STRATIGRAPHIC VARIATION OF SEDIMENTARY FACIES AND ARCHITECTUAL ELEMENTS WITHIN CHANNEL COMPLEXES OF THE MOUNT MESSENGER FORMATION, TARANAKI, NEW ZEALAND by Nathan Andrew Corbin A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Earth Sciences MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana April 2015 ©COPYRIGHT by Nathan Andrew Corbin 2015 All Rights Reserved ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my co-advisor, Dr. Michael H. Gardner for giving me the opportunity and framework to study deep-water outcrops around the world. His passion for sedimentology and stratigraphy greatly influenced my understanding of the science and always kept me pushing for more. I also want to thank my committee, Dr. James G. Schmitt, Dr. David W. Bowen, and Dr. David R. Lageson. Their encouragement and guidance during the last year have helped me reach my goals and continue onto the next path in my career. I am grateful for all of my family and friends who have stood by my side and supported me throughout my education. Without your words of encouragement and insight, the last three years would have been much more difficult. To my parents, thank you for your constant support and for teaching me the value of hard work and perseverance. I want to thank Nick Atwood, Rosalba Queirolo, Ryan Hillier, Tyler Appleyard, Casey Reid, Jacob Thacker, Julian Stahl, Christine Maday, Melanie Baldwin, and the sedimentary research group. Thank you for inspiring me to stay focused and achieve my goals. None of this work would have been possible without funding from the Slope and Basin Consortium. I want to thank BHP Billiton, BP, Statoil, and Petrobras for their financial support. I also want to thank landowners Steve and Kathy Mackenzie, and Russell and Parani Gibbs for their hospitality during my field work. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1 Purpose and Scope ...........................................................................................................1 Objectives and Research Questions .................................................................................2 Study Area .......................................................................................................................4 Geologic Setting ..............................................................................................................4 Data and Methods ..........................................................................................................11 Field Data ...............................................................................................................11 Methods..................................................................................................................11 Geologic Map.............................................................................................11 Sedimentological Measured Profiles .........................................................13 Facies and Event Bed Analysis ..................................................................15 Architectural Element Analysis .................................................................15 Previous Work ...............................................................................................................16 2. SEDIMENTOLOGY .....................................................................................................20 Subaqueous Flows .........................................................................................................20 Turbidity Currents ..................................................................................................20 Low-Density Turbidity Current .................................................................22 High-Density Turbidity Current ................................................................22 Density Flows ........................................................................................................23 Concentrated Density Flow........................................................................23 Hyperconcentrated Density Flow ..............................................................24 Cohesive Debris Flows ..........................................................................................25 Flow Transformation .....................................................................................................25 Hydrodynamic Facies of the Mount Messenger Formation ..........................................27 Mudstone-Clast Conglomerate Facies ...................................................................27 Clast-Supported..........................................................................................27 Matrix-Supported .......................................................................................28 Thick- to Medium-Bedded Sandstone Facies ........................................................29 Horizontally Stratified or Spaced-Stratified ..............................................29 Cross-Stratified ..........................................................................................30 Wavy-Laminated........................................................................................30 Structureless ...............................................................................................31 Secondary Structures .................................................................................32 Structureless with Floating Mudstone-Clasts ............................................32 Plane-Parallel Laminated ...........................................................................33 Medium- to Thin-Bedded Sandstone Facies ..........................................................34 Asymmetric Ripple Cross-Laminated........................................................34 Climbing Ripple Cross-Laminated ............................................................34 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS – CONTINUED Medium- to Thin-Bedded Muddy Sandstone Facies .............................................35 Muddy Sandstone.......................................................................................35 Mudstone-Clasts at Bed Tops ....................................................................36 Silty Sandstone...........................................................................................37 Poorly-Sorted Mudstone-Rich Facies ....................................................................37 Poorly-Sorted Mudstone ............................................................................37 Mudstone-Clasts Dispersed .......................................................................38 Siltstone Facies ......................................................................................................39 Concentrated Bands of Organic Carbon ....................................................39 Plane-Parallel Laminated ...........................................................................39 Ripple-Laminated to Wavy-Laminated .....................................................40 Normal Graded...........................................................................................40 Mudstone Facies ....................................................................................................41 Silty Mudstone ...........................................................................................41 Clay Dominated .........................................................................................41 Claystone....................................................................................................42 Calcareous Facies...................................................................................................42 Calcareous-Rich .........................................................................................42 Post-Depositional Facies ........................................................................................43 Deformed; Mass-Transport Deposit ..........................................................43 Concretions, Cementation ..........................................................................43 Bioturbated and Burrowed Sandstone .......................................................44 Bioturbated and Burrowed Siltstone ..........................................................45 Tuffaceous Facies ..................................................................................................45 Volcaniclastic Sandstone ...........................................................................45 Volcaniclastic Mudstone ............................................................................46 Thin Section Analysis ....................................................................................................47 3. ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENT ANALYSIS ..............................................................54 Definition and Terminology ..........................................................................................54 Sedimentary Bodies .......................................................................................................56 Mass-Transport Deposits .......................................................................................56 Channel Complexes ...............................................................................................60 Channel Complex 1A .................................................................................60 Channel Complex 1B .................................................................................63 Channel Complex 2....................................................................................66 Channel Complex 2A .................................................................................73 Channel Complex 3....................................................................................76 Channel Complex 4....................................................................................80 Wedgeforms/Levees ..............................................................................................83 v TABLE OF CONTENTS – CONTINUED Drapes ....................................................................................................................86 Laminated Thin Beds .............................................................................................86 4. STRATIGRAPHIC EVOLUTION DISCUSSION .......................................................88 Stratigraphic Variation within Channel Complexes ......................................................88 Channel Complex 1A .............................................................................................88 Sedimentary Facies ....................................................................................88 Paleoflow Analysis ....................................................................................92 Event Bed Thickness Analysis...................................................................92 Flow Transformations ................................................................................95 Channel Complex 1B .............................................................................................96 Sedimentary Facies ....................................................................................96 Paleoflow Analysis ..................................................................................101 Event Bed Thickness Analysis.................................................................101 Flow Transformations ..............................................................................102 Channel Complex 2..............................................................................................106 Sedimentary Facies ..................................................................................106 Paleoflow Analysis ..................................................................................108 Event Bed Thickness Analysis.................................................................109 Flow Transformations ..............................................................................109 Channel Complex 3..............................................................................................111 Sedimentary Facies ..................................................................................111 Paleoflow Analysis ..................................................................................114 Event Bed Thickness Analysis.................................................................115 Flow Transformations ..............................................................................115 Channel Complex 4..............................................................................................118 Sedimentary Facies ..................................................................................118 Paleoflow Analysis ..................................................................................120 Event Bed Thickness Analysis.................................................................120 Flow Transformations ..............................................................................122 Channel Stacking Patterns ...........................................................................................122 Paleogeography ............................................................................................................124 Influence from Mass-Transport Deposits ............................................................124 Sediment Provenance Analysis ....................................................................................127 Southern: Long Distance Transport .....................................................................127 Northern: Mohakatino Volcanic Arc ...................................................................128 Eastern: Shelf/Slope .............................................................................................129 5. CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................................130 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS – CONTINUED Sedimentology .............................................................................................................130 Architectural Elements and Stratigraphic Evolution ...................................................131 REFERENCES CITED ....................................................................................................135 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................143 APPENDIX A: Measured Sedimentological Profiles..........................................144 APPENDIX B: Thin Section Analysis ................................................................167 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. List of Sedimentological Measured Sections .....................................................14 2. Stratigraphic Comparison of Nomenclature to Previous Studies ......................19 3. Channel Dimensions and Aspect Ratios ............................................................84 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Study area, regional geologic map, and paleogeographic framework .....................5 2. Regional photo-panel of the study area with stratigraphic correlations of the coastal and inland outcrops ............................................................................6 3. Chronostratigraphic Framework of the eastern Taranaki Basin and a generalized stratigraphic section of the Lower Mount Messenger Formation from this study ........................................................................................9 4. Geologic map of the study area .............................................................................12 5. Overview of subaqueous flow types ......................................................................21 6. Hydrodynamic facies identified in the study area ..................................................49 7. Overview of architectural element analysis ...........................................................55 8. Summary photos of the North Waikiekie mass-transport deposit and correlations to inland outcrops ...............................................................................58 9. Summary photos of the Waikiekie Stream mass-transport deposit and correlations to inland outcrops ...............................................................................59 10. Architectural element analysis for CC1A .............................................................62 11. Architectural element analysis for CC1B ..............................................................64 12. Architectural element analysis for CC2 within the inland outcrops ......................68 13. Architectural element analysis for CC2 north of Waikiekie Stream .....................69 14. Photo-panel correlations south of Waikiekie Stream .............................................70 15. Photo-panel correlations south of Waikiekie Stream (continued) .........................71 16. Photo-panel correlations of CC2A south of Waikiekie Stream .............................74 17. Photo-panel correlations of CC2A south of Waikiekie Stream (continued) ..........75 ix LIST OF FIGURES - CONTINUED Figure Page 18. Architectural element analysis for CC3 and CC4 ..................................................78 19. Architectural element analysis for CC4 .................................................................82 20. Quantitative analysis of sedimentary facies proportions for the LMMF ...............89 21. Cross-section of CC1A from measured sedimentological profiles........................90 22. Event bed analysis for CC1A .................................................................................94 23. Cross-section of CC1B from measured sedimentological profiles ........................98 24. Event bed analysis for CC1B ...............................................................................103 25. Cross-section for CC2 from measured sedimentological profiles .......................107 26. Event bed analysis for CC2..................................................................................110 27. Cross-section for CC3/ CC4 from measured sedimentological profiles ..............113 28. Event bed analysis for CC3..................................................................................116 29. Event bed analysis for CC4..................................................................................121 30. Paleo-channel trends ............................................................................................123 31. Stacked channel complex trends ..........................................................................125 32. Simplified cross-section of the channel belt ........................................................126 x ABSTRACT This study establishes an architectural framework of sedimentary facies, event beds, and sedimentary bodies for channelized deep-water sandstone and siltstone deposits within the Lower Mount Messenger Formation (LMMF). Well exposed outcrops of the Late Miocene Mount Messenger Formation are present along the Taranaki coast of the North Island, New Zealand. These exposures provide an opportunity to study submarine channel complexes deposited within an inner basin-floor fan to base of slope setting. Sedimentary facies and architectural elements are described from the axis to the margin and overbank of channel complexes to show spatial and temporal variation of subaqueous flow properties operating at the time of deposition. Facies were placed into an architectural framework to show organized changes in the diversity and abundance of bodies across the LMMF. Thirty hydrodynamic facies were described from outcrop exposures. Each facies represents varying hydrodynamic processes and sediment sources present during deposition. Sediments in the LMMF are interpreted to represent deposition by high- and low-density turbidity currents, concentrated and hyperconcentrated density flows, en masse movements, and debris flows. Six channel complexes described from coastal and inland outcrops record the variation of sedimentary facies spatially and temporally throughout their evolution. Analysis of architectural elements and sedimentary facies across the LMMF indicates flows were weakly confined within the basal interval, and progressively became more confined up-dip. This is reflected by multilateral channels near the base, and multistory channels up-section. Minor flow transformations within subaqueous flows are inferred. The sediments within the LMMF reflect an overall temporal decrease in flow strength, flow frequency, and event bed thickness, and a temporal increase in flow variability up-section from the base. Channels were deposited within a 3.5 km wide channel belt with the uppermost channels confined to a 1.7 km wide master erosional channel south of the lowermost channels. Paleoflow was directed to the northwest with little variation between each successive channel complex. 