance o f experience and previous information re levant to pes tic ide safe ty, and (c) use o f informational materia ls'. Appendix D provides an example o f the instrument. The es tab lishm en t o f con ten t v a l id i t y fo r the instrum ents measuring the a t t i t u d in a l v a r ia b le s was approached i n i t i a l l y by determining the face v a l id i ty o f the questions, w ith an assembly o f te s t items the f i r s t step in the va lida tion process. Ind iv idua ls fam ilia r w ith the Montana Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Program were asked to review a l i s t o f questions and se lect those most appropriate fo r the purpose o f id e n tify in g app lica to r a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education and a t t i tu d e toward in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y rece ived . Ind iv idua ls fam ilia r w ith a tt itu d e surveys from the f ie ld o f adu lt education were also asked to complete the same task. . A second phase in the content va lida tion process was the estab­ lishment o f log ica l v a l id i ty , which finds i t s greatest use in measures o f achievement and in measures o f newly defined cha rac te ris tics where no d ire c t c r ite r io n external to the measure i t s e l f seems ava ilab le (Helmstad te r, 1970). Evaluators were asked to consider two fac to rs : (a) careful d e f in it io n in behavioral terms o f the content area to be 115 measured, and (b) a breakdown o f the to ta l sub ject-matter area defined in to categories which represent major aspects o f the content area. Demographic v a r ia b le s . The General Information Questionnaire (GIQ) served as. the instrument to obtain the re levant demographic in formation. • Appendix E provides an example o f the questionnaire. In te rva l categories were used to id e n t ify the information re levant to age, IeveT o f education completed, years in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program, and years in residence w ith in the county. Name and county requa lify ing s ite were also requested o f each pestic ide app lica to r, w ith the name o f the ind iv idua l used only as a method o f matching the GIO w ith the other, instruments o f data c o lle c tio n . C on fid e n tia lity was assured ve rba lly by the researcher a t the time o f data c o lle c tio n . In a d d it io n , each data se t was assigned a number representing each pa rtic ip a n t w ith ensuing data compilation by numbered instrument ra ther than by name. S ta t is t ic a l Hypotheses The s ta t is t ic a l hypotheses were designed to answer f iv e o f the seven research questions, as stated in Chapter I . Each hypothesis is s ta ted in the n u ll form . Al I hypotheses were tested w ith non- d ire c tiona l a lte rna tive hypotheses a t the .05 level o f confidence. ( I ) Hq No s ig n i f ic a n t in te ra c t io n ex is ts between the independent variables of instructional strategy and . a tt itude toward mandatory pesticide education, on learning outcome. 116 (2) H0 (3) H0 (4) H0 (5) H0 (6) H0 (7) H0 (8) H0 (9) H0 No s ig n if ic a n t main e f fe c ts e x is t among the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education, on learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t in te ra c t io n e x is ts between the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received, on learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t main, e f fe c ts e x is t among the independent variables o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio n a l stra tegy received, on learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t in te ra c t io n e x is ts between the independent variables o f in s tru c tiona l stra tegy and age, on learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t main e f fe c ts e x is t among the independent variables o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and age, on learning outcome. No. s ig n if ic a n t in te ra c t io n e x is ts between the independent variables o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and level o f education completed, on learn ing outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t main e ffe c ts e x is t among the independent variables o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and level o f education completed on learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t in te ra c t io n e x is ts between the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and 117 (10) H (.id H (12) H (13) H years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program, on learning outcome. q No s ig n i f i c a n t main e f fe c ts e x is t among the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program, on learning outcome. q No s ig n if ic a n t re la t io n s h ip e x is ts between the dependent v a r ia b le o f lea rn ing outcome and the independen t v a r ia b le s o f : (a) in s t ru c t io n a l s tra tegy, (b) a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide e d u c a t io n , (c ) a t t i tu d e toward in s t ru c t io n a l stra tegy received, (d) age, (e) level o f education completed, and ( f ) years in the pestic ide r e c e r t i f i ­ cation program. No s ig n if ic a n t in te r-c o rre la tio n (s ) e x is t among the J I independen t v a r ia b le s o f : (a) in s t ru c t io n a l s tra tegy, Ob) a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide e d u c a t io n , (c ) a t t i tu d e toward in s t ru c t io n a l stra tegy received, (d) age, (e) leve l o f education completed, and ( f ) years in the pestic ide r e c e r t i f i ­ cation program. ■j No s ig n if ic a n t m u ltip le co rre la tions e x is t between the dependent va riab le o f learning outcome and the s e t o f independent v a r ia b le s , id e n t i f ie d as: (a) in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y , (b) a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education, (c) a tt itu d e toward 118 in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received, (d) age, Ce) level o f education completed, and Cf) years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. Data Analysis Ana lys is o f frequency and percentage d is tr ib u t io n s fo r the personal d e sc rip to rs o f the population was conducted in order to p rov ide a p r o f i le o f the ru ra l p riva te pestic ide app lica to r. In add ition , Chi square tes ts o f independence were conducted to determine whether d if fe re n c e s , between personal desc rip to rs existed in the population. Frequency, and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s were also analyzed to assess a t t i tudes o f the ru ra l I earners toward the le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program and toward the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received. Three methods o f analysis were used to te s t the 13 nu ll hypotheses. Hypotheses I through 10 were tested using two-way analysis o f variance (ANOVA). When a s ig n if ic a n t main e ffe c t d iffe rence was found and the d f equaled or exceeded two (2 ), a lT possible pairw ise comparisons were tested w ith the Scheffe1 post hoc m u ltip le comparison te s t. Hypotheses 11 and 12 were tested by the use o f the Pearson product-moment c o r re la t io n c o e ff ic ie n t . The f in a l hypothesis to determ ine the c o n tr ib u t io n o f the independent variab les to the c r ite r io n variab le was tested by the use o f a m u ltip le co rre la tion equation. - 119 CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND ANALYSES This chapter presents the descrip tive find ings and s ta t is t ic a l a na lys is o f the data obtained from the 654 pestic ide applicators comprising the study population. The descrip tive find ings provide a p ro f i le o f the population, inc lud ing data about age, level o f education completed, a p p lic a to r s ta tu s , years in pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program, and years in county residence. In add ition , data from analyses o f selected personal descrip tors are provided, ve r ify in g the s im ila r ity o f the population. Also included are the find ings re levant to a p p lic a to r a tt itu d e toward the le g is la t iv e ly mandated pestic ide program and the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received during the educational program. The s ta t is t ic a l data re levant to the performance on the dependent and independent v a r ia b le s are presented by ind iv idua l hypothesis and include the fo llow ing information: (a) hypothesis statement in the n u ll form, (b) tab le (s ) o f s ta t is t ic a l re su lts , (c) discussion re levant to acceptance or re je c tion o f the hypothesis, and (d) in te rp re ta tio n o f re su lts . Descrip tive Findings Demographic Information As depicted in Table 4, p riva te pestic ide app lica to rs ranged in I age from 16 to 83; 60% were between 31 and 55 years o f age. The mean 120 Table 4. Frequencies and percentages fo r demographic cha rac te ris tics o f 654 pestic ide app lica to rs , D is t r ic t V, Montana. Variable Frequency* Percent Age: 16-17 years 4 1.0 18-30 years 79 13.0 31-55 years 353 60.056 and over 15Z 26.0 Total 593 100.0 Level o f Education Completed: 1-8 years (elementary) 31 5.1 1-4 years (high school) 302 50.2 1-4 years (co llege) . . 246 40.9 5 years college plus 23 3.8 Total 602 100.0 Years in R ece rtifica tio n Program: 1-2 years 69 12.6 3-4 years 55 10.1 5-6 years . 116 21.3 7 years plus 306 56.0 To ta l. 546 100.0 Applica tor Status: Commercial status 32 5.0 Private status 543 90.0 Other 27 5.0 Total 602 100.0 Years in County Residence: 1-5 years 7 1.2 6-10. years 575 95.8 11-15 years 18 3.0 Total 600 100.0 *AT1 to ta ls may not equal 654 due to missing data. 121 age was 41.37 years. F if ty percent o f. the app lica to rs responding had completed one to four years o f high school, while 41% had completed one ) to four years o f co llege. F if ty -s ix percent o f the respondents had pa rtic ipa ted in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program fo r seven years or more. N ine ty-s ix percent o f the pestic ide applicators had lived in th e ir resident county fo r s ix to ten years. Ninety percent o f the 602 responses to the question o f app lica to r status were designated as p riva te pestic ide app lica to rs . In fo rm a tion s u b s ta n tia t in g the s im i la r i t y o f the groups by variab le is .presented in Tables 5, 6, and 7. Chi-square was used fo r th is purpose. No s ig n if ic a n t d ifferences were found to e x is t between the two groups, suggesting tha t the pa rtic ipan ts in the groups were ( s im ila r by ch a ra c te r is tic , even though not by random se lection . Table 5. Contingency tab le showing re la tionsh ip between in s tru c tiona l „ stra tegy and age.* Ins truc tiona l Strategy - Age. Total18-30 31-55 56-Plus Lecture N 54 250 102 406 x % 9.17 42.44 17.32 68.93 Small Group N 25 103 55 183 Discussion % 4.24 17.49 9.34 31.07 Total N 79 . 353 157 589 % 13.41 59.93 26.66 100.00 *X2 = 1.753; p = .416 122 Table 6. Contingency tab le showing re la tionsh ip between in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and level o f education completed.* Ins truc tiona l S tra tegy. <----------- El em. Level o f High ’ Education— College ------------> Col. + ' 4 yrs + Total1-8 yrs 1-4 yrs 1-4 yrs Lecture N 22 217 161 16 416 % 3.65 36.05 26.74 2.66 69.10 Small group N 9 85 85 7 186 Discussion % 1.50 14.12 14.12 1.16 30.90 Total ■ N 31 302 246 23 602 % 5.15 50.17 40.86 3.82 100.00 *X2 ? 2.663; p = .446 Table 7. Contingency tab le showing re la tionsh ip between in s tru c tiona l stra tegy and years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program/ Ins truc tiona l Years in <— Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Prog.— > Strategy 1-2 yrs 3-4 yrs 5-6 yrs 7 yrs + Total Lecture N 52 . 38 71 222 383 ■ % 9.52 6.96 13.00 40.66 70.15 Small group N 17 17 45 84 163 Discussion % 3.11 3.11 8.24 15.38 29.85 Total N 69 55 116 306 546 . % 12.64 10.07 21.25 56.04 . 100.00 6.196; p = .102 123 A f in a l component included in the descrip tive p ro f i le is the data re le va n t to a p p lic a to r a t t i tu d e toward a le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program and a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received during the mandated program. Tables 8 and 9 provide informa­ t io n re le va n t to the research question d irected toward mandated education, while Tables 10, 11, and 12 address find ings from the second research question regarding a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received. General Questions to Be Answered Research Question #1. What is the a tt itu d e o f ru ra l adu lt I earners toward a le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program? Table 8. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to the question: I f the pestic ide . education program had NOT been mandated by Montana law, would you have attended a program o f th is type vo lun ta rily? A ttitude Frequency Percent Cumulative Frequency Cumulative . Percent Strongly agree 76 . 12.8 76 12.8 Agree 326 55.1 402 67.9 No opinion 99 16.7 501 84.6 Disagree 77 . 13.0 578 97.6 Strongly disagree 14 2.4 . 592 100.00 Over 67% o f the responding pestic ide applicato rs ind icated they would have pa rtic ipa ted v o lu n ta r ily had the program not been le g is la - t iv e ly mandated. Only 15% disagreed or s trong ly disagreed w ith p a rtic ip a tio n on a voluntary basis. This suggests tha t the need fo r pestic ide safety information is important enough to pa rtic ipan ts tha t 124 i f t h e . program were not le g is la t iv e ly mandated, they would attend anyway. Table 9. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to the question: Do you th in k a pestic ide education program such as you are p a rtic ip a tin g in should be le g is la t iv e ly mandated? A ttitu de Frequency Percent Cumulative Frequency Cumulative Percent Strongly agree 63 ... 10.7 63 . 10.7 . Agree 200 34.0 263 44.7 No opinion 106 18.0 . 369 62.8 Disagree. 155 26.4 524 89.1 Strongly disagree 64 10.9 588 100.0 Approximately 45% o f the respondents ind icated th e ir agreement in fa vo r o f a le g is la t iv e ly mandated pestic ide education program. S lig h tly over 37% o f the respondents ind icated th e ir disagreement w ith the concept. Research Question #2. What is the a tt itu d e o f ru ra l adu lt learners toward the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received? Data re levant to app lica to r a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received are re la ted to three areas, id e n tif ie d in Tables 10, 11, and 12 as: (a) appropriateness o f stra tegy received (lec tu re or small group, d iscuss ion ), (b) ro le played by experience, and (c) use o f supportive m ateria ls . Analysis o f descrip tive data ind icated 94% o f the applicato rs were favorable to. the stra tegy they received during the pestic ide program. Eighty percent ind icated th e ir p r io r experience did not e lim inate the need fo r the safety information, while 66% indicated 125 th e ir, experience was s u ff ic ie n t to answer the questions involved in d a ily p rac tice . Table 10. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to questions regarding the appropri­ ateness o f stra tegy received (lec tu re or small group d iscuss ion). QUESTION I QUESTION 4 Was the method of in s truc tio n you received of help to you in understanding the information? Would you p a rtic ip a te in another program using the same instruc­ tio n a l strategy as you received today? QUESTION 7 Did the person pre­ senting the informa­ tion do so in a c le a r , concise manner allow ­ ing fo r questions and in te ra c tio n from the partic ipants? A ttitu de N % Strongly agree 116 19.3 Agree 451 75.0 No opinion 25 4.2 Disagree 8 1.3 Strongly disagree ' I 0.2 N % N % 80 13.4 150 15.1 445 74.5 406 67.9 51 8.5 33 5.5 18 3.0 9 1.5 3 0.5 0 0.0 N inety-four percent o f the pa rtic ipan ts agreed tha t the method o f in s tru c tio n was o f help in understanding the in formation; 87% indicated they would p a rtic ip a te in another program using the same strategy as I the one they rece ived . N inety-three percent o f the pa rtic ipan ts thought th a t the person presenting the information did so in an acceptable manner. With regard to Table 11, 80% o f the pa rtic ipan ts disagreed w ith the statement tha t th e ir experience elim inated the need fo r in formation. Ninety percent agreed tha t based on the information received, they would change th e ir behavior. S ix ty -s ix percent agreed th a t t h e i r experience was s u f f ic ie n t to answer questions about pestic ide sa fe ty . Table 12 ind icates tha t 91% o f the respondents would 126 Table 11. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to questions regarding ro le played by experience. QUESTION 2 QUESTION 5 QUESTION 8 Based on the informa­ tion received today in - the Safety portion of Is the experience you the program, w i l l you bring to the pestic ide Does your experience change the way you pro- education program s u f- w ith pestic ides e litn in - te c t yourself and your f ic ie n t to answer ate the need fo r in fe r - environment when using questions about the mation re levant to the pestic ides in the safe use o f p e s ti- safe use of chemicals? future? cides? A ttitu de N % N % N % Strongly agree 15 2 .5 1 3 9 2 3 .2 40 6 .7 Agree 75 1 2 .7 3 9 9 6 6 .7 3 5 2 5 9 .2 No opinion 29 4 . 9 34 5.7 9 6 1 6 .1 Disagree 3 4 7 5 8 .6 23 3 . 8 9 4 1 5 .8 Strongly disagree 1 2 6 2 1 .3 3 0.5 13 2.2 Table 12. Frequency and percentage d is tr ib u tio n s fo r pestic ide app lica to r response to questions regarding use o f supportive materia ls . - QUESTION 6 QUESTION 9 QUESTION 11 Would you rather Would followup in fo r - receive pestic ide mation provided on a inform ation from your regu lar basis in the peers, tra ined in the form o f a fa c t sheet necessary subject mat- Do you th ink you w i l l or a new sle tter, r e Ie - te r , ra ther than from . use the handout mater- vant to the safe hand- the Department of ia ls in the fu tu re fo r lin g o f pestic ides , be A gricu ltu re or the reference in the safe o f help to you in the Cooperative Extension use of pesticides? future? Service? A ttitu de N % N % N % Strongly agree 1 1 5 1 9 .2 133 2 2 .5 24 4.1 Agree 4 3 4 7 2 .6 3 9 6 6 6 .9 87 1 4 .9 No opinion 3 4 5 .7 45 7.6 . 1 7 4 2 9 .7 Disagree 12 2 .0 15 2.5 2 4 3 4 1 .5 Strongly disagree 3 0 . 5 3 0.5 58 9 . 9 127 use the handout materia ls in the fu tu re . E ighty-nine percent were in agreement w ith the usefulness o f followup information while 50% o f the handout materia ls in the fu tu re . E ighty-nine percent were in agreement w ith the usefulness o f followup information while 50% o f the p a r t ic i ­ pants ind icated they would ra ther receive educational information from the state agencies ra ther than from th e ir peers. S ta t is t ic a l Hypotheses Providing the basis fo r the s ta t is t ic a l analysis were 13 hypoth­ eses, as. stated in Chapter 3. The hypotheses were designed to provide a basis fo r te s tin g the f iv e remaining general research questions o f the study. The resu lts are presented and in te rpre ted in the fo llow ing section. A ll hypotheses were tested at alpha = .05. Descrip tive s ta t is t ic s (means and standard deviations) o f scores on the dependent variables are provided in Table 13. Table 13. Means and standard deviations fo r dependent variab le o f learning outcome by treatment. <—Treatment #1—> Lecture <—Treatment #2—> Small Group Disc. Total Mean SD ■ Mean SD Mean SD 15.5705 4.2244 14.8860 5.3888 15.3685 4.6051 Hypotheses H y p o th e s is I . No s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e x is t s between the independent v a r ia b le s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a te g y and a t t i t u d e toward mandatory p e s t i c i d e e du ca t io n , on le a rn in g outcome. 