1 INTRODUCTION Purpose and Scope This study focuses on Late Miocene deep-water channelized sandstone and mudstone deposits of the Mount Messenger Formation (MMF). Situated along the Taranaki coast on the North Island of New Zealand, the MMF is characterized by fining- upward successions of sandstone and siltstone. Divided into upper and lower stratigraphic intervals, the MMF reflects a progradational and aggradational submarine channel-lobe depositional system (King et al., 1993, King et al., 2011, Masalimova, 2013). The Lower Mount Messenger Formation (LMMF) is characterized by fining-upward sandstone and siltstone deposits with sheetlike geometries representing lobe complexes, and increasing amounts of channelization are present up-section. The Upper Mount Messenger Formation (UMMF) is characterized by thin-bedded sandstone and siltstone deposits with interleaved channel and channel-levee geometries (King et al., 2011). This study focuses on the channelized stratigraphy of the LMMF stratigraphic interval. The objective of this study is to increase the understanding of the Mount Messenger deep-water depositional system by establishing an architectural framework of sedimentary facies, event beds, and sedimentary bodies for channelized sandstone deposits. Analysis is accomplished through detailed and integrated analysis of the sedimentology and stratigraphy from well-exposed outcrops along coastal cliffs and inland ridgelines. A 6 km transect between Tongaporutu and the Whitecliffs provides 2 excellent two-dimensional longitudinal views of the lower-slope to basin-floor channel- lobe deep-water system. To date, little work has been completed analyzing the spatial and temporal variation of sedimentary facies and architectural elements within channel complexes of the LMMF. Expanding upon previous work, this study analyzes sedimentary facies and architectural elements to understand how subaqueous flows transformed from the axis of a channel to the margin and overbank of a channel. Sedimentary facies are placed into an architectural framework to assist with correlation and show organized changes in the diversity and abundance of bodies. Deposited into the Taranaki Basin, the MMF represents a potential reservoir target for oil and gas. The Taranaki Basin covers approximately 100,000 square km along the central west coast of New Zealand’s North Island (Hart, 2001). Eocene to Miocene age turbidite fan deposits have proven to be hydrocarbon reservoirs, with the Kaimiro and Ngatoro fields, and the Windsor-1 and Goldie-1 wells producing from the Mount Messenger Formation (Hart, 2001). Developing a stratigraphic framework of sedimentary facies and architectural elements for the channelized interval of the LMMF highlights changes in reservoir heterogeneity within sandstone-rich deposits and their associated levee deposits. The framework presented by this study introduces a high-resolution approach to understanding the building blocks of these potential reservoir targets. Objectives and Research Questions Channel complexes present within the LMMF exhibit a variety of sedimentary 3 facies and architectural elements. Spatial and temporal variation of these attributes record changes in subaqueous flow properties related to gradient, confinement, flow size or duration, and subaqueous flow type. Objectives for this study include analyzing the sedimentology and architectural elements present within and bounding submarine channel complexes in the LMMF to gain a further understanding about the evolution of this deep-water depositional system. Research questions pertaining to this study are evaluated to explain variation within subaqueous flows and architectural elements within and bounding the channel complexes of the LMMF. 1. Sedimentology: How do sedimentary facies present within outcrops reflect transformations within subaqueous flows from the axis of a channel to the margin and overbank of a channel? 2. Sedimentary bodies: How do varying body types within the LMMF reflect changes in confinement within the depositional system? 3. Paleogeography: Does the distribution and stacking pattern of channel complexes within the LMMF represent changes in confinement related to depositional topography created by mass-transport deposits? 4. Sediment Provenance: How do the three sediment sources inferred for the LMMF populate sedimentary bodies? 4 Study Area The study area is located in the Taranaki coastal region of New Zealand on the North Island, overlooking the Tasman Sea (northern extent: latitude 38○49’S, longitude 174○35’E; southern extent: latitude 38○52’S, longitude 174○33’E) (Figure 1). This is approximately 50 km northeast from the city of New Plymouth and approximately 14 km south from the town of Mokau. Situated between the Tongaporutu River and the Whitecliffs, coastal cliffs and inland ridgelines extend approximately 6 km north-south and correlation lengths inland are approximately 1.5 km to the east (Figure 2). The 9 km2 study area is populated by near vertical, vegetation free coastal cliffs approximately 30 meters in elevation, and inland ridges approximately 150-175 meters in elevation with moderate to heavy vegetation covering their slopes. Strata within the study area dip 4 to 10 degrees southwest and strike southeast. Geologic Setting Located along the west coast of New Zealand’s North Island, the Taranaki Basin reflects a complex tectonic and sedimentary history associated with the evolving Pacific and Australian convergent plate boundary (King and Thrasher, 1996). Early basin development reflects initial rifting during the mid-Cretaceous and gradual evolution to a passive margin that persisted through much of the Paleogene. During the mid-Oligocene, renewed subsidence was prevalent across the basin. The highest rates of subsidence occurred adjacent to the Taranaki Fault, and are hypothesized to reflect shortening and transpression within a foreland basin setting (King and Thrasher, 1996). During the HH eerr aann ggii RR aann ggee M ok au Ri ve r M oh ak at in o Ri ve r ~ 3 km Ta sm an Se a Wh ite Cli ffs Taran akiFa ult N or th Lo w er M ou nt M es se ng er Fm U pp er M ou nt M es se ng er Fm SStt uudd yyAA rree aa To ng ap or ut u Ri ve r W ai ki ek ie St re am N ew ca stl e G ro up U re nu iF or m at io n M ou nt M es se ng er Fo rm at io n M oh ak at in o Fo rm at io n O tu nu iF or m at io n G eo lo gi cU ni ts Q ua te rn ar y D ep os its HerangiHigh Patea-To ngaporu tuHigh SH EL F SH EL F U PP ER BA TH YA L M ID -L O W ER BA TH YA L M ou nt M es se ng er Fm : Sa nd sto ne D om in at ed Su bm ar in eF an s M oh ak at in o Fm : Vo lc an ic la sti cR ic h Su bm ar in eF an s Pr es en tC oa stl in e Ta ra na ki Fa ul t St ud y A re a ~ 60 km N or th Taranaki Fault C . St ud y re gi on Ta sm an Se a Al pin eF au lt Hi ku ran gi Tr ou gh A us tr al ia n Pl at e Pa ci fic Pl at e Ta ra na ki Fa ul t Fi gu re 1 . A ) L oc at io n of th e stu dy ar ea o n th e N or th Is la nd o f N ew Z ea la nd sh ow in g th e re gi on al p la te b ou nd ar ie s a nd th e lo ca tio n of th e A lp in e an d Ta ra na ki F au lts . B ) R eg io na l g eo lo gi c m ap sh ow in g th e ge ne ra l e xt en t o f g eo lo gi c un its a nd th e lo ca tio n of th e stu dy ar ea (m od ifi ed fr om E db ro ok e, 2 00 5) . C ) G en er al iz ed p al eo ge og ra ph ic re co ns tru ct io n of th e T ar an ak i B as in d ur in g th e La te M io ce ne sh ow in g su bm ar in e fa n de po sit io n w ith in th e stu dy ar ea a nd th e str uc tu ra l h ig hs in flu en ci ng se di m en t t ra ns po rt an d de po sit io n (m od ifi ed fr om K in g et a l., 2 00 7) . A . B. 5 N or th Si lts to ne an d Vo lc an ic la sti cs CC 1A Th in Be d El em en t 1 M TD CC 1B CC 4 CC 3 CC 2 CC 2A Th in Be dd ed Sa nd sto ne Th in Be d El em en t 3 : S ilt sto ne D om in at ed Sa nd sto ne Si lts to ne an d Vo lc an ic la sti cs : O ve rb an k? Si lts to ne , V ol ca ni cl as tic s, an d Fi ne Sa nd sto ne : O ve rb an k/ Le ve e Te ho ro M TD Co as ta l C lif f N W K M TD ? Si lts to ne D om in at ed W ai ki ek ie St re am M TD Co as ta lC lif f Co as ta lC lif f Co as ta lC lif f U pp er M M F Th in Be d El em en t 2 : CC 1B CC 1A N W K M TD CC 3 CC 2 O ve rb an k/ Le ve e M TD M an ga pu ka te a Fa ul t M an ga pu ka te a Fa ul t M ac ke nz ie Ri dg e W hi te Cl iff s Si lts to ne D om in at ed : O ve rb an k/ Le ve e ~ 6 km N or th So ut h W ai ki ek ie St re am Lo ck ed G at e Tu ta pu ha Te ho ro Va lle y To ng ap or ut u G ib b’ sH ill W ar ek ar ia ng a 6 Fi gu re 2 . O ve rv ie w p ho to -p an el o f t he st ud y ar ea sh ow in g th e ge ne ra l r el at io ns hi ps o f c ha nn el c om pl ex es p re se nt w ith in c oa sta l a nd in la nd ri dg e ou tc ro ps . N am es o f l oc al iti es a nd st ra tig ra ph ic u ni ts ar e pl ac ed a bo ve th ei r l oc at io n w ith in th e stu dy ar ea . S an ds to ne is y el lo w, th in -b ed de d sil tst on e an d sa nd sto ne is g ra y, an d m as s- tra ns po rt de po sit s ar e br ow n. T he tw o gr ee n th in -b ed de d in te rv al s w er e stu di ed fo r t he ir str at ig ra ph ic c on te xt b ut a re n ot p re se nt w ith in th e ch an ne l b el t. 7 earliest Miocene, westward overthrusting and compression of the Taranaki Fault marked the beginning of a new tectonic episode coinciding with the inception of the modern Alpine Fault transform boundary (King and Thrasher, 1996). Tectonic activity slowed during the early to mid-Miocene and subsidence ensued; however, the hinterland to the south began to rise. This allowed large quantities of sediment to reach the basin (King and Thrasher, 1996). The Miocene strata present within the Taranaki region of New Zealand represents sediment accumulation in a foredeep trough close to the fault bounded eastern margin of the Taranaki Basin (King et al., 2011). This was an active-margin basin during the Late Miocene with the Taranaki Fault dislocating older stratigraphic successions and influencing the sedimentation style and accumulation rate through time (King and Thrasher, 1992; King and Thrasher, 1996; King et al., 2011). Major episodes of movement on this basement-cored thrust occurred during the Early to Middle Miocene and ceased during the Late Miocene. It strikes roughly north-south and is subparallel and west of the current coastline (King et al., 2011). Representing one of the largest known thrust faults in New Zealand, the Taranaki Fault extends from the Alpine Fault on the South Island. It accommodated westward displacement during the Miocene resulting in the uplift and emplacement of a wedge of Mesozoic basement rocks over Late Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of the Taranaki Basin (King and Thrasher, 1992; King and Thrasher, 1996). Present within the wedge is Late Permian to Late Jurassic greywacke and argillite of the Murihiku Terrane (Raine et al., 2004). Basement rocks west of the fault represent Permian age terrane blocks and 8 batholith rocks accreted to the Gondwana margin in the Mesozoic. This relationship may indicate that the Taranaki Fault plays a significant role as a tectonic boundary with movement initiating as early as the Late Eocene (Stagpoole and Nicol, 2008). Evidence for this hypothesis is inconclusive due to the lack of preserved sedimentary rocks on the upthrown side of the fault. Even so, studies have inferred basement terrane accretion events as early as the Late Cretaceous with the Taranaki Fault propagating along terrane boundaries at later times (Stagpoole and Nicol, 2008). With an oblique extensional transform system (West Coast-Taranaki Rift) through continental basement, and a zone of active seafloor spreading in the Tasman Sea, the tilting, uplift, and erosion of the Murihiku basement along the central-western North Island coincides with the emplacement of the (proto-) Taranaki Fault marking the eastern margin of the basin (Kamp et al., 2004). Persistent structural highs, the Patea- Tongaporutu High to the south, and the Herangi High to the north, influenced sedimentation throughout the region, although Miocene sediments overtop the Patea- Tongaporutu High in the study area (King et al., 1993). Inversion of the depocenter and tilting of the high coincided with rapid subsidence along the eastern Taranaki Basin (Kamp et al., 2004). This continued until earliest Miocene time when a dramatic change from carbonate to siliciclastic sedimentation occurred reflecting the uplift and erosion of basement rocks in response to formation of the Australia-Pacific plate boundary, and associated reverse movement on the Taranaki Fault (Kamp et al., 2004) (Figure 3). By the Middle to Late Miocene, the eastern Taranaki Basin reflected an intra-arc to hybrid back-arc tectonic setting with discrete, overlapping and superimposed structural 100 m 200 m 300 m 0 m Sandstone Element 1 MTD Element 1 Thin Bed Element 1 NWK MTD CC1A Thin Bed Element 2 CC1B Waikiekie Stream MTD CC2 / CC2A CC3 CC4 Thin Bed Element 3 Tehoro MTD LGS MTD Generalized Stratigraphic Section for this study H er an gi H ig h Pa te a- To ng ap or ut u H ig h SHELF SHELF UPPER BATHYAL MID - LOWER BATHYAL ~ 60 km North Ta ra na ki Fa ul t Shelf Slope Bathyal MMF Carbonates Mohakatino Fm Urenui Fm Paleogeography for the Mohakatino and Mount Messenger Formations Age Pl io M io ce ne O lig oc en e 10 20 30 CentralSouth (Proximal) North (Distal) Study area 9 Figure 3. Chronostratigraphic framework for the Taranaki Basin showing changes in sedimention style from the Oligocene-Pliocene paired with a paleogeographic map representing sediment transport from the north, east, and south during deposition of the Mount Messenger Formation (modified from King et al., 2007; King et al., 2011). A generalized stratigraphic section represents the stratigraphy analyzed in this study. 10 styles associated with the Australian-Pacific plate boundary (King et al., 1993). Siliciclastic sedimentation continued into the Middle to Late Miocene with the deposition of the Mohakatino Formation which underlies the Mount Messenger Formation. Comprised of volcaniclastic sandstone sourced from andesitic volcanoes in the northern Taranaki Basin and an increasing amount of mass-transport slumping, the Mohakatino Formation indicates that the Taranaki Fault marks the eastern margin of the basin, as deep-water sediments are not present east of the fault (Kamp et al., 2004). Above the Mohakatino Formation, the Mount Messenger Formation represents higher rates of uplift and erosion along the plate boundary. It has been suggested that sediments within the Mount Messenger Formation represent a high sediment flux sourced mainly from the Torlesse Terrane and Apline Schist eroded from the Southern Alps (Jordan et al., 1994; Kamp et al., 2004). Sediment was fed via northward flowing rivers across basement topography and toward the eastern Taranaki and Wanganui Basins where they were transported across the shelf by longshore currents, and captured by slope feeder channels draining the narrow shelf (King et al., 1993; Kamp et al., 2004) (Figure 3). Sediment accumulation of the Late Miocene Mount Messenger Formation represents an aggradational and progradational sequence with an increased percentage of fine-grained sandstone units dominating lower-slope to basin-floor submarine fans (King et al., 1993). Fine-grained sandstones were mixed with volcaniclastic ash from northern submarine volcanoes, bioclastic debris from an eastern shelf or slope, and local and regional mass-transport deposits (King and Thrasher, 1996; King et al., 2011) (Figure 3). 