128 For Hypothesis I , Table .14 ind ica tes tha t the F-ra t io was not s ig n if ic a n t; the re fo re , the nu ll hypothesis was reta ined. The analysis sub s tan tia te d the assumption th a t the variables o f in s tru c tio na l s tra te g y and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education do not in te ra c t on learning outcome. Table 14. Two-way ANOVA determining in te rac tio n between in s tru c tiona l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pes tic ide education and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent variab les. Source o f Varia tion Sum o f Squares d f* Mean Square F S ig n if. F Two-way In te ra c tion ; Ins truc tiona l Strategy and.A ttitude Toward Mandatory Pesticide Education 1.692 2 .846 .187 .830 Main E ffects : Ins truc tiona l Strategy 6.778 I 6.778 1.497 .222 A ttitu d e Toward Manda­ to ry Pesticide Educ. 5.318 2 2.659 .587 .556 C r i t ic a l Values, d f I , 589, alpha = .05, F = 3.86 C r it ic a l Values, d f 2, 589, alpha = .05, F = 3.02 Hypothesis 2 . No s ig n if ic a n t main e ffec ts e x is t among the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l strategy and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education, on learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence fo r main e ffec ts was found to e x is t among the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education, as noted in Table 14. Hypothesis 2 was therefore reta ined. 129 Hypothesis 3 . No s ig n if ic a n t in te rac tio n ex is ts between the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received, on learning outcome. The n u ll hypothesis was retained fo r Hypothesis 3; Table 15 ind icates no s ig n if ic a n t in te rac tio n was found to e x is t between the independent variab les . Table 15. Two-way ANOVA determining in te rac tio n between in s tru c tiona l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent variab les. Source o f Varia tion Sum o f Squares Mean d f* Square F S ig n if . F Two-way In te ra c tion : Ins truc tiona l Strategy and A ttitu d e Toward Ins truc tiona l S tra t­ egy Received .759 I .759 .169 .681 Main E ffects : Ins truc tiona l Strategy 5.722 I 5.722 1.276 .259 A ttitu de Toward Ins truc ­ tiona l Strategy Rec1d 38.924 I 38.924 8.680 .003** *C r it ic a l Values, d f I , * *S ig n if ic a n t a t alpha = 598, alpha = .05 1. .05, F = 3.86 Hypothesis 4. No s ig n if ic a n t main e ffec ts e x is t among the independent, variab les o f in s tru c tio na l strategy and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received, oh learning outcome. For Hypothesis 4, a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence was found to e x is t fo r the main e ffe c t o f a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received, as noted in Table 15. The nu ll hypothesis was re jected and the 130 a lte rn a t iv e hypothesis s ta t in g the existence o f s ig n if ic a n t main e ffec ts was accepted. A s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence was found to e x is t among the mean scores on learning outcome fo r the two leve ls id e n t ify ­ ing pestic ide app lica to r a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received. These data are presented in Table 16. Table 16. Mean scores fo r main e ffe c t o f a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received. . <----------------- — A ttitu de ----------------------> Strongly No Strongly Agree Opinion Disagree Mean 15,97 16.61 00.00 N (116) (486) (00) Partic ipan ts who had stated "no opinion" regarding th e ir a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l s tra teg y . received achieved a higher learning outcome score than did pa rtic ipan ts who ind icated a "s trong ly agree" a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l s tra tegy. Hypothesis 5 . No s ig n if ic a n t in te rac tio n ex is ts between the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l strategy and age, on learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t in te ra c t io n was found to e x is t between the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l strategy and age, as ind icated in Table 17. Hypothesis 5 was retained as stated. Hypothesis 6 . No s ig n if ic a n t main e ffec ts e x is t among the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l strategy and age, on learning outcome. 131 No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence fo r main e ffec ts was found to e x is t fo r the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and age; Hypothesis 6 was also retained as stated. Table.17. Two-way ANOVA determining in te rac tio n between in s tru c tiona l stra tegy and age and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f indepen­ dent variab les. Source o f Varia tion Sum o f Squares d f* Mean Square . F S ig n if . F Two-way In te ra c tion : Ins truc tiona l Strategy and Age 56.946 2 28.474 1.279 .279 Main E ffec ts : Ins truc tiona l Strategy 44.786 . I 44.7.86 2.011 .157 Age 63.567 2 31.783 1.427 .241 C r i t i c a l Values, d f I , 583, alpha = .05, F = 3.86 C r it ic a l Values, d f 2, 583, alpha = .05, F = 3.02 Hypothesis 7 . No s ig n if ic a n t in te rac tio n ex is ts between the independent variab les o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and level o f education completed, on learning outcome. The two-way analysis o f variance ind icated tha t no s ig n if ic a n t in te rac tio n ex is ts between the independent variables o f in s tru c tiona l s tra te g y and level o f education completed, as noted in Table 18. Therefore, Hypothesis 7 was reta ined. H y p o th e s is 8 . No' s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t s e x i s t among' the independent v a r ia b le 's o f ! i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a te g y and le v e l o f educa t ion ' comple ted , on le a rn in g outcome. i132 S ign ifica n t d iffe rences were found to e x is t fo r Hypothesis 8 among main, e ffec ts fo r both o f the independent variab les, as id e n tif ie d in Table 18. The re fo re , the n u ll hypothesis was re jected and the a lte rn a t iv e hypothesis s ta t in g the existence o f s ig n if ic a n t main e ffec ts was re ta ined. Table 18. Two-way ANOVA determining in te rac tio n between in s tru c tiona l stra tegy and level o f education completed and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent variab les. Source o f Varia tion Sum o f Squares Mean d f* Square F S ig n if . F Two-way In te ra c tion : Ins truc tiona l Strategy and Level o f Educa­ tio n Completed 139.407 3 46.469 2.165 .091 Main E ffects : Ins truc tiona l Strategy 88.665 I 88.665 4.131 .043** Level o f Edn. Completed 229.206 3 76.402 3.560 .014** C r i t ic a l Values, d f I , C r it ic a l Values, d f 3, * *S ig n if le a n t a t alpha = 594, alpha = 594, alpha = .05 .05, F = 3.86 .05, F = 2.62 For the independent variab le o f in s tru c tiona l s tra tegy, a d i f fe r ­ ence was found to e x is t in learning outcome between the group receiving the lec tu re stra tegy and the group p a rtic ip a tin g in the small group discussion. The 416 pa rtic ipan ts rece iv ing the lec tu re strategy had a s ig n if ic a n t ly higher mean score (15.57) than did the 186 app lica to rs involved in the small group discussion format (14.82). For the independent variab le o f level o f education completed, a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence was found to e x is t among the mean scores on learning outcome, fo r the fou r designated educational leve ls , as noted in Table 19. . Table 19. Mean scores fo r main, e ffe c t o f level o f education completed. <----------------------- Level o f Education Completed™------------------- > Group I Group 2 . Group 3 Group 4 ___________1-8 y rs .________9-12 y rs . 13-16 y rs . 17 y rs . + Mean 13.81 14.96 15.95 15.83 N (31) (302) (246) (23) 133 S ign ifica n t d iffe rences, using the Scheffe' post hoc procedure, were found between the means o f Group I and Group 3, and between the means o f Groups 2 and 3. The mean learning outcome score o f Group 3 was s ig n if ic a n t ly higher than those o f Groups I and 2. Hypothesis 9 . No s ig n if ic a n t . in te rac tio n ex is ts between the independent v a r ia b le s o f in s tru c tio n a l stra tegy and years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program, by learning outcome. No s ig n if ic a n t in te ra c t io n was found to e x is t between the independent v a r ia b le s o f in s tru c tio na l strategy and years in the p e s t ic id e r e c e r t i f ic a t io n program, as in d ic a te d in Table 20. Hypothesis 9 was therefore reta ined. H y p o th e s is 1 0 . No s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t s e x i s t among the in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a te g y and yea rs in the p e s t i c i d e r e c e r t i f i c a t i o n program, on le a rn in g outcome. 134 For Hypothesis 10, a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence was found to .e x is t fo r the main e f fe c t o f in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y ; th e re fo re , the nu ll hypothesis was re jected . The 383 pestic ide app lica to rs receiving the lec tu re stra tegy demonstrated a s ig n if ic a n t ly higher mean score (15.50) on learning outcome than did the 163 applicato rs p a rt ic ip a tin g in the small group discussion format (14.63). x Table 20. Two-way ANOVA determining, in te rac tio n between in s tru c tiona l stra tegy and years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program and main e ffec ts among leve ls o f independent variab les. Sum o f Mean S ig n if . Source o f Varia tion Squares d f* Square F F Two-way In te ra c tion :. Ins truc tiona l Strategy and Years in Pesticide R ece rtif ica tio n Prog. 30.709 3 10.236 .447 .720 Main E ffects : ~ In s tru c tio na l Strategy Years in Pesticide 91.125 I 91.125 3.976 .047** R ece rtifica tio n Prog. 55.692 3 18.564 .810 .489 ^C rit ic a l Values, d f I , 538, alpha = .05, F = 3.86 C r it ic a l Values, d f 3, 538, alpha = .05, F = 2.62 **S ig n if le a n t a t alpha = .05 Hypothesis 11. No s ig n if ic a n t re la tionsh ip , ex is ts between the dependent va riab le o f learning outcome and the independent variables o f : (a) in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y , (b) a t t i tu d e toward mandatory p e s tic id e educa tion , (c) a t t i tu d e toward in s tru c t io n a l strategy received, (d) age, (e) level o f education completed, and ( f) years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. The product-moment co rre la tio n coe ffic ien ts , presented in Table 21 resulted in the id e n t if ic a t io n o f two s ig n if ic a n t re la tionsh ips between the. dependent v a r ia b le o f le a rn in g outcome and the independent variab les.; The nu ll hypothesis was therefore re jected . The find ings in d ic a te th a t p e s t ic id e a p p lic a to rs ' a t t i tu d e toward mandatory p e s t ic id e education corre la ted p o s it iv e ly w ith scores on learning outcome. Those w ith a more pos itive a tt itu d e toward the le g is la t iv e ly mandated pestic ide program tended to earn a higher score on the measure o f learning outcome. Table 21. Corre la tion coe ffic ie n ts between the dependent and indepen­ dent variab les plus in te r-co rre la tio n s between independent variab les (N=654).* Variable r Learning outcome and. in s tru c tiona l , 1 3 5 stra tegy -.0678 Learning outcome and age -.0999 Learning outcome and level o f education completed .0648 Learning outcome and years' in r e c e r t i f i ­ cation program -.0814 Learning outcome and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education . .5389** Learning outcome and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received .7648** Ins truc tiona l stra tegy and age .0778 Ins truc tiona l stra tegy and level o f education completed .1095 Ins tru c tio na l stra tegy and years fn the re c e r t if ic a t io n program .0115 136 Table 21—Continued. Variable r Ins truc tiona l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education -.0107 Ins tru c tio na l stra tegy and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received -.0486 Age and level o f education completed .2146** Age and years in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program .4513** Age and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education -.1358 Age and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received -.0851 Level o f education completed and years in re c e r t if ic a t io n program .2409** Level o f education and a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education / : .0000 . Level o f education completed and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l strategy. . received :0872 A ttitu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c ­ tiona l stra tegy received .6823** ' *Two-tailed te s t; C r it ic a l Values, d f 100, r = + .195 **S ign ifle an t at alpha = .05 The second find ing id e n tif ie s a pos itive co rre la tio n between the le ve l o f p e s t ic id e a p p lic a to r a t t i tu d e toward the in s tru c tiona l s tra te g y rece ived and the performance on the measure o f learning outcome. Those w ith a more po s itive a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tiona l stra tegy received tended to earn a higher score on the measure o f 137 learning outcome. The co rre la tio n c o e ff ic ie n t o f .7648 (R2 = .5849) ind icated tha t 58% o f the v a r ia b i l i t y in learning outcome scores can be explained by knowledge o f a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio n a l stra tegy received. Hypothesis 12. No s ig n if ic a n t in te r-c o rre la tio n (s ) e x is t among the independent variab les o f: (a) in s tru c tio na l s tra tegy, (b) a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education, (c) a tt itu d e toward ins tru c tiona l s tra te g y received, (d) age, (e) level o f education completed, and ( f ) years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. Four s ig n if ic a n t co rre la tio n coe ffic ie n ts were found to e x is t between pa irs o f independent va riab les , as noted in Table 21. The nu ll hypothesis was re jected and the a lte rna tive hypothesis s ta ting the existence o f s ig n if ic a n t re la tionsh ips was retained. The f i r s t find ing involved a s ig n if ic a n t p o s itive co rre la tio n between the age o f the app lica to rs and the level o f education completed by pestic ide app lica to rs . As the leve l o f education increased, so did app lica to r age. A s im ila r find ing involved the s ig n if ic a n t pos itive co rre la tio n between age o f the pestic ide applicators and years involved in the pestic ide c e r t if ic a t io n program. As expected, as the years in the program increased, the age o f the pestic ide app lica to rs increased. A th i r d s ig n if ic a n t c o r re la t io n was found between the level o f education completed and app lica to r years in the pes tic ide re c e r t if ic a ­ tion . program. As the le v e l. o f education completed increased, the number o f years o f p a rtic ip a tio n in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program increased. The fou rth s ig n if ic a n t find ing ind icated a pos itive co rre la tio n between pestic ide app lica to r a tt itu d e toward the mandatory 138 pestic ide education program and a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy re ce ived . Those w ith a more p o s it iv e a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education also tended to have a more po s itive a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received. Hypothesis 13. No s ig n if ic a n t m u ltip le co rre la tio n ex is ts between the dependent va riab le o f learning outcome and the set o f independent variab les, id e n tif ie d as: (a) in s tru c tio na l s tra tegy, (b) a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education, (c) a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tiona l s tra te g y received, (d) age, (e) level o f education completed, and ( f ) years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. Stepwise m u ltip le regression was used to determine the order o f entry o f the independent variables in the m u ltip le regression model. The variab le entered at Step One was a tt itu d e toward in s tru c tio na l p stra tegy received, y ie ld in g an R o f .58496. At Step Two, the variab le o f years in the r e c e r t i f ic a t io n program was added to the model, in c reas ing the R2 to .58852. . At Step Three, since none o f the O remaining variab les would s ig n if ic a n t ly increase the R , a l l remaining p variables were entered, culm inating in an R fo r the f u l l model o f .59029. These resu lts ind icated tha t the independent variab le o f a t t i tu d e toward in s tru c t io n a l stra tegy accounts fo r 58.4% o f the variance in learning outcome. The add ition o f the f iv e remaining independent variab les increases the percentage o f variance accounted fo r to .59029, an increase o f .00533. While th is increase is s ta t is t ic a l ly s ig n if ic a n t, i t does not appear to be o f any p rac tica l p consequence. Because the R 's a t each step were s ta t is t ic a l ly < 139 s ig n if ic a n t , the nu ll hypothesis was re jected and the a lte rna tive hypothesis re ta ined. The data are presented in Table 22. Table 22. Stepwise m u ltip le regression variab les. fo r entry o f s ix independent Step Variable Entered R2 F I / A ttitu d e Toward In s tru c t io n a l' Strategy Received .58496 .919* 2 Years in Program .58852 .465* 3 Ins truc tiona l Strategy Age Level o f Educ. Completed A ttitu d e Toward Mandatory Pesticide Education .59029 .155* ^S ign ifican t, a t .05 level o f confidence CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose o f th is chapter is to present conclusions based on an in te rp re ta tio n o f the find ings o f the study and to make recommendations fo r fu r th e r research and p rac tice . The conclusions are drawn from an inves tiga tion o f a population o f ru ra l adu lt learners, p a rtic ip a tin g in a one-tim e, le g is la t iv e ly mandated, educational program. Centered around the seven research questions in Chapter I , the conclusions are substantiated by the descrip tive.and s ta t is t ic a l find ings o f the study. Conclusions ( I) Receiving up-to-date information in the safe use o f pestic ides is more im po rtan t to pestic ide applicators than the question o f vo luntary or mandatory p a rt ic ip a tio n . Descrip tive data analysis ind ica tes tha t 68% o f the 592 respond­ ents would have pa rtic ipa ted v o lu n ta r ily in the pestic ide education program. From general discussion and comments volunteered in w r it in g by app lica to rs , however, the major concern expressed was not one o f being mandated to attend the program, but one o f necessity in receiv ing the most up-to-date information re levant to pestic ide safety. The resu lts o f the present study, however, concur w ith numerous occupa­ t io n a l s tud ie s and recommendations ind ica ting po s itive pa rtic ip a n t a tt itu d e toward voluntary continuing education (Edwards & Green, 1983; 141 Egelston, 1974; Larocco & Pol i t , 1978; Mathews & Schumacher, 1979; Mattson, 1974; Whit i s , 1972). (2) The question o f the leg itim acy o f mandatory pestic ide education is not considered to be a po s itive or a negative issue by the p a r t i ­ cipants in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. The find ings o f the present study ind ica te tha t 45% o f the 588 respondents were in agreement w ith the concept o f mandated pestic ide education, while 37% were in disagreement w ith .th e concept, ind ica ting no c lea r d is t in c t io n by pa rtic ipan ts in favor o f or against mandatory education. These find ings are s im ila r to other occupational stud ies, however, re cogn iz ing the issue o f mandatory