11 Total thickness for the Mount Messenger Formation is estimated between 600-800 meters and represents deposition over a 1-2 m.y. span (King et al., 1993; King et al., 1994; Helle, 2003; Browne et al., 2005; Masalimova, 2013). Thickness of the LMMF is estimated between 500-650 meters within the study area by previous authors (Helle, 2003; Masalimova, 2013). This study measured approximately 325 meters of the LMMF south of the Tongaporutu River to the Whitecliffs (Figure 3). Data and Methods Field Data Under the direction of Dr. Michael Gardner, field data was collected over a 58 day time frame in 2013 with help from one field assistant. Data collected during previous field sessions in 2011 and 2012 by Dr. Gardner and the Slope and Basin Consortium was incorporated into the analysis during the 2013 field session. Data gathered reflects centimeter-scale sedimentological information (lithology and facies) from 20 measured sedimentological profiles totaling 552 meters, correlated photo-panels with architectural element analysis for each channel complex, and a geologic map of the described lithostratigraphic units. Methods Geologic Map Mapping different rock units across the study area required identifying each body and the units that bound them. The geology was mapped at a 1:2,000 scale to capture a detailed spatial framework for the channel bodies (Figure 4). 12 Figure 4. Geologic map of lithostratigraphic units in the Lower Mount Messenger Formation within the study area. Crab Gulch Fault ~ 15 m offset Geologic Map: (1:21,500) Warekarianga Stream Waikiekie Stream Mangapukatea Fault ~ 15 m offset; down to the southeast Sandstone Element 1 CC1A Sandstone Thin Bed Element 2 CC1B Sandstone Waikiekie Stream MTD CC2 Sandstone Locked Gate MTD / Thin Beds CC3 Sandstone CC4 Sandstone NWK MTD Thin Bed Element 3 Measured Sections Thin Bed Element 1 Strike and Dip Fault 13 Channelized lithosomes consist of thick-bedded, fine- to medium-grained amalgamated sandstone, mudstone conglomerate, and thin-bedded sandstone, and siltstone. Units that bound the channelized lithosomes are composed of thin- to medium- bedded, very fine-grained sandstone with increasing siltstone, and very thin-bedded volcaniclastic sandstone. These units reflect overbank-levee deposits and mass-transport deposits within the field area. Documented within the geologic map are lithostratigraphic units, measured sedimentological profiles, bedding attitudes, and faults. Sedimentological Measured Profiles Sedimentological profiles measured from outcrops gather a number of attributes with centimeter-scale resolution to interpret hydrodynamic facies and formative processes at the time of deposition. These include bed thickness, grain size and sorting, sedimentary structures, and bed contact relationships. Other attributes analyzed include color, texture, grading, clast composition, size, and shape, paleoflow direction, bioturbation index, stratigraphic position, and lateral bed relationships. Twenty sedimentological profiles represent 552 meters of measured stratigraphy from deposits within and bounding channel complexes (Table 1). Measured profiles document sedimentary facies, event beds, and channel elements present at each locality. GPS waypoints were used to document each sedimentological profile at five meter intervals to assist with spatial correlation on the geologic map. Photo-panels also document measured section locations and bed meterage for each locality. 14 Table 1. Sedimentological profiles measured from this study with latitude and longitude location, and thickness in meters. Measured profile locations were chosen to reflect changes from the axis of channels to the margin and overbank of channels. Along coastal sections, measured profiles were gathered where continuous exposure was present up-section. This limited the number of profiles that could be measured south of Waikiekie Stream due to truncation at channel margins and the inaccessibility to measure 30 meter high cliff faces. Photo-panel analysis assisted with facies analysis where measured profiles were not able to be collected along the coastal cliffs south of Waikiekie Stream. Inland Ridge Sections Latitude Longitude Thickness (m) Gibbs Hill -38.824648 174.588556 18.0 Mackenzie Ridge -38.829653 174.582518 60.73 Warekarianga North -38.836169 174.578769 24.3 Warekarianga -38.836345 174.577733 29.76 Tutapuha North -38.837272 174.576088 27.1 Tutapuha -38.837654 174.575751 2.76 Tutapuha East -38.838164 174.576481 13.98 Tutapuha South -38.837102 174.575534 37.58 Tutapuha Upper -38.838476 174.577249 39.6 Locked Gate -38.839697 174.573100 48.55 Locked Gate Upper -38.840388 174.572894 19.06 Locked Gate South -38.839820 174.572007 50.58 Tehoro Valley -38.859578 174.561814 36.04 Tehoro Valley Overlap -38.859449 174.558353 7.5 Coastal Cliff Sections North Waikiekie North -38.837677 174.571312 26.45 North Waikiekie Fault -38.839215 174.569947 7.17 North Waikiekie -38.839286 174.570094 18.03 South Waikiekie -38.842687 174.566963 18.03 South Waikiekie South -38.846542 174.564959 52.7 Tehoro Beach -38.861230 174.556128 14.3 15 Facies and Event Bed Analysis Facies analysis was completed using observations from outcrops that are documented on sedimentological profiles and photo-panels measured in the field. Distinct changes in lithology were divided to reflect varying hydrodynamic properties in subaqueous flows. Thirty sedimentary facies are documented within the LMMF from 20 measured profiles. Descriptions of the 30 sedimentary facies and a hydrodynamic interpretation of the formative processes at the time of deposition are presented in chapter 2. Facies proportions were calculated from each measured profile and compared across the channel belt for each body. They are presented in chapter 4. Event beds were also documented on sedimentological profiles from observations collected in the field. Event beds reflect the sediments accumulated during individual subaqueous flow events (Figure 5). Event bed thickness trends and correlations are also presented in chapter 4. Subaqueous flow transformations from the axis of each channel to the margin and overbank of each channel are inferred with assistance from event bed analysis. Architectural Element Analysis Sedimentological profiles were tied in the field to 21 photo-panels to assist with the correlation of surfaces and bodies within the depositional system, and to help document an architectural framework of facies, event beds, elementary channels, composite channels, and channel complexes across the LMMF. Photo-panels document the locations of measured sedimentological profiles tied to distinct identifiable beds, mudstone conglomerate, mass-transport deposits, elementary 16 channels, composite channels, and channel complexes. Channel widths were measured using GPS units, topographic maps, and a tape measure. Bodies were traced throughout the outcrops using a number of observations. These include stratal surfaces (erosional, depositional, and inclined), cross-cutting relationships, geometry (width and thickness), internal bedding attributes (thickness, inclination, and irregularity), stacking patterns (horizontal and vertical offset), and facies associations (spatial relationships, thickness, and proportion). Correlation from the coastal cliff outcrops to the inland ridge outcrops was completed using observations of these attributes and later verified through event bed analysis. Previous Work Continuous outcrops along coastal cliffs and inland ridgelines have historically provided insight into the sedimentology, stratigraphy, and architectural building blocks of the MMF. Datasets gathered by previous authors describe lithofacies, facies associations, and architectural elements, as well as grain-size characteristics, biostratigraphic correlations, depositional processes, and the overall stratigraphic evolution of the progradational system (King et al., 1993; King et al., 1994; Jordan et al., 1994; Browne et al., 1996; Browne and Slatt, 2002; Helle, 2003; Browne et al., 2005; King et al., 2007; King et al., 2011; Jobe et al., 2011; Masalimova, 2013). Early research by GNS outlines a comprehensive analysis of the physiography, structure, stratigraphy, historical background, detailed lithology, biostratigraphy, and the 17 depositional and tectonic history of Miocene sediments that outcrop along the North Taranaki coast (King et al., 1993). Research that followed built upon their framework. Architectural element analysis of the MMF has been completed by multiple authors with different methods. A sequence stratigraphic approach completed in 1994 recognized 5 sequence boundaries interpreted to represent separate lowstand systems tracts. The 3 lowermost sequences are present within the LMMF. These describe basin- floor fans that overlie relatively unchannelized sediments (SB1), increasing channelized sediments with erosional relief around 20 meters (SB2), and a heterolithic association comprising a series of nested channelized sediments with erosional relief around 30 meters (SB3) (King et al., 1994). Bed morphology within individual sequences is inferred to reflect proximity to the slope and position within each respective lowstand systems tract. An allostratigraphic approach completed in 2003 recognized 3 allostratigraphic units divided into sandstone elements, heterolithic elements, and deformed elements for the LMMF. These units reflect deposition from the mid-fan to lower-fan capped by a slope failure (Unit 2), deposition from the channel-lobe transition to overbank deposits capped by a slope failure (Unit 3), and channel abandonment with deposition on the lower-fan capped by a slope failure (Unit 4) (Helle, 2003). Each allostratigraphic unit is defined by their bounding discontinuities, typically at the erosive base of sandstone elements. Descriptions and interpretations of bedding geometry were presented for each element within allostratigraphic units. 18 Research presented in 2007 recognized the gross architecture of the LMMF, characterized by a hierarchy of channel forms. Six main channel elements were identified, 4 within the inland outcrops, and 2 within coastal outcrops (Arnot et al., 2007). It was hypothesized that a larger-scale 1.7 km wide and 60 meter thick channel feature bounds the smaller channels. Variability of the channel-fill architecture is documented with typical facies successions, aspect ratios, and average paleocurrent direction for each channel element. Recent work by Masalimova in 2013 expanded upon the previous research to systematically identify a vertical succession of hierarchical architectural units for the LMMF. Her analysis described lithofacies, sedimentation units, and facies associations. This approach links the main sedimentary processes responsible for deposition of the LMMF to the larger-scale architecture of fan lobes, and channel-levee complexes (Masalimova, 2013). Architectural elements are divided into third-order lithofacies and fourth-order facies associations for the channel-lobe depositional system. In all, 5 lithofacies and 12 facies associations were identified and divided into 5 major groups. These include 5 lobe complexes (FA1), 2 crevasse or overbank splays (FA2), 3 channel fill units (FA3), levees (FA4), and mass-transport deposits (FA5) (Masalimova, 2013). Her research infers a small channel-lobe complex that was fed by a single, levee-bounded master channel belt 2-3 km wide with 5 main stages of development outlined by each facies association. This study expands upon the previous research with new observations and correlations within the channel complexes of the LMMF. The architectural framework 19 presented above and the nomenclature of units compiled from the 2003, 2007, and 2013 studies are compared to this study to outline the similarities and differences between authors (Table 2). Helle, 2003 Arnot et al., 2007 Masalimova, 2013 This Study, 2015 Rapanui Deformed Sub Element? / Deformed Element 1 N/A MTD MTD Element 1 Sandstone Element 2 N/A FA2a Sandstone Element 1 Heterolithic Element 2 N/A FA4 Thin Bed Element 1 Deformed Element 2 N/A MTD NWK MTD FLSA Sub-Element / Sandstone Element 3 N/A FA2b / FA3a CC1A N/A N/A FA4 Thin Bed Element 2 MSA Sub-Element / Sandstone Element 3 and Heterolithic Element 3 C1 FA3b CC1B Deformed Element 3 Slumped Unit MTD Waikiekie Stream MTD Sandstone Element 4 C2 FA3b / FA3c CC2 N/A Mudstone Deformed MTD Locked Gate MTD Sandstone Element 4 C3 FA3c CC3 Sandstone Element 4 C4 FA3c CC4 Sandstone Element 4 C5 FA3c CC2/CC3/CC4 Sandstone Element 4 C6 FA3c CC2A Heterolithic Element 4 Thin Beds FA4 Thin Bed Element 3 Table 2: A stratigraphic framework comparison of architectural elements compiled from Helle, 2003, Arnot et al., 2007, Masalimova, 2013, and this study. The various nomenclature reflects different methods by each study. Helle’s 2003 study focused on an allostratigraphic approach, the 2007 study by Arnot et al., recognized the gross architecture characterized by a hierarchy of channel forms, and the 2013 study by Masalimova identified a vertical succession of hierarchical units that are divided between facies associations. The nomenclature from this study is similar to that of the Arnot et al. study, dividing channel complexes and the bounding stratigraphy by a hierarchy of bodies and the gross architecture. 20 SEDIMENTOLOGY Subaqueous Flows Multiple subaqueous processes deliver sediment to deep-water settings. These include sediment gravity flows or turbidity currents (e.g., low-density and high-density turbidity currents), concentrated and hyperconcentrated density flows, cohesive debris flows, and en masse movements (e.g., slumps and slides) (Lowe, 1982; Middleton, 1993; Mulder and Alexander, 2001) (Figure 5). Processes governing these flow types record various properties within the flow and reflect characteristically different sedimentary attributes that are preserved in the sedimentary record. Inferences into the hydrodynamic processes responsible for deposition reflect an understanding of these attributes, recording variation between flows. Turbidity Currents Turbidity currents exhibit laminar and turbulent regimes subdivided into three parts: the head, body, and tail (Middleton, 1967; Middleton, 1993; Meiburg and Kneller, 2009) (Figure 5). The head displaces ambient fluid, which accelerates downslope, creating a resistance to the flow that is larger than the friction at the bed or upper interface (Middleton, 1993). This causes the head of the current to be thicker than the current behind the head, resulting in frictional resistance that produces an overhanging “nose”, allowing the head to override lighter ambient fluid (Middleton, 1993). Ambient fluid mixing and viscous shear at the upper surface of the head leads to turbulent mixing at the back of the head, resulting in a turbulent wake (Middleton, 1993). Sediment is erosion deposition Intraformational clast Body Head Waketurbulent eddy or internal bore shear zoneintraformational rip up clasts Body billow Wake mixing into transverse rollersmixing into clefts from lateral expansion behavior Head high low erosion 1- 5m 10 0' s m height tu rb ul en t la m in ar Velocity (U) Sediment Concentration Grain Size flow profile Umax mixing into turbulent wake α Entrained fluid f0 f1 debris flow fluidized flow turbulent concentration threshold CT1 CT1 CT2 basal pressure pipe structure megaripple load structure/ injection plane parallel lamination flame structure climbing ripple formset ripple scour-and-fill siltstone spaced stratification A. Multiple Flow Behaviors within Multipartite Turbidity Current B. Event Types within Subaqueous Flows 21 Figure 5. A) Schematic digram of an idealized sediment gravity flow showing the flow behavior and possible origination points for hydrodynamic facies transformations from the head, body, and wake of a subaqueous flow, and an idealized Bouma sequence (modified from Bouma, 1962; Gardner et al., 2003). B) Diagram for various idealized event types within subaqueous flows (Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Haughton, 2006). Ta Tb Tc Td Te Ta Bouma (1962) Divions 22 suspended within the flow by fluid turbulence typically generated by the forward motion of the current, which is mainly driven by gravity (Meiburg and Kneller, 2009). Low-Density Turbidity Current Low-density turbidity currents reflect the deceleration of a subaqueous turbidity current marked by the passage of sediment from suspended loads to bed loads with subsequent deposition, suspension sedimentation with minor traction, and direct suspension sedimentation (Lowe, 1982). These variations form the Bouma Tb-Te divisions. The Tb division reflects upper flow regime plane-parallel laminae. The Tc division reflects lower flow regime ripple cross-laminations and wavy or convoluted laminae. The Tde divisions reflect fine grain deposition of upper parallel laminae and laminated to homogeneous mud (Bouma, 1962) (Figure 5). High-Density Turbidity Current High-density turbidity currents reflect high- density turbulent flows of essentially cohesionless grains suspended by fluid turbulence generated by the forward motion of the current (Lowe, 1982). Three main stages of deposition are inferred for high-density turbidity currents (S1-S3). The first stage represents slightly unsteady but fully turbulent currents that may deposit some of their load with plane beds and dune-like features (Lowe, 1982). Traction- sedimentation structures and local erosion may be present at this stage, and deposits typically show lenticularity, amalgamation, and scours (Walker, 1978; Lowe, 1982). The second stage of deposition reflects an increase in flow unsteadiness with suspended sediment becoming more concentrated toward the bed (Lowe, 1982). As the concentration of coarse particles near the bed rises, bed-load transport in this layer 23 becomes increasingly dominated by grain collisions (Lowe, 1982). The basal particle layer formed is maintained by dispersive pressure and may be dominated by falling coarse-grained material from above, forming a traction carpet if turbulence is suppressed (Lowe, 1982). The collapsing and freezing of sediment and the formation of successive new carpets causes the bedform to aggrade (Lowe, 1982). The third stage of deposition reflects higher suspended-load fallout rates with insufficient development of a bed-load layer or organized traction carpets (Lowe, 1982). Direct suspension sedimentation dominates with settling grains accumulating until the rising surface of the static bed coincides with the top of the falling cloud (Lowe, 1982). Grain supported deposits that