continuing education (American H osp ita l A s so c ia tio n , 1979; Arneson, 1985; Brenner & Strawser, 1972; Ellyson et a l . , 1985; Hunt, 1987; M il le r & Rea, 1977; Peay, 1979; Schoen, 1979). The minimal percentage d iffe rence between the two a ttitudes may, in fa c t, support the premise tha t the issue o f MCE continues to be con tro ve rs ia l. (3) Pesticide app lica to rs did not favor one in s tru c tio na l stra tegy more than the other. In the present study, lec tu re was not considered to be a more preferred mode o f in s tru c tio n than small group discussion. In to ta l, 94% o f the pa rtic ipan ts were favorable to the stra tegy they received. For the. lec tu re group, 97% responded favorably to the strategy in comparison to 88% represented by the small group discussion. A key to the pos itive response may be in the overa ll design o f the in s tru c tio n , since both s tra teg ies represented the systematic d iffu s io n o f knowledge 142 fo r immediate app lica tion . By in i t i a l id e n t if ic a t io n o f the task, establishment o f the goals and ob jec tives, c r ite r io n referenced te s t, in s tru c tio na l stra tegy and in s tru c tio na l medium, the implementation o f e ith e r in s tru c tio na l stra tegy became simply a part o f the process. The stra teg ies were con textua lly determined and.provided fo r the f i t o f the in s tru c tio n to the environmental se ttin g . The favorable a tt itu d e to the lec tu re stra tegy may also be an example o f what Hovland, Jam's, and Kelley (1953) and Weaver (1980) suggest as the g re a te s t advantage o f the lec tu re ; tha t is , the presentation o f a human model to a group. In e ffe c t, one is creating in an audience a sense o f re la tionsh ip between the model and the subject the model is presenting. The presentation o f the subject matter by the person- , a l i t y has an e ffe c tiv e impact on the audience in tha t i t w i l l make d ire c t association between, the value o f the in fo rm a tio n and the impressions i t has o f the speaker (Weaver, 1980, p. 7 ). Sweeney and R e ige lu th (1984) fu r th e r suggest th e .le c tu re as an e ffe c tiv e stra tegy when large numbers are involved, when the group is homogeneous, when information changes rap id ly or frequen tly , and when there is a need to arouse in te re s t in a subject. The fa v o ra b il ity o f group discussion may be characterized again by the importance o f the subject matter content. Wagner and Arnold (1965) note tha t some problems can be more accurately and e f f ic ie n t ly solved by groups and tha t those who share in forming decisions are usually w il l in g to support decisions afterward. In the instance o f the safe use o f a g ricu ltu ra l chemicals, the ro le o f experience, the need fo r dec is ion-m aking rega rd ing a p p lic a t io n and the immediate use o f in fo rm a tio n may have enhanced the favorab le a tt itu d e toward the s tra tegy. B r ilh a r t (1982) suggests the stra tegy represents a mutually interdependent purpose w ith the success o f each member contingent upon the success o f the en tire group in reaching the goal. The pestic ide app lica to r is seeking information and assistance in the safe use o f pestic ides. Information and sharing by the s ix or seven other group members, often e xp e rie n tia lIy based, may con tribu te even more to the process. For the pestic ide ap p lic a to r,,th e case study format provided an opportun ity to deepen and extend subject matter concepts, apply previous experiences, and consider app lica tion o f subsequent learning in an area o f high p r io r i ty . (4) Learning outcome is not dependent on pestic ide app lica to r a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education or personal descrip tors such as age or years in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program. The. find ings ind ica te tha t demonstrated performance on the measure o f learning outcome is not dependent on pestic ide app lica to r a tt itu d e toward mandatory pestic ide education. Neither is learning outcome dependent, on age, le ve l o f education completed, or years in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program. (5) Pesticide app lica to rs p a rt ic ip a tin g in the group receiving the le c tu re s tra te g y performed be tte r on the measure o f learning outcome than the group p a rtic ip a tin g in small group discussion. In two instances, the s ta t is t ic a l analyses ind ica te a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence fo r the main e ffe c t o f in s tru c tio na l stra tegy on learning outcome. . In both analyses, the higher mean score was found fo r the 143 144 group receiving the lec tu re s tra tegy, ind ica ting .tha t lec tu re was a more e ffe c tiv e in s tru c tio na l stra tegy fo r use w ith ru ra l adu lt learners in the context o f a le g is la t iv e ly mandated educational program. The f in d in g s su b s ta n tia te e a r l ie r research by Rothman (1980), Slaten (1973), and Verner and Dickinson (1967) in the claim tha t lec tu re is be tte r in ass is ting learners in the re ca ll o f fa c ts . In add ition , the resu lts lend support to the suggestion by Weston and Cranton (1986) characte riz ing lec tu re as an e ffe c tiv e strategy fo r the lower leve ls o f ..the cogn itive domain, in which the goal of. in s tru c tio n is to expose students to in fo rm a tion . In the present study, dissemination o f fa c tu a l in fo rm a tion represented the lower leve ls o f the cogn itive dom a in ,.iden tified as knowledge gained and s k i l ls learned. Findings which suggest th a t variab les such as the c re d ib i l i t y o f the le c tu re r, order o f content presentation, em otiona lity o f argument, meaningful ness o f m a te r ia l, and use o f ,supportive materia ls are re levant fac to rs in determining the effectiveness o f lec tu re , may also be con tribu to rs to the id e n tif ie d d iffe rence between the s tra teg ies (.Hovland. e t a l . , 1953; Palmer & Verner, 1959; Verner & Dickinson, 1967). In the p resen t s tudy, the c r e d ib i l i t y o f the le c tu re r, rep re sen tin g both the Department o f A g ricu ltu re and the Extension Service, in combination w ith the element o f em otiona lity o f the to p ic , may have contributed s ig n if ic a n t ly to the ex is tin g d iffe rence . The documented evidence o f physical il ln e s s and. death through misuse o f pesticide, chemicals may be close enough to the app lica to r 's personal experience to encourage a stronger e f fo r t in responding to questions o f ..factual and immediate re c a ll . A lso, the p a rtic ip a n t must constantly be 145 replacing old information w ith new in order to be curren t, thereby c a llin g a tten tio n to the immediacy o f the app lica tion o f new informa­ t io n . The exposure to concise, structured information at a po in t .in time when the app lica to r is in a captive s itu a tio n may, in fa c t, enhance the learning outcome. Verner and Dickinson (1967) also suggest tha t the use o f in s tru c ­ t io n a l devices may increase the effectiveness o f the lectu re w ith adu lts . In the present study, the use o f i l lu s t r a t iv e materia ls to augment the lec tu re may have contributed to the e ff ic ie n cy o f the lec tu re and, in tu rn , the demonstrated higher mean score on learning outcome. (6) Pesticide app lica to r a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l stra tegy received is p o s it iv e ly re la ted to performance on learning outcome. With regard to the in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies o f lec tu re and small group discussion, immediate or delayed reca ll o f factua l information has been the basis fo r a large po rtion o f the research re levant to measurement o f learning achievement. In add ition , studies have also been conducted inves tiga ting the supe rio rity o f one strategy over another in changing a ttitudes o f behavior by in d iv id ua ls . Findings from the present study ind ica te tha t regardless o f the ins tru c tiona l stra tegy implemented, those w ith a more pos itive a tt itu d e tended to achieve a higher learning outcome, (7) Age is p o s it iv e ly re la ted to level o f education completed and years in the pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program. 146 \ In the study o f adu lt learners, age is considered in terms o f chronological age and b io log ica l age. Age, as described fo r the study population, is in te rp re ted in the chronological sense and, as expected, is p o s it iv e ly re la ted w ith years o f education completed and years o f p a rtic ip a tio n in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program. S ix ty percent o f the applicato rs responding were included in the age category 31 to 55, lending support to the p red ic tion by Cross (1981) th a t by the year 2000, the la rges t age group w i l l be 30 to 44 years o ld , w ith a r is e in the 45 to 64 year-o ld group. Twenty-six percent o f the pa rtic ipan ts were 56 years o f age or o lder. (8) Years o f p a rtic ip a tio n in the pes tic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program is p o s it iv e ly re la ted to years o f education completed. The pos itive re la tionsh ip between years in the pestic ide program and years o f education is v e r if ie d by a co rre la tio n c o e ff ic ie n t o f .2409. This find ing suggests tha t pa rtic ipan ts w ith more years o f education a lso see the va lue in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program and demonstrate, through th e ir p a rt ic ip a tio n , tha t b e lie f . This conclusion is supported by the find ing tha t 68% o f the app lica to rs would have pa rtic ipa ted v o lu n ta r ily in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program had i t not been mandated. (9) App lica tor a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tio na l s tra tegy received is p o s i t iv e ly re la te d to a tt itu d e toward