lack traction structures may show grading with primary water-escape structures caused by mass settling (Lowe, 1982). Water-escape structures typically include dish and pillar structures. High-density turbidity currents may record a flow transformation to low-density flows from the residual currents in the water column. The subsequent currents may make their way downslope, and deposit their sediments above the high-density division. This results in a bed that reflects both the S1-S3 stages, and Tbcde stages of the low-density turbidity current, including large-scale cross-stratification, which is commonly absent in an idealized Bouma sequence (Lowe, 1982). Density Flows Concentrated Density Flows Concentrated density flows reflect a variety of operating particle-support mechanisms that vary in space and time (Mulder and 24 Alexander, 2001). Gravity acts as the primary driving force with grain-to-grain interactions generating dispersive pressure. This allows suspension to be maintained within a non-cohesive flow (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Concentrated flows are more dilute than hyperconcentrated flows reflecting higher fluid turbulence within a flow, and the progressive replacement of grain-to-grain interaction as the main particle support mechanism (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Concentrated flows may have erosional features at their base, and subsequent sand deposition showing grading and sorting trends, and bedforms. They can be distinguished from turbidity current deposits by the following features: the presence of large clasts, thick massive structureless sandstone (Ta) proportions within beds, and perhaps differences in bedform character, and other sedimentary structures (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Hyperconcentrated Density Flows Hyperconcentrated density flows represent a medium between concentrated density flows and cohesive flows (Mulder and Alexander, 2001) (Figure 5). They include deposits previously defined in the literature as sandy debris flows and slurry flows, as well as various other deposits not discussed (Lowe and Guy, 2000; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). The proportion of cohesive and non-cohesive particles are not well defined, and it has been suggested that debris flows may transform to non-cohesive flows with no change in water content or clay fraction when velocity is high enough (Fisher, 1983; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). The main driving force of hyperconcentrated density flows is gravity, and deposition is by frictional freezing resulting from grain-to-grain interaction (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Deposits may 25 include large sediment clasts, rafted blocks of strata, and fluid escape, or collapse and deformation structures (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Cohesive Debris Flows Cohesive flows have sufficient cohesive material (mud) to impart a pseudoplastic rheology (Mulder and Alexander, 2001) (Figure 5). Matrix strength acts as the main grain-support mechanism within flows, with buoyancy and pore pressure also playing a role (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Large clasts may be present and locally supported by high pore pressures within the flow (Ineson, 1985; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). The main process for deposition within a debris flow is frictional freezing or en masse resulting in a chaotic arrangement of the deposits, and the presence of large grain size populations (Lowe, 1982; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Flow Transformation Subaqueous flow transformations reflect changes in flow behavior (Fisher, 1983). They are influenced chiefly by particle concentration, thickness of the flow, and flow velocity, allowing laminar-turbulent transformations to occur (Fisher, 1983). At least four kinds of flow transformations have been identified from field, experimental, and theoretical descriptions (Fisher, 1983). These include body transformations, gravity transformations, surface transformations, and fluidization transformations. Several authors have proposed flow transformations within subaqueous environments (Kuenen, 1952; Middleton, 1970; Hampton, 1972; Lowe, 1982; Fisher, 1983; Talling, 2012). These transformations reflect extensive changes in the density of 26 the flow, leading to longitudinal variation in the velocity structure, composition, and sediment support mechanisms (Hampton, 1972; Fisher, 1983). Body transformations occur with no change in water content when flow velocity reaches the point to produce internal turbulence (Fisher, 1983). Gravity transformations occur when gravity segregation is present at the base of an initially turbulent, high concentration turbidity current (Fisher, 1983). They represent the deposition of a high- density suspended load, and subsequent formation of a residual low-density turbidity current that travels downslope, and possibly accelerates as a discrete turbidity current (Lowe, 1982). Surface transformations reflect the transition from subaqueous debris flows to turbidity currents through extensive stripping of sediment at the front of the flow, and ejection of material into the overlying water column to form a dilute turbulent cloud (Hampton, 1972; Fisher, 1983). The possibility for turbidity currents to form by direct mixing of water within the body of the debris flow causing flow instability has also been proposed (Hampton, 1972). Fluidization transformations reflect the change from a laminar-dense phase to a turbulent-dilute phase, although they have not been adequately described within subaqueous environments (Lowe, 1982; Fisher, 1983). These transformations reflect the complex nature of subaqueous flows and their deposits. Hydrodynamic facies analysis and inferences about the conditions present at the time of deposition provide only a glimpse into the dynamics of individual flows, and do not necessarily reflect the up-dip transition between flows. Although up-dip 27 transformations may not be known, it may be possible to infer lateral flow transformations within deposits from the axis to margin of channels. Transformations related to the effects of confinement, flow strength, flow duration, flow variability, frequency of events, and sediment concentration are proposed. This analysis is discussed in chapter 4. Hydrodynamic Facies of the Mount Messenger Formation Thirty sedimentary facies divisions are described from the sedimentology documented within channel complexes and bounding channel complexes of the Lower Mount Messenger Formation. Facies described from outcrop exposures are grouped to divide mudstone-clast conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, post-depositionally modified sediments, and tuffaceous sediments (Figure 6). Detailed descriptions of each sedimentary facies are presented with a hydrodynamic interpretation of the formative process during deposition. Sedimentary facies proportions are documented across the channel belt for each measured sedimentological profile with the interpreted spatial position noted. These are presented in chapter 4. Sedimentary facies were analyzed from the interpreted axis to the margin of each channel complex and also outside each channel complex. Photos of each sedimentary facies are presented in figure 6. Mudstone-Clast Conglomerate Facies Clast Supported (1A) Clast supported mudstone-clast conglomerate deposits are exposed at the base of large erosional contacts, most notably south of Waikiekie Stream 28 and at Gibb’s Hill localities within the LMMF. Beds up to 2 meters thick are composed of light gray mudstone clasts that are generally sub-angular to sub-rounded, elongated, and weakly imbricated. Average clast size varies upon locality, but range in scale from centimeters up to one meter wide along their longest apparent axis. Clasts are generally oriented with their longest axis parallel to sub-parallel to bedding. When present, the matrix consists of fine- to very fine-grained sandstone, and often contains bioclastic shell debris at the Waikiekie Stream locality. Interpretation: Deposition of clast supported mudstone-clast conglomerate is inferred to represent a medium between debris flows and hyperconcentrated density flows where clasts are supported due to cohesion between mud-clasts, the shear strength of matrix, high clast concentration, and hindered settling (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Variation in clast size is high, and clasts are oriented parallel to sub-parallel to bedding reflecting shear within the flow. Clasts were likely ripped up or slumped from the margin of the channel or mud-rich slope up dip, and carried short distances by successive flows before the flow was deposited from frictional freezing. Matrix Supported (1B) Matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate deposits are present within each channel complex of the LMMF and are exposed at the base of erosional contacts, and internally along erosional scours. Beds up to 50 centimeters thick are composed of light gray mudstone clasts that are generally sub-rounded to well-rounded, elongated, and weakly imbricated. Average clast size is 5 centimeters, but range in scale from millimeters up to 20 centimeters wide along their longest apparent axis. Clasts are generally oriented with their longest axis parallel to sub-parallel to bedding. The matrix 29 consists of clean, fine- to very fine-grained sandstone. Minor bioclastic shell debris may accompany the clasts, but typically is not present in the inland outcrops. Shell debris becomes more abundant in the coastal outcrops north and south of Waikiekie Stream. Interpretation: Matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate is inferred to represent deposition by concentrated density flows or turbidity currents with clasts ripped up from underlying strata and carried short distances within the head to body of the flow (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Clasts are supported due to the shear strength of the matrix and fluid turbulence within the flow and subsequently deposited due to traction at the base of the bed (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Thick- to Medium-Bedded Sandstone Facies Horizontally-Stratified or Spaced-Stratified (2) Horizontally-stratified or spaced- stratified sandstone deposits are present within each channel complex of the LMMF and typically occur within the base to middle half of the bed if present. Facies contacts are sharp in nature. Spaced horizontal laminations range from two to eight centimeters thick and sometimes show a coarsening upward sequence, although it is difficult to examine due to the consistent fine-grained nature of the MMF. Sandstones consist of fine- to very fine-grained angular quartz framework grains that are moderately- to well-sorted with few lithic fragments and mica. Horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified facies thickness within event beds range from 10 centimeters to 1.5 meters, and average 40 centimeters. Interpretation: Deposition by high-density turbidity currents is inferred due to the presence of spaced laminations commonly occurring in two to eight centimeter intervals 30 near the base of the bed. Coarsening upward sequences within these represent traction carpets or the S2 division within a flow (Lowe, 1982; Hiscott, 1994). The inverse grading is a consequence of an upward velocity gradient within the flow and a laminar regime (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Cross-Stratified (3A) Cross-stratified sandstone deposits are present throughout the LMMF, and are generally associated with thick amalgamated beds. Plane-parallel laminated and massive structureless sandstone facies may bound cross-stratified sandstone. Cross-stratified sandstone facies reflects low angle cross-stratification with aggradational, concave, trough-shaped scours and wavy laminations. The presence of shell hash above scours is common south of Waikiekie Stream. Sandstones consist of very fine- to medium-grained angular quartz framework grains that are moderately- to well-sorted with few lithic fragments and mica. Facies thickness within event beds range from 10 centimeters up to 3.1 meters when sandstone beds are amalgamated. Average thickness measured is 68 centimeters. Interpretation: Deposition is inferred to reflect high-density turbidity currents. Cross-stratified sandstone facies is thought to represent dune-like bedforms deposited by slightly unsteady, fully turbulent flows with traction sedimentation near the base to middle of beds (Lowe, 1982). Local erosional scours and amalgamation within beds reflects flow unsteadiness within the S1 division of high-density flows (Lowe, 1982). Wavy-Laminated (3B) Wavy-laminated sandstone facies is less common than cross-stratified sandstone facies, and generally thinner. Facies thickness within event 31 beds range from 5 centimeters to 70 centimeters, and average 17 centimeters within the study area. Wavy laminations sometimes show thickening or thinning trends laterally. Wavy-laminated stratification is occasionally the only facies present within a bed, however, it is more common at bed tops. Sandstones are very fine- to fine-grained and may have a siltstone matrix. Facies contacts are generally sharp to wavy in nature. Interpretation: Wavy-laminated sandstone is inferred to represent deposition by low-density turbidity currents. Waning flow velocity is marked by traction sedimentation producing planar laminations followed by wavy laminae correlating to the Tc division in a Bouma sequence (Bouma, 1962). Wavy shearing within the flow reflects changes related to variations in bedform relief (Bouma, 1962). Structureless (4A) Structureless sandstone deposits are present across the LMMF and generally are massive in nature, though they also are found in thin beds. They do not exhibit any sedimentary structures. Sandstones are composed of very fine- to medium- grained quartz that is moderately- to well-sorted with few lithic fragments and mica. Facies contacts are typically sharp, but also can be wavy, irregular, erosional, or gradational. Facies thickness within event beds range from <5 centimeters up to 3 or more meters in amalgamated sandstone beds. Average thickness is 45 to 50 centimeters within the study area. Interpretation: Deposition is inferred to reflect rapid deposition from high-density turbidity currents or deposition from quasi-steady flow for thick-bedded deposits (Lowe, 1982; Kneller and Branney, 1995). Deposition from high-density turbidity currents would occur from suspension with no subsequent bedload transport, and correlate to the S3 32 division with a flow (Lowe, 1982). Deposition from quasi-steady flows would reflect progressive aggradation during sustained flows (Kneller and Branney, 1995). Massive graded structureless sandstone correlates to the Ta division within a Bouma sequence. Medium- to thin-bedded structureless sandstone may reflect deposition by low-density turbidity currents or steady currents that carried less sediment downslope (Lowe, 1982; Kneller and Branney, 1995). Secondary Structures (4B) Secondary structures in sandstone include convoluted bedding, dish structures, flame structures, injections, and rarely mudstone-clasts. Sandstones are generally fine- to very fine-grained and moderately- to poorly-sorted. Facies thickness within event beds range from 2 centimeters to 70 centimeters, and average 20 centimeters. Secondary structures are commonly found at the top or base of beds, and may be bounded by structureless or wavy-laminated sandstone. Interpretation: Secondary structures in sandstone reflect deposition from high- density turbidity currents representing the S3 division within a flow, or from low-density turbidity currents with the original primary structures destroyed by fluidization or liquefaction (Lowe, 1982). Fluidization and liquefaction may occur from loading and changes in pore pressure causing the upward flow of escaping pore fluids. The S3 division commonly forms dish and pillar water-escape structures related to the mass settling of grains (Lowe, 1982). Structureless with Floating Mudstone-Clasts (4C) Structureless sandstone deposits with floating mudstone-clasts are commonly found at bed tops with sharp or 33 wavy contacts within channel bodies. Light gray mudstone-clasts float freely in fine- to very fine-grained sandstone that is moderately-sorted. Millimeter- to centimeter-scale mudstone-clasts generally compose 10% or less of the bed. Facies thickness range from <5 centimeters up to 95 centimeters, and average 26 centimeters. Interpretation: Deposition is inferred to reflect hyperconcentrated flows, high- density turbidity currents, or quasi-steady flows due to the lack of bedforms and the presence of mudstone-clasts (Lowe, 1982; Kneller and Branney, 1995; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). The main mechanism for deposition was frictional freezing resulting from the grain-to-grain interaction or progressive aggradation with clasts deposited along unrecognizable depositional boundaries that migrated upward during sedimentation (Kneller and Branney, 1995; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Mud-clasts were carried in a non-cohesive matrix and deposited floating within the bed. Plane-Parallel Laminated (5) Plane-parallel laminated sandstone deposits are abundant across the LMMF and exhibit millimeter- to centimeter-scale horizontal laminations. Plane-parallel laminated sandstone is occasionally the only facies present within a bed, however, it is commonly found within the top and base of beds, and may overlie structureless sandstone. Facies thickness range from <5 cm up to 2.5 meters, and average 22 centimeters. Sandstones are very fine- to medium-grained and moderately- to well-sorted with sharp or gradational contacts. Interpretation: Plane-parallel laminated sandstone reflects deposition by traction within low-density turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982). Flows are marked by deceleration and a change from sediment held in suspension to bed loads, and subsequent deposition 34 by traction (Lowe, 1982). Plane-parallel laminated sandstone correlates to the Tb division within a Bouma sequence. Medium- to Thin-Bedded Sandstone Facies Asymmetric Ripple Cross-Laminated (6A) Asymmetric cross-laminated sandstone is common across the LMMF within and bounding channel bodies, and is generally found above plane-parallel laminated sandstones near bed tops. Asymmetric ripple cross-laminated sandstones are moderately- to well-sorted with grain size variation from very fine- to medium-grained. Facies thickness range from <2 centimeters to 25 centimeters, and average 9 centimeters in event beds. Contacts are gradational to sharp, and can be wavy. Interpretation: Asymmetric ripple cross-laminations represent bedload transport by lower flow regime unidirectional currents and traction deposition within low-density turbidity currents (Bouma, 1962; Allen, 1968; Lowe, 1982). Velocity within the flow was waning and reflects traction at the transition within the body to wake of the turbidity current (Bouma, 1962; Lowe, 1982). Climbing Ripple Cross-Laminated (6B) Climbing ripple cross-laminations are found along channel margins and within channel bodies. They generally represent thicker packages that are more aggradational than asymmetric ripple cross-laminations and commonly overlie plane-parallel laminated sandstones. Climbing ripple cross-laminations vary from subcritically climbing to supercritically climbing and occur in sandstone that is moderately- to well-sorted with grain size variation from very fine- to fine-grained. 