the mandated pestic ide education program. For the population o f pestic ide applicato rs involved in the study, both groups demonstrated a po s itive a tt itu d e toward the in s tru c tiona l s tra te g y . re ce ived . Previous discussions provide . a basis fo r the e ff ic ie n cy o f both s tra teg ies w ith regard to the adu lt learner and the • . I na ture o f the le a rn in g environment. The find ings re ite ra te the importance o f the f i t o f the s tra tegy to the learning environment and to the learner, based on the se lection o f an appropriate in s tru c tio na l design model. In th is instance, cha rac te ris tics o f the in s tru c tio na l systems ,.model allow fo r a well-designed and well-executed, educational experience, provid ing an oppo rtun ity . to. incorporate both pedagogical and andragogicaT. methods, and the accompanying in s tru c tio na l s tra te - ■ ' , " • . . A . V :- " ■. . gies. The resu lts suggest tha t e ith e r stra tegy, lec tu re .o r. small group discussion, is appropriate fo r the task at hand. With ..respect to a tt itu d e toward. mandatory education, pestic ide applicato rs appear to be cognizant of. the knowledge explosion cu rren tly being, experienced by socie ty and; are fu l ly aware o f the need fo r continued updating about the safe use o f pestic ides. In add ition , pa rtic ipan ts appear to be aware o f the penalty by law fo r misuse o f res tric ted -use compounds, o f operating w ithout a license, and o f the l i a b i l i t y fa c to r involved regarding use and app lica tion o f chemicals. Pesticide app lica to rs , the re fo re , may id e o log ica lly consider the need fo r educational information as an opportun ity fo r "self-assessment," as noted by Buckner (1974). (10) A t t itu d e toward the in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y received is an im po rtan t con tribu ting va riab le to the c r ite r io n variab le o f learning outcome. 148 A ttitu d e toward in s tru c tio na l stra tegy was found to be p o s it iv e ly re la ted to the dependent variab le o f learning outcome, accounting fo r 58.4% o f the variance. The add ition o f the f iv e remaining independent va r ia b le s accounted fo r an increase o f .00533,. bring ing the to ta l variance accounted fo r by the independent variab les to .59029. The part played by the independent variab le substantiates the conclusion tha t a tt itu d e toward the stra tegy received is an important variab le to consider in the design, development, and implementation o f in s tru c tio n fo r adu lt learners. (11) When the learning outcome is defined as immediate re ca ll o f factua l in formation, level o f education completed serves as an acceptable index o f performance. A s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence was found between pa rtic ipan ts having one to . e igh t years o f elementary school and one to four years o f co llege. A s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence was also found between pa rtic ipan ts having one to four years o f high, school and one to four years o f co llege. These find ings help to substantia te the pa rt played by the . lea rne r's , level o f education, re levant to the se lection o f in s tru c ­ t io n a l s t ra te g ie s , and the re s u lta n t performance on measures o f learning outcome (Cashin, 1985; Goldin,. 1948; Harnack & Fest, 1964; Longest, 196.4; Lowman, 1984; Potter & Anderson, 1976; Vernon, 1950, 1952). Education le ve l, in other.words, can serve as an ind ica to r o f performance. on learning outcome when defined as immediate reca ll o f factual in formation. 149 Recommendations Based on the find ings o f t h is . study, the fo llow ing recommenda­ tions fo r fu tu re research and p rac tice are made. Recommendations, fo r Future Research (1) The absence o f s ig n if ic a n t- in te ra c tio n between the independent v a r ia b le s o f in s t ru c t io n a l s tra tegy, a tt itu d e s , and personal descrip tors suggests the need fo r continued inves tiga tion o f other facto rs which might combine to influence learn ing outcome. Such . I fa c to rs might include learning s ty le , learning climate and/or learning environment. In add ition , communication patterns, t ra d i­ t io n a l and technological methodologies, and s e lf- in s tru c tio n a l s tra teg ies as compared to teacher-centered s tra teg ies might be areas fo r in ves tiga tion . (2) A c r it ic ism o f s ta te government is the propensity o f le g is la t iv e s ta tu tes ; a c r it ic ism by numerous adult educators is the use o f law to force p a rtic ip a tio n in learning a c t iv i t ie s . Pesticide app lica to r a tt itu d e suggests th a t a le g is la t iv e ly mandated program may not be necessary as app lica to rs are w il l in g ^to pa rtic ip a te v o lu n ta r i ly in continuing education a c t iv i t ie s . In con tras t, however, the question o f leg itim acy o f the mandatory program was not considered to be a negative issue since nearly h a lf o f the respondents were in agreement w ith the concept. The question fo r in v e s tig a tio n remains: Should the re c e r t if ic a t io n program be le g is la t iv e ly mandated or should the decision to pa rtic ip a te be 150 l e f t to the pestic ide app lica to r, based on voluntary p a rtic ip a tio n in an acceptable a lte rna tive? (3) Minimal research was found in the l i te ra tu re re la tin g a tt itu d e toward mandatory continuing education and performance. Although the find ings from the present study ind ica te tha t a tt itu d e is re la ted to performance, add itiona l research is needed from other occupa tiona l groups to id e n t i f y e x is t in g a tt itu d e s and the re la tionsh ip o f these a ttitudes to measures o f performance. (4) Pesticide app lica to rs did not express a more favorable a tt itu d e toward one in s tru c tio na l stra tegy over the o ther. Lecture was considered to be as e f fe c t iv e as small group d iscu ss io n . Educators o f adults need to go one step fu r th e r, however, and exp lo re v a r ia t io n s o f the teacher-centered and co llabo ra tive / f a c i l i t a t iv e modes in order to accommodate fo r learner d iv e rs ity , organizational climate, learner need, and in s tru c to r s ty le . I f , fo r example, the decision is made to implement a tra d it io n a l s tra tegy, then a comparison o f the va ria tions o f the tra d it io n a l lec tu re approach, feedback lec tu re , or re f le c t iv e lectu re would be o f help in id e n tify in g the most appropriate in s t ru c t io n a l stra tegy fo r a spec ific learner in a p a rt ic u la r learning environment. (5) Research studies need to be conducted comparing the e ffe c t o f in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies on learning outcome, as represented by the four domains o f learning (Gagne1, 1977). Lecture is id e n t i­ f ie d in the present study as an e ffe c tiv e stra tegy fo r the lower c o g n it iv e level representative o f immediate re ca ll o f factual in formation. For the developer o f in s tru c tio n , however, i t would 151 be he lp fu l to. know the effectiveness o f s tra teg ies such as lec tu re and small group discussion in the higher cogn itive leve ls o f d iscrim ina tion , ru le learn ing, and problem so lv ing ; The nature o f such a recommendation requires tha t .the service provider design the measure o f learning outcome to be representative o f lower and higher cogn itive leve ls . In the present study, only the lower cogn itive level o f knowledge gained was represented. (6) A lthough numerous s tud ies have c ited the supe rio rity o f one in s t ru c t io n a l s tra te g y over another in changing a ttitudes o f learners, the present study ind ica tes tha t fo r non -trad itiona l adult learners in a ru ra l s e tt in g , th is may not be the case. A dd itio n a l research needs to be conducted inves tiga ting adu lt le a rne r a t t itu d e s toward in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies outside the t r a d i t io n a l in s t i t u t io n a l c lassroom /course-for-cred it s e ttin g . The issue o f one-time, continuing education o ffe rings to meet s p e c if ic r e c e r t i f ic a t io n , needs presents a d if fe re n t set o f in s tru c t io n a l parameters, but also presents an area m inimally investigated. (7) For the educational service provider, id e n t if ic a t io n o f age and level o f education o f c lie n te le can be con tribu ting factors in the se lection o f appropriate in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies . The assumption underlying andragogy is tha t adults are less dependent and more se lf-d ire c ted in regard to learn ing a c t iv i t ie s , and co lla bo ra tive / f a c i l i t a t iv e modes o f in s tru c tio n are more appropriate (Knowles, 1974). Based on the present study, however, the recommendation is to in v e s t ig a te the adu lt developmental stages w ith regard to te a c h e r-c e n te re d and f a c i l i t a t i ve /co l,I a b o ra tive models o f .in s tru c tion to determine e ffe c t o f method: on learning outcome. Questions fo r inves tiga tion might include: (a) What are the differences in perception and preference between the m idd le adulthood developmental stage and the la te r m a tu r ity stage fo r in s tru c tio n a l s tra teg ies representing ' pedagogical and andragogical models? (b) How does the o lder learner perceive h im /herse lf learning most e ffe c tive ly? What a ffec ts the learning? (c) Under what env ironmenta l/o rgan iza tiona l climate does the o lder learner process information m ost.e ffec tive ly? Does i t make a d iffe rence who o ffe rs the educational a c tiv ity ? Is assistance necessary from an in s tru c to r or is the app lica to r inc lined toward a "s e lf-d ire c t in g " approach? (8) In considering the assumption regarding adults as being s e lf - d ire c te d in t h e i r le a rn in g a c t iv i t ie s as compared to being in s tru c to r-d e pen den t, em p ir ica l research studies need to be continued ascerta in ing the effectiveness o f a lte rna tive in s tru c ­ tiona l models. Two such models include the learner-generative model, and the in s tru c tiona l systems model, representing andragog­ ica l and pedagogical methodologies. Recommendations fo r Practice , ( I ) Encourage the educational service provider to. incorporate in to the s ta f f development opportun ities inserv ice tra in in g re levant to the adu lt learner and the in s tru c tio n a l development process. The 152 153 assumption tha t the personnel provid ing the in s tru c tio n have a working knowledge o f the adu lt learner, and the in s tru c tio na l development process may be somewhat lim ite d . As was noted in the l i t e r a t u r e , the m a jo r ity o f educators p ra c tic e methods and s tra te g ie s w ith which they are fam ilia r , as compared to tha t method or stra tegy most appropriate fo r the learner at hand. Recogn ition o f the le a rn in g climate, a fa m il ia r i ty w ith the d iv e r s i t y o f a d u lt learners and learning s ty le s , a lte rna tive in s tru c tio na l methods and s tra teg ies , and a fa m il ia r i ty w ith the in s tru c tio na l design process should be included as in teg ra l parts o f the tra in in g sessions. (2) H is to r ic a l ly , the Extension Serv ice has been a provider o f educational information to the "knowledge ga in ed /sk ills learned" domaini as id e n tif ie d by Gagne1. However, due to the nature o f the problems ru ra l America is fa c in g , perhaps the time is appropriate fo r a greater e f fo r t to be made toward viewing program e ffo r ts in a long-term mode, w ith an emphasis toward problem­ solving and a higher level o f in s tru c tio na l events. (3) In d iv id u a ls involved in the program design process should be encouraged to incorporate the use o f an in s tru c tio n a l systems model as the basis fo r the development o f the in s tru c tio na l event. This would help to assure some degree o f effectiveness in the design, development, management, implementation, and evaluation o f the in s tru c tio n a l design process. (4) G ueu le tte (1976) has suggested th a t government c o n tro l is encouraged in three ways: (a) by allow ing add itiona l legal and 154 fin anc ia l con tro ls to be implemented, (b) by accepting support tha t s tipu la tes cond itions, and (c) by perm itting the government to impose more regula tory and licensing requirements. I f the la t te r is tru e , agencies reviewing proposals requesting mandatory con tin u in g education le g is la tio n fo r licensure renewal should consider the fo llow ing : (a) What problems have created the ju s t i f ic a t io n fo r mandatory continuing education? (b) Is th e re documented evidence, th a t ac tua l performance de fic ie nc ie s ra ther than inadequacies are responsible fo r unacceptable performance? (c) Are the re e x is t in g mechanisms or methods th a t can be strengthened or improved, or new approaches tha t can be developed to solve id e n tif ie d problems? 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White, KELLOGG Fellow, Doctoral Candidate Adult, Community and Higher Education Montana State Univers ity RE: COUNTY PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION PROGRAMS DATE: January 28, 1987 Recently, I had the opportun ity to attend the Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Agent Train ing fo r D is t r ic t V held in Lewis town, a t which time I v is i te d w ith severa l o f you rega rd ing the use o f in s tru c tiona l materia ls in your ind iv idua l county re c e r t if ic a t io n programs, designed s p e c if ic a lly fo r the SAFETY c r i te r ia . Each of you tha t I v is ite d w ith were very receptive to the idea and w il l in g to work w ith me in th is endeavor. I have since w ritte n and rew ritten the proposal fo r my d isse rta tion study, based on the ideas I shared w ith you. The proposal has been accepted and I am "on my way"; now, I am asking fo r your assistance as we previously discussed, and I would l ik e to spend a few minutes w ith you, v ia th is le t te r , confirm ing plans fo r the study. Before I id e n tify the area o f assistance tha t I am requesting from you, le t me "set the stage" re levant to the purpose o f the study. During my "time" w ith the Cooperative Extension Service, I was asked repeatedly about s tra teg ies and methods fo r improving the teaching- le a rn in g process in which we are a l l involved, regardless o f the subject matter being taught or disseminated. There was an attempt to answer some o f those questions in the METHODS AND MEDIA HANDBOOK tha t Dr. Danny Cheatham and I assembled, but I s t i l l sense the need to look at our in s tru c tio na l approaches, our audience, our de live ry and the need o f the c lie n te le in order to design and de live r in s tru c tio na l programs f u l f i l l i n g the needs o f the adu lt learner. Also, o f consider­ able in te re s t to me is the learning climate in which you and I d e live r information and education. The Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Program is a good example; i t is a program mandated by the le g is la tu re fo r the commercial and p riva te app lica to r to attend, and i t is mandated tha t we 171 in . the Extension Serv ice p rov ide the needed educational program re su lting in the c e r t if ic a t io n o f our c lie n te le . The question tha t e x is ts is : To what extent does the mandated program a ffe c t the learning process based on the in s tru c tio na l strategy used by you, the County Extension Agent, de live ring the program? Based on my own personal in te re s t in the in s tru c tio na l process, in add ition to my keen desire to continue working w ith the professionals employed by the Montana Cooperative Extension Service, I have designed my d is s e r ta t io n proposal w ith the purpose o f in ve s tig a tin g two in s tru c tio na l s tra teg ies , lec tu re and small group discussion, w ith in a mandatory se tting id e n tif ie d as the Montana Pesticide R ece rtifica tio n Program. Each o f the p a rtic ip a tin g counties in D is t r ic t V w i l l be assigned one o f the two formats, based on the estimated number o f p a r t ic ip a n ts (the counties p ro jec ting smaller enrollments w il l be assigned the small group discussion format). Your county is being asked to ass is t in the small group discussion format, necessitating tha t the to ta l number o f pa rtic ipan ts be divided in to small groups o f 8-10 people. Al I materia ls needed fo r p resen ting /pa rtic ipa ting in the 45 minute session on safety w i l l be provided to you. YOU WILL NOT HAVE TO PREPARE ANY INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE SAFETY CRITERIA! These m a te r ia ls in c lude handouts, v isua ls , and any supportive materia ls necessary fo r the small group discussion format. S p e c ific a lly , I am asking fo r your assistance in the fo llow ing manner: (1) Incorporate in to your planning fo r the county pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program space consideration allow ing fo r pa rtic ipan ts to d iv ide in to small groups. (Example: I f you expect 100 pa rtic ip a n ts , you would need space fo r approximately 10 groups; i f a large fa irground bu ild ing were to be used, fo r instance, a ll groups could be in the same b u ild in g .) The po in t is to be able to break in to small groups in order to implement the small group format. (2) You, as the County Agent, would serve as a fa c i l i t a to r , moving among the groups, lis te n in g , provid ing feedback i f necessary, but not being an in teg ra l pa rt o f the d iscu ss io n . However, we do need to id e n t ify some ind iv idua ls tha t you know are going to attend to serve in the capacity o f a "group leader." I f you estimate 10 groups, you would need 10 "ass is tan ts" or group leaders. The po in t is tha t in small group discussion, one in d i­ vidual takes the lead in in i t ia t in g group discussion; to accomplish th is task, could you do the fo llow ing : (a) Id e n tify po ten tia l ind iv idua ls in your community who w i l l be attending the re c e r t if ic a t io n program. You probably have a good idea o f whom has to be re c e r t if ie d . Which o f those would be w il l in g to help in small group discussion? 172 (b) Contact in d iv id u a ls and ask i f they would be w il l in g to pa rtic ip a te in a "group leader ro le ." (c) Coordinate a meeting o f two hours where I might meet w ith ind iv idua ls to explain m ateria ls , etc. This might be the n igh t before the re c e r t if ic a t io n program, the day before, a week before, e tc . , at th e ir convenience. We w il l need to have them a ll together, or a t least same day/evening since I w il l - need to tra v e l to your county to conduct the meeting. (d) Send to me the names and addresses o f the in d iv id ­ uals you have id e n tif ie d so tha t I might send them the materia ls they w i l l need p r io r to our meeting. I rea lize tha t p re lim inary estim ates. ind ica te some o f you may have subs tan tia lly more than 100 pa rtic ip an ts ; fo r example. Carbon County might have closer to 190. In a case such as tha t, Darrel might plan to d iv ide his pa rtic ipan ts in h a lf . . . . one group would receive lec tu re format and the other pa rtic ipan ts break in to small groups., having a to ta l o f approximately nine or ten small groups. Darre l, or perhaps Merrylee, could present the lec tu re presentation; the id e n tif ie d group leaders Wo1UId serve as " fa c i l i ta to r s " fo r the small group discussions. You may ASSURE THE INDIVIDUALS YOU CONTACT THAT THEIR INVOLVEMENT WITH THE SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION WILL NOT MEAN THEY WILL "TEACH" THE GROUP; materia ls w i l l be provided fo r them to use which invo lve presenting some spec ific questions re levant to a case study. The pa rtic ipan ts