35 Contacts are generally gradational to sharp, and may be wavy. Facies thickness range from 5 centimeters to 67 centimeters, and average 25 centimeters in event beds. Interpretation: Climbing ripple cross-laminations represent bedload transport and concurrent rapid suspended fallout rates within the lower flow regime of low-density turbidity currents (Sorby, 1859; Jobe et al., 2011). Sediment fell rapidly onto a bed with active bedload transport in the ripple-stability field, and upstream ripples climbed over the next downstream ripple (Jobe et al., 2011). The angle of climb reflects the interplay of suspended-load fallout rate and bedload transport (Jobe et al., 2011). Climbing ripple cross-laminations are commonly developed on levees and along channel margins, at channel mouths and associated lobe and splay settings, and in areas where slope gradient abruptly decreases (Jobe et al., 2011). Medium- to Thin-Bedded Muddy Sandstone Facies Muddy Sandstone (7A) Muddy sandstone facies is not common within the LMMF. The facies consists of poorly-sorted sediments that are grain supported, but with a high concentration of mudstone matrix. They may include centimeter-scale mudstone- clasts, bioclastic shell debris, and volcaniclastic minerals in addition to the mudstone-rich sandstone matrix. They also may exhibit plane-parallel laminated or convoluted bedding. Muddy sandstone beds are typically normal graded. Facies thickness range from 7 centimeters to 27 centimeters, and average 19 centimeters. The facies is present within axial channel deposits within CC1B north of Waikiekie Stream, and also off-axis near the base of CC2 at Tutapuha Stream. 36 Interpretation: Deposition of muddy sandstone beds was likely by hyperconcentrated or concentrated density flows reflected by normal grading, grain-to- grain interaction, presence of bedforms, and erosion at the base (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). The principle driving force was gravity. The high mud content within the flow describes a mix between a cohesive debris flow and a non-cohesive density flow, and is similar to a “slurry bed” (Lowe and Guy., 2000). They may represent a flow transformation from a debris flow up-dip (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Mudstone-Clasts at Bed Tops (7B) The occurrence of mudstone-clasts dispersed in a mudstone-rich sandstone matrix at bed tops is not common within the LMMF, but only occurs within channels. Millimeter- to centimeter-scale clasts are composed of light gray mudstone. Clasts typically show elongation oriented parallel to sub-parallel to bedding. Facies contacts are gradational and may be wavy or irregular. Mica-rich lenses, volcaniclastic minerals, and bioclastic shell debris also may be present. The facies can exhibit horizontal laminations, wavy laminations, or be structureless and gradational. The facies is generally poorly- to moderately-sorted. Facies thickness range from 4 centimeters to 20 centimeters, and average 8 centimeters. Interpretation: Deposition of mudstone-clasts dispersed at bed tops was likely by low-density turbidity currents where clasts were ripped up from underlying strata and suspended in the flow by fluid turbulence (Lowe, 1982; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). It also may reflect a flow transformation and subsequent deposition of the head, body, and wake of a turbidity flow. 37 Silty Sandstone (7C) Silty sandstone facies is characterized by very fine-grained sandstone with siltstone dominated matrix. It is generally finely laminated, moderately- sorted, and may contain sparse organics and mica. It is commonly found at bed tops above sandstones with a gradational contact to overlying mudstone. Facies thickness range from <1 centimeter to 1.2 meters, however, it can be difficult to break out individual event beds. Average thickness is 12.5 centimeters. Interpretation: Silty sandstone was likely deposited at the tail of low-density turbidity flows. It represents a common deposit reflecting the longest run-out lengths, flow transformation, and hydraulic fractionation within low-density turbidity currents (Haughton et al., 2003). Its common occurrence at event bed tops indicates longer flow durations with sedimentation occurring predominantly by traction from dilute, turbulent flows and changes in capacity within the flow (Gardner et al., 2003). Poorly-Sorted Mudstone-Rich Facies Poorly-Sorted Mudstone (8A) Poorly-sorted mudstones are not common in the LMMF. They consist of poorly-sorted sediments that are matrix supported and rich in mudstone. They may consist of light gray mudstone-clasts up to 5 centimeters in diameter, bioclastic shell debris, a high concentration of volcaniclastic minerals, and sandstone with grain size up to pebbles. Poorly-sorted mudstones may be bounded by cross-stratification, convoluted bedding, or show no stratification. Facies thickness range from 9 centimeters to 1.1 meters, and average 42.5 centimeters. The facies is present within CC1B north of Waikiekie Stream, CC2 at Tutapuha Stream, and within siltstone 38 deposits that bound the channel belt at Tehoro Beach. The pebble size grains are only present north of Waikiekie Stream and represent the coarsest sediment found within the LMMF. Interpretation: Deposition of poorly-sorted mudstone was likely by cohesive debris flows inferred by the high mudstone content and en masse deposition. En masse deposition explains the chaotic arrangement of the deposits, the presence of intact fossils, and the grain size variation from pebbles to mudstone (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Flow transformation to a hyperconcentrated density flow may be responsible for the presence of cross-stratification. Mudstone-Clasts Dispersed (8B) Matrix-rich siltstone deposits with dispersed mudstone-clasts are not common in the LMMF. When present, they frequently occur at bed tops within the transition from sandstone to siltstone. Millimeter- to centimeter-scale light gray mudstone-clasts are common, and bioclastic shell debris, volcaniclastics, and organics are present in some localities. Siltstone is the dominant grain size, although floating very fine grains of sandstone are typically present. Facies thickness range from 3 centimeters to 10 centimeters, and average 6 centimeters. Interpretation: Deposition of mudstone-clasts dispersed within a matrix-rich siltstone represents deposition at the tail of a low-density turbidity current where minimal bed traction is still occurring. Mudstone-clasts were suspended by fluid turbulence and deposited through bed traction (Lowe, 1982; Mulder and Alexander, 2001). 39 Siltstone Facies Concentrated Bands of Organic Carbon (8C) Matrix-rich siltstones with concentrated bands of organic carbon within beds are not common within the LMMF, although organic sediments are seldomly dispersed within a variety of other facies. This facies is dominated by siltstone with floating very fine sandstone grains and organic-rich lenses that are iron-rich. Facies thickness range from 3 centimeters to 11 centimeters, and average 7 centimeters when present. Interpretation: Deposition was likely at the tail of low-density turbidity currents where subsequent pelagic suspension fallout of organic-rich sediments was able to accumulate at the bed tops above sand bearing siltstone. Shear velocity was likely low enough to prevent the stripping of organic material during subsequent flows (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Plane-Parallel Laminated (9A) Plane-parallel laminated siltstone is found across the LMMF, both within and bounding the channel belt, but not in abundance. It is commonly light gray or light tan and occurs above sandstone at the top of fining-upward successions. Horizontal laminations vary from millimeters to centimeters thick. Facies thickness range from 2 centimeters to 54 centimeters, and average 17.5 centimeters across the LMMF. Interpretation: Plane-parallel laminated siltstone was likely deposited by traction and suspension sedimentation from low-density turbidity currents and represents the Td division within a Bouma sequence (Lowe, 1982; Gardner et al., 2003). 40 Ripple-Laminated to Wavy-Laminated (9B) Ripple-laminated to wavy-laminated siltstone is found within and bounding the channel belt across the LMMF, but not in abundance. Commonly, it is light gray or light tan and occurs above sandstone at the top of fining-upward successions. Wavy laminations are more prevalent. Wavy- to ripple- laminated siltstone occur in beds that range in thickness from 2 centimeters to 55 centimeters, and average 8 centimeters. Thicker beds typically reflect more than one event bed, although it is difficult to distinguish their true thickness. Ripple- to wavy- laminated siltstone beds generally occur above ripple-laminated sandstone beds. Interpretation: Ripple- to wavy-laminated siltstone was likely deposited by traction sedimentation at the tail of low-density turbidity currents where flow velocity was high enough to produce fine wavy laminations and ripple laminations reflecting textural sorting (Lowe, 1982). It represents a transition between the Tc and Td divisions within a Bouma sequence. Normal Graded (9C) Normal graded siltstone is common across the LMMF, both within and bounding the channel belt. It is typically found above fining-upward successions with sandstone below. The color varies from light gray to light tan or brown. No distinguishable sedimentary structures are seen in outcrop. It may have concretion horizons and interlamination with millimeter thick very fine-grained sandstone. Normal graded siltstones range in thickness from 1 centimeter to 55 centimeters, and average 11 centimeters. Interpretation: Normal graded siltstone is inferred to represent flow stripping at the tail of flows and suspension sedimentation from low-density turbidity currents. It 41 likely reflects the Td division within a Bouma sequence (Lowe, 1982; Gardner et al., 2003). Mudstone Facies Silty Mudstone (10A) Silty mudstone is light gray to dark gray in color and may be fissile. Moderate clay amounts are present. The presence of volcaniclastic minerals and silt sized volcaniclastic ash is also seen at multiple localities, although in low quantities. Beds may be interlaminated with very fine-grained sandstone beds that are less than 1 centimeter thick. Silty mudstones range in thickness from 2 centimeters to 1.05 meters, and average 29 centimeters. Interpretation: Silty mudstone was likely deposited by low-density turbidity currents and may represent the tail of the flow (Middleton, 1993; Lowe, 1982). The flow was likely losing its competence and capacity to carry sediments and may reflect suspension settling (Hiscott, 1994). It likely represents the Te division within a Bouma sequence. Clay Dominated (10B) Clay dominated mudstone is dark gray to brown in color and may be fissile. Laminated to interlaminated beds range in thickness from 2 centimeters to 1 meter, and average 17.5 centimeters. Clay size grains are most prevalent, but a mixture of silt to very fine sandstone grains are present in low quantities. Beds may have a greasy appearance. Interpretation: Deposition of clay dominated mudstone is inferred to be by low- density turbidity currents where flows nearly lost their capacity and competence to carry 42 sediments (Hiscott, 1994). It likely represents the Te division within a Bouma sequence with suspension settling at the tail of the flow. Claystone (11A) Claystone is typically found bounding channelized intervals. Deposits are dark brown to light gray in color and are dominated by clay size particles. Claystone generally occurs above volcaniclastic sandstones and may have fine grain mineral crystals dispersed throughout. Rarely, organic-rich intervals and fossils may be present. These intervals can be bioturbated. Facies thickness range from 2 centimeters to 65 centimeters, and average 6.5 centimeters. Interpretation: Sedimentation by pelagic and hemipelagic suspension fallout is inferred. The presence of volcaniclastic minerals, organic-rich intervals, and fossils likely indicates a decrease in clastic sedimentation. Suspension settling likely dominated mud deposition with low shear velocity (Middleton et al., 1984). Calcareous Facies Calcareous-Rich (11B) Calcareous-rich facies are found within the axis of channel deposits and within mudstone-rich intervals above the channels. Bioclastic shell debris is common. Rarely, large intact fossils are present. The largest fossils were found within poorly-sorted mudstone-rich beds north of Waikiekie Stream in CC1B. Calcareous facies in mudstone-rich deposits may include concretions, volcaniclastic-rich siltstone intervals, and bioturbation. Calcareous facies in sandstone-rich deposits typically coincide with scouring or large erosional contacts. Facies thickness in event beds range from 1 centimeter to 23 centimeters, and average 6.5 centimeters. 43 Interpretation: Calcareous mudstone-rich intervals with bioclastic shell debris likely represent small slumps originating along channel margins or updip on the slope. Flows may have transitioned from matrix-supported debris flows to muddy hyperconcentrated density flows or turbidity currents downslope (Lowe and Guy, 2000). Sandstone-rich intervals with bioclastic shell debris within small scours or scattered throughout likely represent deposition by high-density turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982). Post-Depositional Facies Deformed; Mass-Transport Deposit (MTD) (12) Mass-transport deposits vary in thickness and lithology. They generally are mudstone-rich with varying amounts of volcaniclastics, shell debris, and sandstone, although one sandstone-rich mass-transport deposit was documented. The thickness of beds and degree of deformation or folding changes between localities across the LMMF. Mass-transport deposits seemingly transition from undeformed intervals to deformed intervals from one locality to another. Sandstone injections and rafting of large blocks is also common. Mass-transport deposits generally have steeper bedding attitudes than the surrounding stratigraphy and vary in thickness from 1 meter to up to 15 meters. Interpretation: Deposition was by mass-transport or slumping of sediment. Slumping may have been triggered by oversteepening, sediment loading, release of gas hydrate, overpressure of pore fluids, or fluid venting (King et al., 2011). Concretions, Cementation (13) Concretions are common within mudstone-rich deposits, but also are present within sandstones and near faulted intervals. They are often 44 ovoid or spherical in shape and range in size from a few centimeters up to 50 centimeters wide. The largest concretions are present north of Waikiekie Stream near the Mangapukatea Fault. Concretions most commonly occur along bedding contacts, but also can be present where large concentrations of bioclastic shell debris is found. Facies thickness range from 3 centimeters to 32 centimeters, and average 8 centimeters. Interpretation: Concretions reflect post-depositional modification after burial. Fluids likely moved along bedding planes and also along faults, precipitating cement around various nuclei. Concretions also may be associated with bioclastic shell debris at some localities. Multiple studies have analyzed concretions within the MMF and the overlying Urenui Formation. Tubular carbonate concretions sometimes reflect the escape of subsurface fluids and/or hydrocarbon gases (Pearson et al., 2010; Nyman et al., 2006). Burrowed and Bioturbated Sandstone (14A) Burrowed and bioturbated sandstone is common throughout the LMMF in thinning-upward successions near the top of channel bodies and outside channel bodies. Sandstones are generally very fine-grained and poorly- to moderately-sorted. Structureless sandstone or plane-parallel lamination may be present, although original sedimentary attributes are typically overprinted by intense bioturbation. Vertical escape burrows and horizontal infill traces are common. Facies thickness range from 1 centimeter to 60 centimeters, and average 8.5 centimeters. Interpretation: Bioturbated and burrowed sandstone reflects post-depositional modification by organisms present on the sea floor. Sedimentation of sandstone was likely due to low-density turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982). Changes in the type of traces, 45 frequency, and density are related to nutrient supply, oxygenation, sediment supply, and depositional environment (Manley and Lewis, 1998). Burrowed and Bioturbated Siltstone (14B) Burrowed and bioturbated siltstone is common throughout the LMMF in thinning-upward successions. It commonly is present above bioturbated sandstone. Beds are generally intensely bioturbated throughout, and horizontal burrows are found at bed tops. Burrows typically crosscut one another, and tend to be filled with silty sandstone. Facies thickness range from 1 centimeter to 1.75 meters thick, and average 23 centimeters. Interpretation: Bioturbated and burrowed siltstone reflects post-depositional modification by organisms present on the sea floor. Sedimentation of siltstone was likely due to hemipelagic settling of sediments or deposition of sediments that were in suspension from low-density turbidity currents. Suspension sediments from low-density turbidity currents would be classified as the Te division in a Bouma sequence (Middleton and Hampton, 1973; Lowe, 1982). Tuffaceous Facies Volcaniclastic Sandstone (15) Volcaniclastic sandstone deposits are predominantly found outside channel margins within the LMMF, but also occur less frequently within the channel fill. Volcaniclastic minerals consist of plagioclase, hornblende, oxides, and a low percentage of clino- and orthopyroxene described from thin section analysis. Mineral crystals range from fine- to coarse-grained and may be accompanied by very fine- to fine-grained sandstone matrix. Angular white plagioclase 46 minerals are most recognizable in outcrop. Beds are typically dark brown to tan in color. Facies thickness range from <1 centimeter to 45 centimeters in more sandstone-rich beds, and average 3 centimeters. Within channel bodies, volcaniclastic sandstone is commonly found at the base of massive sandstone beds. Interpretation: Volcaniclastic sandstone likely represents fall-out of coarse- grained suspended volcaniclastic deposits after a volcanic eruption and resedimentation by low-density turbidity currents (Schneider et al., 2001; Lowe, 1982). Volcaniclastic Mudstone (16) Volcaniclastic mudstone deposits are predominantly found outside channel margins within the LMMF. Thin section analysis identifies siltstone size angular volcaniclastics in a siltstone to mudstone matrix. Pockets of coarse-grained volcaniclastic mineral crystals and biotite mica are also common throughout. Minerals consist of plagioclase, hornblende, oxides, and a low percentage of clino- and orthopyroxene described from thin section analysis. Bioclastic shell debris is also present in thin sections from multiple localities. Facies thickness range from <1 centimeter to 110 centimeters in beds with discontinuous coarse-grained lenses. Average thickness is 28 centimeters. Interpretation: Volcaniclastic mudstone likely represents hemipelagic fall-out very fine-grained suspended volcaniclastic ash deposits following a volcanic eruption. Resedimentation by low-density turbidity currents also may contribute to the deposition of gradational volcaniclastic mudstone beds that overlie volcaniclastic sandstone (Schneider et al., 2001; Lowe, 1982). 