in each group w il l read a case study (an example o f an app lica to r using a fumigant and a wood preservative, fo r instance) and then discuss the appropriate p ro tec tive c lo th ing and equipment based on th e ir under­ standing o f the pestic ide label information and gu ide lines. I w i l l be sending the case study, m ateria ls , e tc . , to the id e n tif ie d leaders ahead o f our meeting, so there should be nothing threatening regarding the group leader ro le . I t w il l be a discussion ra ther than a lec tu re . z I rea lize tha t i t . w i l l take some time from your schedule to contact the po ten tia l group leaders, but your fa m il ia r i ty w ith the applicants makes a big d iffe rence in the se lection o f the ind iv id ua ls . I f you have troub le id e n tify in g po ten tia l app lica to rs to serve as group leaders, perhaps some o f your Extension Homemakers or 4-H Leaders would be w il l in g to help. The ind iv idua ls do not need previous experience as such ( I w i l l have met w ith them and "tra ined " them to use procedure); however, the u ltim a te would be to have those ind iv idua ls attending the re c e r t if ic a t io n tra in in g serve as group leaders. TO "MAKE THE STUDY WORK," IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT WE BE ABLE TO COMPARE THE LECTURE APPROACH TO A SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION FORMAT. I DO APPRECIATE YOUR EFFORTS IN HELPING ACCOMPLISH THIS FACET OF THE STUDY! Regarding the dates fo r upcoming county re c e r t if ic a t io n tra in in g , I understand Big Horn County is set fo r February 25th and Sweet Grass fo r 173 possib ly March 12th. I hope th is request comes fa r enough in advance fo r you to be a pa rt o f the study. With only a lim ite d number o f coun ties invo lved in the re c e r t if ic a t io n program th is year, I am dependent, and ce r ta in ly , indebted, to each o f you. The Montana Cooperative Extension Service w i l l receive a ll the information from the study, as w i l l each o f the p a rtic ip a tin g counties, in a format tha t hopefu lly w i l l be useful in .p lann ing and de live ring programs in such a se tting in the fu tu re . There is also the po ten tia l fo r re p lica tin g th is approach in Utah and Colorado next f a l l , so you are re a lly an im po rtan t p a rt o f what may be a regional p ro je c t. I s incere ly appreciate your help and cooperation and hope tha t we can "carry th is o f f . " Please fe e l fre e to contact me w ith questions, e tc . ; my telephone number is 994-6417. I have enclosed my business card w ith address fo r fu tu re correspondence. I am looking forward to hearing from you regarding your p a rtic ip a tio n and your representa tives. I w il l do my best to meet your group leaders' convenience in terms o f ind iv idua l county tra in in g meetings. Please le t me know as soon as you know your te n ta tive dates fo r county re c e r t if ic a t io n so tha t we can work out the tra v e l/ tra in in g times. And again, thanks fo r your help. 174 APPENDIX B MAP OF PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION PROGRAM BY DISTRICT Pesticide Recertification Program Figure 5. Map o f pestic ide re c e r t if ic a t io n program by d is t r ic t . 176 APPENDIX C PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION QUESTIONS:. SAFETY NAME COUNTY PESTICIDE RECERTIFICATION QUESTIONS: SAFETY Answer each of the questions with a T for True or an F for False; place the letter of your choice in the blank to the left of the question. _____!• Fumigants are highly toxic to humans and require the use of specialized protective equipment, including respirators. _____2. Wlien handling or applying pesticides, a hat with a fabric headband is usually the best choice. ____Wear a respirator during application of a structural fumigant gas and when entering the premise before the labeled re-entry period has expired. _____4. All pesticide labels will have directions for first-aid printed on them. _____5. Regular soap will remove pesticide residue on the skin and clothing as well as detergents will. _____6. Conmiercial eyewashes should not be used when pesticides have been splashed in the eyes, as they may intensify the injury. _____7. The Montana Pesticide Act authorizes the State Department of Agriculture to suspend or revoke the private applicator's license if the Department has reason to believe the pesticide is being misused or misapplied. _____8. The pesticide label is of little or no use for giving information pertinent to medical attention. ___ 9. Repeated exposure to small amounts of some pesticides may cause sudden, severe illness. ^ ____10. Pesticide contaminated clothing may be washed with the family laundry. Multiple Choice Questions: Please mark the correct answer(s) by circling your selection (s). 11. The most important factor to be considered when choosing applicator equipment is: a. designed for the chemical formulations you plan to use b. least expensive c. fits the tractor d. pest to"be controlled. The most important piece of protective clothing to wear preservative is: when using wood a.' clean coveralls b. impermeable gloves c. hard hat d. goggles. O rV Pesticides can enter the body in which major ways: a. orally b. dermally c. by inhalation d. all of the above. When applying fumigants, a _____________________ respirator is the best choice to avoid severe injury or death. a. positive pre-sure b. supplied-aire c. canister d. cartridge Steps taken when someone has been poisoned by a pesticide are as follows: a. make sure victim is breathing; decontaminate him/her; seek medical help b. seek medical help c. seek medical help, decontaminate victim, make sure he/she is breathing d. decontaminate victim; seek medical help. "Signal words" on the labels are: a. Danger—Poison c. Caution b. Warning d. All of the above. The first thing to do in case of accidental contamination with a chemical wood preservative is: : - a„ call a physician b. vigorously scrub the contaminated skin c„ remove contaminated clothing that is in contact with the skin d. induce vomiting. All pesticide labels carry the following statement(s): a. Danger-Poison b . Warning c. Caution d. Keep out of the reach of Children. Pesticides can enter the body in the following way(s): a. orally b. through breathing ' c. through wounds d. through the skin e. all of the above. Factors that affect pesticide removal from clothing include: a. chemical class of pesticide b. concentration of pesticide . laundering conditions . fabric weight e. fiber content f„ all of the above. 179 APPENDIX D ATTITUDE TOWARD MANDATORY PESTICIDE EDUCATION/ INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY SCALE (AMPE-ISS) 180 NAME__ COUNTY ATTITUDE TOWARD MANDATORY PESTICIDE EDUCATION/INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY SCALE ____________(AMPE-ISS)________________ I . Was the method of instruction (LECTURE or SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION you received of help to you in understanding the information? Strongly Agree Agree No O p in ion Disagree Strongly Disagree 2. Does your experience with pesticides eliminate the need for information relevant to the safe use of chemicals? 3. If the pesticide education program had NOT been mandated by Montana law, would you have attended a program of this type voluntarily? 4 . Would you participate in another program using the same instructional strategy (LECTURE or SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION) as you received today? 5. Based on the information received today in the SAFETY portion of the program, will you change the way you protect yourself and your environment when using pesticides in the future? 6. Do you think, you will use the handout materials in the future for reference in the safe use of pesticides? 7. Did the person presenting the information do so in a clear, concise manner allowing for questions and interaction from the participants? 8. Is the experience you bring to the pesticide education program sufficient to answer questions about the safe use of pesticides? f 181 I cont. page 2 9. Would followup information provided on a regular basis "in the form of a Fact Sheet or a newsletter, relevant to the safe handling of pesticides, be of help to you in the future? Strongly Agree Agree No Opinion Disagree Strongly Disagree 10. Do you think a pesticide education program such as you are participating in should be legislatively mandated? 11. Would you rather receive pesticide education infor­ mation from your peers, trained in the necessary subject-matter, rather than from the Department of Agriculture or the Cooperative Extension Service? Completion of the above requested information indicates to the researcher that you are willing to participate in the project. 182 APPENDIX E GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE (GIQ) 183 *GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE NAME:_______________________ ' ______________________ AGE______________ LEVEL OF EDUCATION COMPLETED: YEARS IN CERTIFICATION PROGRAM: One-to-Two Years_______________ Three-to-Four Years____________ Flve-to-Six Years______________ Seven Years or More One-to-Eight Years Elementary^ One-to-Four Years High School^ One-to-Four Years College_____ Five Years College plus_______ Applicator Status: Commercial Private Other Applicator_______ ; Applicator_______ Years in Residence in County: One-to-Five Years______ Six-to-Ten Ytiars_______ Eleven-to-Fifteen Years Do you believe a pesticide education program such as you are participating in should be legislatively mandated? Strongly Agree Agree Nd Opinion Disagree Strongly Disagree If the pesticide education program had NOT been mandated by Montana law, would you have attended voluntarily? Strongly Agree Agree No Opinion Disagree Strongly Disagree *Completion of the above requested information indicates to the researcher that you are willing to participate in the project. MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 3 762 10051946 9