47 Thin Section Analysis Thin section analysis was completed for 7 samples collected within the LMMF. Thin section photos are presented in Appendix 2. The 7 samples are characterized by volcaniclastic-rich sandstone, poorly-sorted mudstone-rich beds, and volcaniclastic mudstone. Collected samples reflect sediments that showed characteristic changes within the outcrop, but their origin was not completely understood. Sample 1 was collected from volcaniclastic siltstone at Locked Gate. It shows silt sized grains that dominate within a mudstone matrix. Small pockets of coarse-grained volcaniclastic minerals and fossils are also present. Minerals consist primarily of quartz and plagioclase, although smaller amounts of biotite, hornblende, and oxides are present. Sample 2 was collected within a bioclastic and volcaniclastic-rich interval at Locked Gate within the upper composite of CC1B. It shows a wide range of grain size, mineralogy, and bioclastic input. Grain size varies from mudstone up to coarse-grained, and the presence of large fossils is common. Volcaniclastic minerals consist of plagioclase, hornblende, and oxides, as well as low percentages of clino- and orthopyroxene. Biotite mica is also common throughout. Sample 3 was collected north of Waikiekie Stream in CC1B from a poorly-sorted mudstone-rich bed. Grain size variation is represented by mudstone, fine- to medium- grained sandstone, and coarse-grained volcaniclastic minerals. Large fossils are common. Volcaniclastic minerals consists of plagioclase, hornblende, and oxides, as well as low percentages of clino- and orthopyroxene. 48 Sample 4 was collected north of Waikiekie Stream in CC1B from a poorly-sorted muddy sandstone. Less mudstone is seen within this sample compared to sample 3. Grain size varies from fine-grained sandstone to very coarse-grained volcaniclastic minerals. Large fossils are also present within this sample. Volcaniclastic minerals consists of plagioclase, hornblende, and oxides, as well as low percentages of clino- and orthopyroxene. Sample 5 was collected south of Waikiekie Stream in a siltstone dominated volcaniclastic mudstone. Silt size grains dominate within a mudstone matrix. Sharp and angular volcaniclastic silt size grains are inferred to represent volcaniclastic ash. Pockets of very fine-grained volcaniclastic mineral crystals and small fossils are also present. Sample 6 was collected south of Waikiekie Stream within a siltstone bearing volcaniclastic sandstone with millimeter-scale mudstone-clasts. The sample is poorly- sorted with grain size from mudstone up to fine- to medium-grained quartz and volcaniclastic minerals. Volcaniclastic mineral crystals are angular to sharp, and quartz is sub-angular. Millimeter-scale mudstone-clasts that are well rounded and show little to no shearing. Sample 7 was collected below CC1B at Tutapuha Stream in an organic bearing volcaniclastic mudstone. Within the outcrop, this sample had a fully articulated very small leaf fossil preserved. The sample is poorly-sorted with grain size from mudstone up to coarse-grained volcaniclastic minerals. The sample shows high amounts of alteration, likely reflected by the precipitation of iron between grains. 1B Mudstone-Clast Conglomerate Facies Sandstone Facies 1A 2 3A 3B 4A Clast-Supported Matrix-Supported Horizontally-Laminated or Spaced-Stratified Cross-Stratified Wavy-Laminated Structureless 49 Figure 6. Photos of sedimentary facies documented within the Lower Mount Messenger Formation. 50 Figure 6. (Continued) Photos of sedimentary facies documented within the Lower Mount Messenger Formation. 5 6A 6B 7A 4B 4C Sandstone Facies continued Secondary Structures Structureless with FloatingMudstone-Clasts Plane-Parallel Laminated Asymmetric Ripple Cross-Laminated Climbing Ripple Cross-Laminated Muddy Sandstone 51 Figure 6. (Continued) Photos of sedimentary facies documented within the Lower Mount Messenger Formation. 8A Siltstone and Mudstone Facies 7B 7C 8B 8C 9A Sandstone Facies continued Mudstone-Clasts at Bed Tops Silty Sandstone Poorly-Sorted Mudstone Mudstone-Clasts Dispersed Concentrated Bands of Organics Plane-Parallel Laminated 52 Figure 6. (Continued) Photos of sedimentary facies documented within the Lower Mount Messenger Formation. 10A 10B 11A 11B 9B 9C Siltstone and Mudstone Facies continued Ripple- to Wavy-Laminated Normal Graded Silty Mudstone Clay Dominated Mudstone Claystone Calcareous Rich 53 Figure 6. (Continued) Photos of sedimentary facies documented within the Lower Mount Messenger Formation. 15 16 14A 14B 12 13 Post-depositional Facies Deformed; Mass Transport Deposit Concretions Bioturbated/Burrowed Sandstone Bioturbated/Burrowed Siltstone Volcaniclastic Sandstone Volcaniclastic Mudstone Tuffaceous Sandstone and Siltstone Facies 54 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENT ANALYSIS Definition and Terminology Sedimentary bodies, also known as architectural elements, are three-dimensional mesoscale shapes defined by their external geometry, internal geometry, lithofacies assemblage, and their bounding surfaces (Allen, 1983; Miall, 1985; Clark and Pickering, 1996). Architectural elements in this study are defined by multiple recognition criteria. These include the shape, lithology, cross-cutting relationships, facies associations, and lateral correlation of bodies across the study area. Architectural elements vary in scale and complexity, with smaller elements stacking to form larger elements (Allen, 1983; Sprague et al., 2005). First order contacts are defined by the bounding of individual cross-bedding sets and cross-strata (Allen, 1983). Contacts typically reflect erosion, and are planar or concave up (Allen, 1983). These are defined as elementary channels in this study. Second order contacts reflect sedimentation units that are genetically related by facies (Allen, 1983). These are termed composite channels by this study. Third order contacts divide groupings of composite channels, or “complexes” defined by Allen, from each other by major erosional surfaces (1983). These are termed channel complexes within this study (Figure 7). This stacking forms a hierarchy of scales, recognized by bedding contacts of variable significance (Allen, 1983; Miall, 1985; Sprague et al., 2005). Within subaqueous flows, alternating phases of deposition and erosion create various sedimentary bodies, which are fundamental building blocks of deep-water systems (Mutti M ud st on e, Sa nd st on e, Vo lc an ic s W ed ge fo rm /L ev ee M as sT ra ns po rt D ep os it D ra pe C ha nn el fo rm A m al ga m at ed Sa nd st on e C on gl om er at ef ill U na m al ga m at ed Sa nd st on e PP L, R ip pl es , m ud dy flo w s Le ns A xi s M ar gi n La m in at ed Th in Be ds U nd ef or m ed D ef or m ed B. Bo di es ty pe sw ith in th is st ud y Pu re M ul tis to ry M ul tis to ry ne st ed of fs et st ac ke d M ul tis to ry /M ul til at er al of fs et st ac ke d M ul til at er al of fs et st ac ke d Is ol at ed W id th Depth In cr ea sin g la te ra lo ffs et VerticalStack Pa rti al ly -U nc on fin ed ~1 0- 15 m th ic k 10 0s -1 00 0s m w id e Co nf in ed : ~5 0- 60 cm th ic k 10 0s m w id e Co nf in ed : ~1 5- 25 m er os io n ~1 .0 -1 .3 km w id e 20 -3 0 m th ic k Pa rti al ly Co nf in ed : ~7 50 -1 00 0 m w id e 30 -5 0 m th ic k U nc on fin ed : ~5 0- 10 0 m th ic k 10 00 sm w id e W id th Th ic kn es s D .A sp ec tR at io (W id th /T hi ck ne ss ) C .S ta ck in g pa tte rn A .A rc hi te ct ur al El em en ts Fi gu re 7. A )A rc hi te ct ur al el em en ts ta ck in g of el em en ta ry ch an ne ls re pr es en tin g in di vi du al ch an ne le le m en ts, co m po sit e ch an ne ls w ith tw o or m or e el em en ta ry ch an ne ls, an d ch an ne lc om pl ex es w ith tw o or m or e co m po sit e ch an ne ls. B) Bo dy ty pe sa nd th ei ra ss oc ia te d ge om et ry w ith in th e stu dy ar ea sh ow n w ith ex am pl e se di m en to lo gi ca lp ro fil es .C )C ha nn el sta ck in g pa tte rn s( ho riz on ta la nd ve rti ca l of fs et )f or ch an ne lc om pl ex es (m od ifi ed fro m Cl ar k an d Pi ck er in g, 19 96 ). D )C ha nn el fo rm as pe ct ra tio (w id th /th ic kn es s) . El em en ta ry C ha nn el s C ha nn el C om pl ex In di vi du al ch an ne le le m en ts C om po sit eC ha nn el s 55 Tw o or m or ee le m en ta ry ch an ne ls Tw o or m or ec om po sit ec ha nn el s 56 and Normark, 1987). Variation of sedimentary bodies reflect changes related to the depositional system that include confinement, sediment accumulation rate, and gradient (Gardner et al., 2003, 2008). Sedimentary Bodies Sedimentary bodies within the study area include channelforms, wedgeforms, lobeforms, drapes, mass-transport deposits, and laminated thin beds (Figure 7). Lobeforms are inferred to be present near the base of the LMMF from previous studies (King et al., 1993; Helle, 2003; Masalimova, 2013). They are not discussed here, but were referenced for their spatial context within the stratigraphy during field work. Mass- transport deposits are found below the base of channelforms within the study area, and are thought to influence the subsequent influx of sand (King et al., 2011). They are discussed first due to their importance to the overlying channelized intervals. Mass-Transport Deposits Mass-transport deposits (MTDs) consistently occur at or near the tops of individual inner-fan depositional cycles (King et al., 2011). Outcrop exposures vary in scale from 1 meter up to 15 meters, and are observed with sharp, planar basal surfaces. The main lithology in MTDs is siltstone with minor sandstone, although one sandstone- rich mass-transport deposit is observed at the Locked Gate locality (Figure 19). Volcaniclastic mineral crystals and shell debris are commonly found scattered throughout the strata. Channelized intervals within the study area typically overlie MTDs. 57 MTDs consist of folded thin-bedded strata, and in some localities large rafted blocks of sandstone. They typically show an angular discordance to the surrounding stratigraphy, with beds dipping up to 10 degrees compared to the average dip of 5-6 degrees in the study area. At the North Waikiekie locality, the NWK MTD shows isoclinal folding and the presence of a slump detachment surface (King et al., 2011) (Figure 2, 3, 8). The thickness of this interval is up to 15 meters, with rafted sandstone blocks from the overlying CC1A body incorporated into the flow (Figure 8). The mass- transport deposit seemingly transforms from undeformed mudstone deposits east of Gibb’s Hill, locally deformed mudstone to the south, and fully deformed strata at the North Waikiekie locality (Figure 8). The Waikiekie Stream MTD is present north and south of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 9). It is approximately 13 meters thick, and shows internal deformation and folding of siltstone and sandstone deposits. Moderate amounts of volcaniclastic minerals and bioclastic shell debris are also present. The top of the MTD is planar, reflecting erosion by subsequent flows, and the deposition of a fine-grained drape above (Figure 9). Similar to the NWK MTD, the Waikiekie Stream MTD reflects a transformation from undeformed mudstone deposits at Tutapuha Stream, to partially deformed mudstone and sandstone at Locked Gate, and fully deformed strata at Waikiekie Stream (Figure 9). Channelized sandstones of CC2 to CC4 are present above the Waikiekie Stream MTD within coastal outcrops. A B C D E Base of CC1A Loading into underlying mudstone Undeformed mudstone CC1A Deformed mudstone CC1A Rafted Sandstone blocks NWK MTD Isoclinal folding in MTD Person for scale CC1A: Rafted on top of MTD Undeformed MudstoneDeformed Interval MTD 58 Figure 8. Photos of deformation in the NWK MTD. A) Undeformed mudstone below CC1A east of Gibb’s Hill. B) Locally deformed mudstone below CC1A east and south of Gibb’s Hill. C) NWK MTD in coastal outcrops north of Waikiekie Stream with rafted sandstone blocks. D) Isoclinal fold below inferred slump detachment surface. E) CC1A rafted by the NWK MTD above undeformed mudstone. Undeformed Siltstone Tutapuha Locked Gate Deformed Siltstone and Sandstone Bioclastic Shell Debris Deformed Mudstone Deformed Mudstone Waikiekie Stream Mouth CC2 CC1B A B C D E CC2Fine grained laminated drape MTD F 59 Figure 9. Photos of deformation in the Waikiekie Stream MTD. A) Undeformed mudstone below CC2 east of Tutapuha Stream. B) Locally deformed mudstone below CC2 at the Locked Gate locality. C) Bioclastic shell debris within deformed beds at Locked Gate. D) Deformed mudstone at Locked Gate. E) Deformed mudstone and thin sandstone beds at Locked Gate. F) Waikiekie MTD at Waikiekie Stream mouth overlain by CC2 with a fine grained laminated drape. 60 The Locked Gate MTD is approximately 1.5 meters thick and consists of folded mudstone. It is present above CC2 within the inland outcrops. To the west of Locked Gate, this MTD changes to folded sandstone with thin beds of siltstone (Figure 18, 19). This is inferred to represent cannibalization of the MTD by the overlying CC3 channel, which is seen down-cutting and eroding through the stratigraphy immediately to the east. Multiple erosional surfaces with mudstone-clast conglomerate are present above and below the folded interval. The Locked Gate MTD is not present within the coastal exposures. Channel Complexes Channel complexes within the LMMF are the preserved remnants of ancient channels. As the main conduits for sediment transport, channels serve as the principle deep-water sedimentary body type (Barnes and Normark, 1985; Clark and Pickering, 1996; Gardner and Borer, 2000). Their sediment-fill and bounding surfaces provide insight into the evolution of a channel and the subaqueous flow processes that were present as the channel filled (Gardner and Borer, 2000). Six sandstone-filled channel complexes are locally recognized in the study area. Channel Complex 1A The lowermost channel complex (1A) is present within inland outcrops at the Gibb’s Hill and Mackenzie Ridge localities, and north of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 2). Erosion present at the base of CC1A is less than the overlying channel complexes with approximately 10 meters relief. It commonly shows massive sandstones loading into the underlying mudstone. Underlying mudstones are undeformed near the 61 northern exposure extent, locally deformed to the south, and fully deformed north of Waikiekie Stream where it represents the NWK mass-transport deposit (Figure 2, 8). Thickness is approximately 25 meters within the study area. Matrix-supported and clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate are locally developed along multiple intervals near the base of the complex, along with occasional rafting of large ~5 meter wide sandstone blocks with convoluted bedding (Figure 10). Massive-bedded sandstones commonly have large erosional surfaces present internally, truncating the underlying stratigraphy. The highest erosion is present at Gibb’s Hill, although multiple surfaces east of the locality show erosion up to 7 to 10 meters, filled with mudstone-clast conglomerate (Figure 10). To the south, beds show less erosion, occasionally scouring less than a meter into underlying strata. Multiple elementary channels and composite channels are inferred to be present within CC1A. Correlation of bodies between localities was completed with low confidence due to high vegetation cover. Event bed analysis assisted with correlation, and is discussed in chapter 4. At least two composite channels are inferred, with at least 7 elementary channels present in the uppermost composite channel (Figure 10). Width and thickness measurements of the elementary and composite channels were not possible due to incomplete outcrop extent, and correlations between outcrops reflecting a transect that is parallel with paleoflow analysis. The width of CC1A is difficult to determine. The north and south margins are not exposed within the study area, although thick-bedded climbing ripple cross-laminated sandstone successions present north of Waikiekie Stream are correlated to CC1A, they North Waikiekie Climbing Ripple Succession: overbank to CC1A A C D E F CC1A - Axial: multiple channel elements within upper composite channel Scour ~1 m conglomerate at base Lower composite channel rafted block Conglomerate person for scale Conglom erate B Upper composite channel Upper composite channel 62 Figure 10. Photos of CC1A architectural elements A) Minor scouring with mudstone- clast conglomerate above. B) Erosion at the base of CC1A with ~1 meter of mudstone- clast conglomerate deposited above. C) Flame structure preserved east of Gibb’s Hill. D) Inferred Axis of CC1A at Gibb’s Hill showing multiple elementary channels and a rafted block within the upper composite channel. E) CC1A east of Gibb’s Hill with exposure of the upper and lower composite channels. F) Climbing ripples within coastal outcrops north of Waikiekie Stream interpreted as overbank deposits to CC1A. 63 likely represent overbank deposition outside the channel margin. One exposure of massive-bedded sandstone correlated within CC1A is present immediately north of Warekarianga Stream in the inland outcrops. Estimates of channel width infer the channel margin between this locality and the climbing ripple cross-laminated sandstone succession north of Waikiekie Stream. Width/thickness measurements for CC1A reflect a minimum 1.3 km wide channel that is approximately 25 meters thick (~52:1 aspect ratio) (Table 3). Channel Complex 1B Channel complex 1B is present within the inland outcrops from Warekarianga Stream to the Locked Gate locality, and north of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 2). One margin is fully exposed near Warekarianga Stream and shows erosional relief of approximately 15 to 20 meters into the underlying mudstone (Figure 11). Thickness is approximately 27 meters within the study area. The base of CC1B erodes into thin-bedded mudstone and volcaniclastics that are undeformed. Exposures of the channel base are only present within the inland outcrops. The top of CC1B is marked by the presence of undeformed mudstone at Tutapuha Stream that progressively becomes more deformed near Locked Gate, and a mass-transport deposit north and south of Waikiekie Stream. Multiple elementary channels and composite channels are inferred for CC1B. Three composite channels were identified with confidence, and the presence of a fourth may be possible. Truncation and lateral variation within the composite channels north of Waikiekie Stream complicates correlation. Elementary channels appear to dominate the Fi gu re 11 .A )M aj or er os io na ls ur fa ce of CC 1B at W ar ek ar ia ng a St re am sh ow in g co rre la tio ns al on g th e ch an ne lm ar gi n. B) In te rfi ng er in g sa nd sto ne sa nd sil tst on es al on g th e ch an ne lm ar gi n of CC 1B .C )M as siv e am al ga m at ed sa nd sto ne w ith in CC 1B at Tu ta pu ha St re am .D )L at er al be d co rre la tio ns no rth of W ai ki ek ie St re am sh ow in g m ul tip le co m po sit e bo di es an d el em en ta ry ch an ne ls.64 W ai ki ek ie St re am M TDCC CC 22 AA DD C ha nn el M ar gi n CC hhaa nnnn eell eell eemm eenn ttss aann dd ccoo mm ppoo ssiitt eebb oodd iiee ssww ttiihh iinn CC CC 11BB aatt NN WW KK VVoo llcc aann iicc llaa sstt iicc ddoo mm iinn aatt eedd BB Ba se C C 1B CC MM aass ssiivv eess aann ddss ttoo nnee 65 lower stratigraphy of the channel complex with little variation and truncation of beds. Minor scouring is present. The channel fill of CC1B shows less internal erosion than the underlying CC1A, and the abundance of mudstone-clast conglomerate is significantly lower. Sandstone beds are typically massive, amalgamated, and show a variety of sedimentary structures. Erosional scours with up to 50 centimeters relief are filled with matrix-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate. The margin of the channel at Warekarianga Stream shows multiple interfingering sandstone beds that thin and subsequently thicken outside the channel margin (Figure 11). This may reflect lateral avulsion within the channel or the spilling of sandstone toward the channel levee. North of Waikiekie Stream, massive amalgamated sandstone is prevalent, although siltstone partings between massive beds are common. Bed variation increases up-dip, and laterally changes to reflect a composite channel with a high-density of mudstone rich beds. Beds in this interval consist of a variety of sediments. Muddy sandstone and poorly-sorted mudstone have a high concentration of volcaniclastic mineral crystals, shell debris, and fossils, as well as a minor abundance of pebble size grains. The composite channel appears as a lens north of Waikiekie Stream due to truncation by successive flows in the upper sandstone-rich composite channel (Figure 11). The lowermost composite channel reflects deposition from four or more elementary channels. Beds show sheetlike geometries at the margin and become more amalgamated to the south (Figure 11). Elementary channels are likely more than 800 66 meters wide, with bed correlations possible from event bed and facies analysis discussed in chapter 4. The thickness of individual elementary channels range from 2 to 5 meters. The second composite channel represents deposition from four elementary channels comprised of mudstone-rich beds. The best exposures reflecting lateral variation are present north of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 11). These exposures show the composite channel thickens to the north and is subsequently truncated to the south. Beds appear planar with minor scours. Along the margin of the channel at Warekarianga Stream, this interval is represented by interfingering sandstone and mudstone (Figure 11). Elementary channels are likely 1 km wide with thicknesses ranging from 1 to 2 meters. The uppermost composite channel reflects deposition of three or four elementary channels. These channels are sandstone-rich and show more variability in their sedimentary fill. Small erosional scours are present (Figure 11). At Warekarianga Stream, sandstone-rich deposits continue north beyond the major erosional surface. This likely reflects flows were less confined than those present in the lowermost composite channel. Elementary channels are likely 1 km wide with thicknesses ranging from 1 to 2.5 meters. The CC1B channel complex reflects deposition by confined flows that became partially confined up-section. Width/thickness measurements are estimated here due to the presence of only one margin. Channel width is estimated at ~1-1.2 km and thickness is estimated at 27 meters or more (~37:1 aspect ratio) (Table 3). Channel Complex 2 Channel complex CC2 is present from Tutapuha Stream to Locked Gate within inland outcrops, and north and south of Waikiekie Stream within coastal outcrops (Figure 2). It overlies undeformed mudstone that progressively 67 transitions to a mass-transport deposit at Waikiekie Stream. The northern margin is interpreted to be present at Tutapuha Stream or immediately north of the locality (Figure 12, 13). The southern margin is present approximately 400 meters south of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 14, 15). CC2 represents the highest amount of erosion within channel complexes of the LMMF. Erosional relief is approximately 30 meters, with a large abundance of clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate present within its base south of Waikiekie Stream where the axis is inferred (Figure 14). Thickness is approximately 25-30 meters in the study area. Exposures of CC2 are difficult to examine due to the high-density of vegetation covering slopes within inland outcrops, and the vertical nature of 30 meter high coastal cliffs. Measured sedimentological profiles within inland outcrops primarily reflect exposures near the base of the channel complex, although two complete or nearly- complete sections at Locked Gate show lateral correlations with high confidence. To help correlate CC2 to coastal outcrops, one section was measured within the interpreted channel axis south of Waikiekie Stream. Beds within CC2 are primarily massive and amalgamated; however, beds near the base reflect a fine-grained drape that is correlated from Tutapuha Stream to the South Waikiekie coastal section. Increasing amounts of erosion are present up-section from the channel base (Figure 14). Correlation was completed through facies and event bed analysis discussed in chapter 4. Two composite channels are inferred for CC2, although event bed analysis indicates the possibility of a third. The lower composite channel was deposited by three Fi gu re 1 2. A ) P ho to o f C C2 to w ar d th e ch an ne l m ar gi n at T ut ap uh a St re am o ve rly in g CC 1B a nd u nd ef or m ed si lts to ne c or re la te d to th e W ai ki ek ie S tre am M TD . B ) F in e- gr ai ne d dr ap e at th e ba se o f C C2 a t T ut ap uh a St re am . C ) V ie w lo ok in g ea st fro m (B ) s ho w in g th e fin e- gr ai ne d dr ap e pi nc hi ng o ut . D ) C or re la tio ns o f e le m en ta ry ch an ne ls at L oc ke d G at e. E ) M as siv e sa nd sto ne n or th o f L oc ke d G at e.68 D ra pe at ba se of C C 2 WW aaii kkii eekk iiee MM TTDD NN oorr tthh ooff LLoo cckk eedd GG aatt ee MM aass ssiivv ee SSaa nndd sstt oonn ee Lo ck ed G at e D ra pe pi nc he s o ut AA BB CC DD M TD C C 1B C C 2 C C 2 EE C C 3 M TD C C 3 CC CC 22 M TD C C 2 69 CC CC 11BB MM aass ssTT rraa nnss ppoo rrtt DD rraa ppee aabb oovv eeMM TTDD BBaa ssee ooff CC CC 22 R ap an ui Fo rm at io n R ap an ui Fo rm at io n DD rraa ppee aabb oovv eeMM TTDD BBaa ssee ooff CC CC 22 MM aass ss T Trr aann sspp oorr tt CC CC 11BB Fi gu re 1 3. A ) P ho to n or th o f W ai ki ek ie o f t he n or th er nm os t e xp os ur es o f C C2 a bo ve th e W ai ki ek ie S tre am M TD . T he p re se nc e of a fi ne -g ra in ed d ra pe is fo un d at th e ba se o f t he c ha nn el . I nf er re d in ci sio n by th e ov er ly in g CC 3 is sh ow n. B ) O ut cr op ex po su re s i m m ed ia te ly so ut h fro m (A ) s ho w in g la te ra l b ed c or re la tio ns w ith in C C2 a nd th e in fe rre d in ci sio n by C C3 . CC CC 33?? CC CC 44?? CC CC 22 CC CC 33?? CC CC 22 AA BB N E (~ 10 °) SW (~ 19 0° ) N E (~ 10 °) SW (~ 19 0° ) Fi gu re 1 4. P ho to -p an el a na ly sis o f o ut cr op e xp os ur es so ut h of W ai ki ek ie S tre am sh ow in g co rre la tio ns o f c ha nn el c om pl ex es 2 , 3 , an d 4. T he h ig he st ab un da nc e of m ud st on e- cl as t c on gl om er at e in th e M M F is pr es en t a t t hi s l oc al ity , i nf er re d to b e th e lo ca tio n of th e ch an ne l a xe s. Ch an ne ls ar e de po sit ed a bo ve th e W ai ki ek ie S tre am M TD w ith a h ig h ab un da nc e of in te rn al e ro sio na l s co ur s. 70 ?? ?? ?? ? Le ge nd : Ch an ne lC om pl ex Co m po sit e Ch an ne l El em en ta ry Ch an ne l Ra pa nu iC on ta ct Fa ul t Co ng lo m er at e Sa nd sto ne Si lts to ne M as sT ra ns po rt Ra pa nu iF or m at io n C C 4 C C 3 C C 2 G ig aP an ph ot o of ch an ne lc om pl ex es in co as ta lc lif fs N E (~ 10 o ) SW (~ 19 0o ) 24 0 m et er s Ph ot o D ist or tio n Si lts to ne do m in at ed dr ap e ab ov e M TD M ap of lo ca lit y: So ut h of W ai ki ek ie St re am Ch an ne lc om pl ex es ex po se d in th e co as ta l cl iff s so ut h of W ai ki ek ie St re am ar e co rre la te d to in la nd ou t- cr op sa tL oc ke d G at e 30 m Fi gu re 1 5. P ho to -p an el a na ly sis o f o ut cr op e xp os ur es so ut h of fi gu re 1 4 w it h co rre la tio ns o f c ha nn el c om pl ex es 2 A , 2 , a nd 3 . T he no rth m ar gi n of C C2 A is tr un ca te d by C C2 . M in or sl um pi ng a nd m ud st on e- cl as t c on gl om er at e ar e pr es en t a lo ng th e m ar gi n of C C2 .71 G ig aP an ph ot o of ch an ne lc om pl ex es in co as ta lc lif fs Le ge nd : Ch an ne lC om pl ex Co m ps ite Ch an ne l El em en ta ry Ch an ne l Ra pa nu iC on ta ct Fa ul t Co ng lo m er at e Sa nd sto ne Si lts to ne M as sT ra ns po rt Ra pa nu iF or m at io n C C 3 C C 2 C C 2A Ph ot o D ist or tio n N E (~ 10 o ) SW (~ 19 0o ) M ap of lo ca lit y: So ut h of W ai ki ek ie St re am Ch an ne lc om pl ex es ex po se d in th e co as ta lc lif fs so ut h of W ai - ki ek ie St re am ar e co rre la te d to in la nd ou tc ro ps at Lo ck ed G at e 24 0 m et er s 30 m 72 to five elementary channels. Clast-supported and matrix-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate are present at the base of each successive elementary channel within the axis, and correlate to amalgamation surfaces, and the base of sandstones within the inland outcrops. The underlying mass-transport deposit shows erosional planing by previous flows, followed by the deposition of a laminated fine-grained drape above the erosional surface (Figure 12, 13, 14, 15). Elementary channels are inferred to be ~1-1.3 km wide and approximately 0.5-1.5 meters thick. The upper composite channel is inferred to be deposited by four or five elementary channels. The base of the upper composite channel is marked by a 1.25 meter clast-supported conglomerate at South Waikiekie and traced to inland outcrops through facies analysis. Massive amalgamated sandstone beds at South Waikiekie become less amalgamated and show more variation within their sedimentary fill toward the inland outcrops. Elementary channels within the upper composite channel are inferred to be ~1- 1.3 km wide and 1.5-3.5 meters thick. The CC2 channel complex reflects deposition primarily by confined flows. High abundances of clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate at the base of CC2 represent large flows that eroded mud-rich strata up-dip, possibly from the underlying mass- transport deposit, with subsequent deposition by frictional freezing. Higher within the channel, flows were sand-rich with less mudstone-clast conglomerate. Width/thickness measurements for CC2 are inferred to reflect a 1.3 km wide channel that is approximately 25-30 meters thick (~43-52:1 aspect ratio) (Table 3). 73 Channel Complex 2A Channel complex 2A is present south of Waikiekie Stream, and bounds the CC2 margin to the north where it is truncated by erosion (Figure 15, 16, 17). Only the southern margin of CC2A is preserved. CC2A is analyzed from photo- panel correlations completed in the field. It is inferred that CC2A’s levee and overbank deposits are present south of the erosional margin. These deposits are described within one measured sedimentological profile collected along the coastal section. Erosional relief at the margin is approximately 25 meters. Channel fill of CC2A is represented by massive sandstone, mudstone-clast conglomerate, rafted mass-transport deposits, minor siltstone, and increasing thin-bedded sandstone up-section. Erosional scouring up to 1 meter is present within some beds, and subsequently filled by mudstone-clast conglomerate. Surfaces traced along coastal outcrops are laterally continuous to the truncated margin (Figure 15, 16, 17). Two composite channels are inferred within CC2A. The lower composite channel is filled by thick-bedded sandstone with minor erosional scours, and mudstone-clast conglomerate. Five elementary channels are present within the channel fill of the lower composite channel. Thickness of elementary channels is estimated between 0.5-2 meters. The upper composite channel is represented by three elementary channels, each with fining- and thinning-upward successions. Minor truncation of underlying strata is seen within the uppermost elementary channels, but without the presence of mudstone- clast conglomerate. Elementary channels are estimated between 1-3 meters thick. Channel complex 2A represents the first channel that formed after the en masse deposition of the Waikiekie mass-transport deposit. A large rafted block of deformed Fi gu re 1 6. P ho to -p an el a na ly sis o f o ut cr op e xp os ur es so ut h of fi gu re 1 5 sh ow in g co rre la tio ns o f c ha nn el c om pl ex 2 A . T he n or th er n m ar gi n of C C2 A is tr un ca te d by C C2 . M in or am ou nt s o f m ud st on e- cl as t c on gl om er at e ar e pr es en t w ith in e le m en ta ry ch an ne ls, a nd a bl oc k of m as s- tra ns po rt de po st is fo un d ne ar th e ba se . T he u pp er co m po sit e bo dy sh ow s t hi nn er b ed s a bo ve a th in si lts to ne . 74 C C 2 C C 2A N E (~ 10 o ) SW (~ 19 0o ) Ph ot o D ist or tio n M ap of lo ca lit y: So ut h of W ai ki ek ie St re am Ch an ne lc om pl ex es ex po se d in th e co as ta lc lif fs so ut h of W ai - ki ek ie St re am ar e co rre la te d to in la nd ou tc ro ps at Lo ck ed G at e 20 0 m et er s 30 mG ig aP an ph ot o of ch an ne lc om pl ex es in co as ta lc lif fs Le ge nd : Ch an ne lC om pl ex Co m po sit e Ch an ne l El em en ta ry Ch an ne l Ra pa nu iC on ta ct Fa ul t Co ng lo m er at e Sa nd sto ne Si lts to ne M as sT ra ns po rt Ra pa nu iF or m at io n N E (~ 10 o ) SW (~ 19 0o ) M ap of lo ca lit y: So ut h of W ai ki ek ie St re am Ch an ne lc om pl ex es ex po se d in th e co as ta lc lif fs so ut h of W ai - ki ek ie St re am ar e co rre la te d to in la nd ou tc ro ps at Lo ck ed G at e 20 0 m et er s G ig aP an ph ot o of ch an ne lc om pl ex es in co as ta lc lif fs Le ge nd : Ch an ne lC om pl ex Co m po sit e Ch an ne l El em en ta ry Ch an ne l Ra pa nu iC on ta ct Fa ul t Co ng lo m er at e Sa nd sto ne Si lts to ne M as sT ra ns po rt Ra pa nu iF or m at io n 30 m C C 2A C C 2A Le ve e Ph ot o D ist or tio n Fi gu re 17 .P ho to -p an el an al ys is of ou tc ro p ex po su re ss ou th of fig ur e 16 sh ow in g co rre la tio ns of ch an ne lc om pl ex 2A .T he m ar gi n of CC 2A re pr es en ts th e so ut he rn m os tc ha nn el w ith in th e LM M F. O ve rb an k an d le ve e de po sit sa re in te rp re te d to th e so ut h of th e ch an ne l m ar gi n an d de sc rib ed in on e m ea su re d se di m en to lo gi ca lp ro fil e. 75 76 mudstone present at the channel base is interpreted to reflect erosion of the underlying mass-transport deposit, followed by the deposition of sandstone-rich beds in two composite channels. Measurement of the channel’s width was not possible due to truncation of the northern channel margin. Channel Complex 3 Channel complex 3 is present from Tutapuha Stream to Locked Gate within inland outcrops, and along coastal outcrops north and south of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 2). Channel margins are present at Tutapuha Stream toward the north, and approximately 240 meters south of Waikiekie Stream. Erosional relief is approximately 20-25 meters. Analysis of CC3 was primarily through photo-panel analysis, although three measured sections represent the stratigraphy at Locked Gate and Tutapuha Stream. Correlation of CC3 between the inland outcrops and the coastal outcrops was accomplished using a number of methods. Photo-panel analysis of elementary channels and composite channels depict most of the architectural information, although the three measured sections provide insight about major surfaces. Reflecting upon the architecture of the other channels, and the spatial and temporal position of MTDs while walking out the inland and coastal stratigraphy also helped in the correlation. The identification of large erosional surfaces within the inland outcrops at Locked Gate show the channel down-cutting toward the coastal section, and a simple math equation shows the regional dip of 6-7 degrees at Waikiekie Stream places the channel within the coastal section (Figure 23). 77 Near vertical cliff faces at Locked Gate provide the best views of CC3 within the inland outcrops (Figure 18). These exposures are inferred to represent beds that were deposited near the margin or slightly off-margin, and toward the axis of the channel. Beds are less amalgamated, and show minor erosion with multiple fining-upward successions. The coastal section south of Waikiekie Stream represents the inferred axis of the channel. Erosional surfaces with 1 to 4 meters of localized relief into the underlying strata are filled by moderate amounts of mudstone-clast conglomerate (Figure 14). Less erosion is present above the base of the channel. Thick-bedded sandstone and conglomerate thin upward, and are overlain by a second interval of thick-bedded sandstone. Two composite channels are inferred for CC3, although event bed analysis may indicate a third. Changes in bed-character from the inland outcrops to the coastal section is interpreted to represent the transition from marginal to axial deposits. Inland outcrops at Locked Gate are filled by medium- to thick-bedded sandstone with fining- and thinning-upward packages (Figure 18). Multiple down-cutting erosional surfaces are present within the southern exposure, along with minor scours occurring laterally. Tracing most surfaces to the south within inland outcrops is not possible due to truncation from the overlying CC4 channel. Beds generally thicken and become more amalgamated toward the southern exposure at the Locked Gate locality. It is inferred that four elementary channels fill the lower composite channel within inland outcrops, and five along the coastal outcrops (Figure 14, 18). The additional channel present within the coastal outcrops is truncated by successive flows and is only present along the southern margin (Figure 14). Elementary channels within the lower AB C D E CC4 CC3 CC2 MTD CC3 CC4 CC3 Upper composite channel Lower composite channel 78 Figure 18. A) Photos of architectural elements in CC3 and CC4 at Locked Gate. B) Minor scour filled with mudstone-clast conglomerate. C) Correlation of architectural elements of CC3 to outcrops north of Locked Gate. D) Correlation of CC3 and CC4 to the margin at Tutapuha Stream where sandstone beds are seen pinching out to the east. 79 composite channel at Locked Gate show scours up to 1 meter or more, with multiple thinning-upward packages. The upper composite channel is also deposited by four elementary channels. The lowermost elementary channel is thick-bedded and thins to the north. The two overlying elementary channels are represented by successive thinning- upward packages of sandstone, and the uppermost elementary channel transitions back to a thick-bedded interval, which is subsequently truncated by the CC4 channel. Within coastal outcrops, beds are more amalgamated and erosional near the base of CC3. Truncation within beds is common, represented by three left stepping elementary channels (Figure 14). Beds become more planar up-section from the base. Tracing individual elementary channels along the coast was completed with decreasing confidence up-section due to the height of the cliffs. The lower composite channel is capped by a thinning-upward package of sandstone, and the upper composite is filled by thick-bedded, amalgamated sandstone. Elementary channels within the lower composite channel vary from 50 meters to ~1 km wide, and 1 to 5 meters thick. The smaller channel widths represent truncated channel remnants that are 50 to 150 meters wide, and 1 to 5 meters thick. Truncated channel remnants are present at the base of the channel complex and only within the axis. Elementary channels within the upper composite channel are ~800 meters to 1.3 km wide, and 3 to 6 meters thick. Width/thickness measurements for CC3 represent a ~1.3 km wide channel that is approximately 20-25 meters thick (~52-65:1 aspect ratio) (Table 3). 80 Channel Complex 4 Channel complex 4 is present from Tutapuha Stream to Locked Gate within inland outcrops, and south of Waikiekie Stream in coastal outcrops. The channel margins are present at Tutapuha Stream to the north and approximately 100 meters south of Waikiekie Stream. Erosional relief is approximately 20-25 meters. CC4 erodes into the underlying CC3 channel within the outcrops at Locked Gate. Analysis for CC4 was completed primarily from photo-panel analysis, although three measured sections reflect the stratigraphy at Locked Gate and Tutapuha Stream. Correlation of CC4 from the inland outcrops to the coastal outcrops followed similar methodology explained for CC3. The best exposures of CC4 are within cliff faces at Locked Gate, and south of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 14, 18, 19). Inland exposures are interpreted to represent beds that were deposited slightly off-margin, and toward the axis of the channel. A large erosional surface truncates approximately 10 to 15 meters of underlying strata within the CC3 channel at Locked Gate. Beds dip steeply and onlap this interval, becoming more horizontal away from the margin (Figure 18). The channel fill of CC4 shows less thick- bedded sandstone than the underlying channel complexes. Minor intervals of mudstone- clast conglomerate are present within the basal erosional section, and increasing amounts of bioturbated sandstone are found up-section. Within the coastal exposures, similar abundances of mudstone-clast conglomerate are seen at the base of the channel. An interval of convoluted and slightly deformed mudstone present up-section is correlated to the inland outcrops immediately south of Locked Gate (Figure 14, 19). Outcrop character 81 and lithologies present within the two exposures are similar, although more deformation is seen within the coastal section. Two composite channels are inferred to fill CC4 (Figure 14, 19). The lower composite channel is characterized by moderate erosion and the presence of mudstone- clast conglomerate at the base. Eight elementary channels are inferred for the lower composite channel with minor erosion and wavy or inclined contacts (Figure 14, 19). Width measurements of the elementary channels are difficult to determine due to the inability to walk out beds. Width estimates are inferred to be approximately 500 meters, and thicknesses range from 0.5 to 2.5 meters. The upper composite channel is characterized by an increase in grain size and bed thickness at its base. Above a thick-bedded sandstone, higher abundances of convoluted mudstone and minor scouring correlate to the mudstone-rich interval within the coastal outcrops (Figure 14, 19). Up-section, fewer scours and increasing amounts of thin-bedded sandstone are present. At least five elementary channels are interpreted to fill the upper composite channel within CC4. Widths for elementary channels are likely 800 meters to 1.1 km, larger than those within the lower composite. As flows became partially confined above the major erosional surface, they were able to expand. This is represented by correlated sandstones within the channel margin at Tutapuha. Thickness of elementary channels within the upper composite channel range from 25 centimeters to 5 or more meters. Channel complex 4 represents the uppermost erosional channel within the LMMF. It has characteristically different sedimentary fill, which will be discussed in the AB C D E CC3 CC4 Sandstone dominated MTD CC4 CC3 CC4 82 CC2 Figure 19. A) Major erosional surface of CC4 truncating the underlying CC3 channel fill south of Locked Gate. B) Folded and deformed sandstone-rich MTD at Locked Gate. It is inferred that the mass-transport deposit is cannibalized by CC3. C) Mudstone-rich unit south of Locked Gate correlated to the coastal section south of Waikiekie Stream. D) Elementary channels within the lower interval of CC4. E) Coastal exposures at South Waikiekie reflecting the correlated stratigraphy of CC4 83 next chapter. Flows were likely less frequent and carried less sediment to the basin. Width/thickness measurements for CC4 reflect a 1.1 km wide channel that is approximately 29 meters thick (~38:1 aspect ratio) (Table 3). Wedgeforms/Levees Wedgeforms or levees are depositional packages adjacent to channel complexes. They are characterized by thinning- and fining-upward deposits that record channel development and overbank deposition from the overspill of channelized turbidity currents and other subaqueous flows (Clark and Pickering, 1996). Within the study area, two exposed wedgeform or levee deposits are inferred. The first is present above CC1A, north and adjacent to CC1B. The second bounds CC2A south of Waikiekie Stream. Beds are traced approximately 1000 meters outside the channel margins representing partially confined flows with planar beds and minor scours. Levee deposits adjacent to CC1B are exposed north of Warekarianga Stream and overlie the CC1A complex. Medium- to thin-bedded deposits of siltstone, sandstone, and minor amounts of volcaniclastics are common. Sandstone thickness decreases up-section. Exposures are limited due to high vegetation cover. It is inferred that the levee deposits bounding CC1B are at least 750 to 1000 meters wide, and 25 to 30 meters thick. The levee deposits adjacent to CC2A are exposed approximately 750 meters south of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 17). Sandstone deposits within the levee’s basal interval are medium- to thick-bedded. Bed thickness progressively thins up-section with increasing siltstone, followed by subsequent deposition of two more sandstone dominated intervals. 84 A . St ra tig ra ph ic co m pa ri so n of ch an ne lb od ie sa nd w id th /th ic kn es sm ea su re m en ts to th e2 00 7 G N S st ud y St ra tig ra ph ic In te rv al St ra tig ra ph ic C om pa ri so n G N S, 20 07 C ha nn el D im en sio ns Th is St ud y (P er pe nd ic ul ar to Pa le of lo w ) CC 1A N ot stu di ed by G N S N /A ~1 .3 km W id e, ~2 5 m Th ic k: no m ar gi n CC 1B G N S C1 C1 :~ 37 0 m W id e, >2 7 m Th ic k ~1 km W id e, ~ >2 7 m Th ic k: on e m ar gi n CC 2A G N S C6 C2 :> 60 0 m W id e, >1 5 m Th ic k >3 00 m W id e, >2 5 m Th ic k: on e m ar gi n CC 2 G N S C2 ,C 5 C3 :> 12 5 m W id e, ~2 0 m Th ic k ~1 .3 km W id e, ~ 20 -2 5 m Th ic k: tw o m ar gi ns CC 3 G N S C3 ,C 5 C4 :> 12 5 m W id e, ~2 8 m Th ic k ~1 .3 km W id e, ~ 20 -2 5 m Th ic k: tw o m ar gi ns CC 4 G N S C4 C5 :> 35 0 m W id e, >2 5 m Th ic k ~1 .1 km W id e, ~ 29 m Th ic k: tw o m ar gi ns C6 :> 30 0 m W id e, >2 5 m Th ic k B. A sp ec tr at io co m pa ri so n of ch an ne lb od ie st o th e2 00 7 G N S st ud y G N S, 20 07 C ha nn el A sp ec tR at io Th is St ud y C ha nn el A sp ec tR at io C1 O nl y on e m ar gi n CC 1A ~5 2: 1 or m or e C2 Es tim at ed 40 :1 CC 1B ~3 7: 1 or le ss C3 N o m ar gi ns CC 2A N o m ar gi n to th e no rth C4 N o rig ht m ar gi n CC 2 ~5 2: 1 to 65 :1 C5 Es tim at ed 17 :1 CC 3 ~5 2: 1 to 65 :1 C6 N o le ft m ar gi n, to p or ba se CC 4 ~3 8: 1 T ab le 3. A )C om pa ris on of ch an ne lc om pl ex es to th e 20 07 G N S stu dy sh ow in g ch an ne lw id th an d th ic kn es sm ea su re m en ts. B) A sp ec tr at io ca lc ul at io ns fro m th is stu dy co m pa re d to th e 20 07 G N S stu dy . 85 Minor scours filled by mudstone-clast conglomerate are seen within each sandstone dominated interval. The lowermost sandstone dominated interval is 12 meters thick, and is overlain by a 1.9 meter thick siltstone with thin-bedded sandstone. Sandstone beds within the lower interval are up to 2 meters thick. The second sandstone dominated interval is 4.5 meters thick with sandstone beds up to 75 centimeters thick. Thin-bedded sandstone with increasing amounts of bioturbated siltstone are present above the second sandstone interval. Thin beds of volcaniclastic sandstone and bioclastic shell debris increase in abundance up-section, although overall abundance is low. Siltstone-rich deposits above the second sandstone-rich interval are approximately 15 meters thick. The uppermost sandstone-rich interval is approximately 3 meters thick. This interval reflects the deposition of one sandstone bed that is 1 meter thick with minor erosion, overlain by thinning sandstone beds up to 30 centimeters thick. Minor amounts of thin-bedded sandstone are present up-section within this interval. Siltstone is the predominate lithology in the upper 15 meters. It is inferred that the levee deposits bounding CC2A are at least 1 km wide and 50 meters thick. Deposition was by partially confined flows. Deposits near the base are interpreted to represent higher flow velocities required for deposition. Sandstone abundance decreases up-section representing waning flow velocities. Three fining- and thinning-upward sandstone-rich intervals are present within the levee, separated by siltstone dominated deposits. 86 Drapes Drapes are characterized by laterally extensive fine-grained deposits at the base of channel complexes. They are generally composed of finely laminated siltstone with minor sandstone, and represent the initial sediments deposited above erosional channel contacts before subsequent sand-rich flows were initiated. Two drapes are seen within the study area. The first is present below CC1A at Warekarianga Stream. Laminated siltstone approximately 50 centimeters thick shows inclined bedding parallel to the erosional margin. It is traced approximately 100 meters to the south where it continues into the subsurface. The second drape seen within the study area is present at the base of CC2 and overlies the Waikiekie Stream MTD. A minor abundance of mudstone-clast conglomerate at the base of the drape represents erosion into the underlying strata, and finely laminated siltstone and sandstone are present above. The 50 to 60 centimeter drape is traced from coastal outcrops north and south of Waikiekie Stream to inland outcrops at Tutapuha Stream. Laminated Thin Beds Laminated thin beds are present above and below the channel belt. Deposition is inferred to represent unconfined slope-fan deposits that are calcareous-rich with minor amounts of sandstone. Three sections were measured south of the channel belt within mudstone-rich laminated thin beds, and four were measured between Locked Gate and Tutapuha Stream. Laminated thin beds are commonly siltstone-rich and highly bioturbated. Sandstone beds found in laminated thin bedded intervals average 5 87 centimeters thick, although a low abundance of medium-bedded sandstones up to 70 centimeters thick were seen. Bioturbated siltstone represents between 40-70% of the deposits within these intervals. 88 STRATIGRAPHIC EVOLUTION DISCUSSION Stratigraphic Variation within Channel Complexes Channel Complex 1A Sedimentary Facies The channel fill of CC1A is characterized by approximately 25 meters of thick-bedded sandstone with moderate amounts of erosion. The axis of the channel at Gibb’s Hill shows the highest amounts of erosion within CC1A, indicated by a high abundance of matrix and clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate above numerous erosional surfaces. The overbank of CC1A is inferred north of Waikiekie Stream where increasing amounts of thick-bedded plane-parallel laminated sandstone and climbing ripple cross-laminations are present within the exposure. Sedimentary facies proportions for CC1A are shown in figure 20, and a cross-section for the channel from correlated sedimentological profiles is shown in figure 21. The base of CC1A at Gibb’s Hill is filled with thick-bedded structureless sandstone and cross-stratified sandstone above a 70 centimeter matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate. Four meters above the base of the channel, numerous erosional surfaces are filled with clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate up to 55 centimeters thick (Figure 21). Minor amounts of structureless and convoluted sandstone are present above the mudstone-clast conglomerates. A large rotated and rafted block of sandstone and siltstone is also present in this interval. Up-section, increasing amounts of plane-parallel laminated sandstone fill the channel. Minor erosional scours, and an Sedimentary Facies Distributions Across Channel-Belt in the Mount Messenger FormationStratigraphic Interval Channel Complex 1B Mudstone dominated interval above Channel Complex 1B/ Waikiekie Stream MTD Channel Complex 2 Volcaniclastic interval below Channel Complex 1B and Mudstone dominated interval above Channel Complex 1A Channel Complex 1A Top of Thin Bedded Element 1 Channel Complex 3 Channel Complex 4 Thin Bed Element 3 CC2A Levee / Overbank Overbank - Mudstone Dominated Margin AxialMargin - Off-Axis 2.00% 1.53% 2.62% 6.38% 13.99% 2.23% 0.35% 2.02%7.78% 61.11% 4A 7B 7C 9A 9C 10B 11B 13 14A 14B Facies Proportions: Tutapuha East Measured Section; Muddy (MTD at Waik. Stream) (6.07 meters measured) 57.18% 34.43% 4.73% 3.66% 4A 5 6A 7B Facies Proportions: Tutapuha East Measured Section; Lower Margin CC2 (1.64 meters measured) 5.25% 33.07% 9.48% 4.54% 26.44% 11.79% 3.03% 6.41% 1B 3A 3B 4A 4C 5 6A 9C Facies Proportions: Tutapuha Measured Section; 2.76 meters measured; Base CC2 Margin-Axis 11.77% 5.03% 77.58% 4.95% 0.68% 2 3A 4A 5 6A Facies Proportions: Tutapuha North Measured Section; 15.73 meters measured; Base CC1B Margin-Axis/No Cover 88.92% 11.08% 4A 9C Facies Proportions: Tutapuha East Measured Section; Upper Margin of CC1B (6.26 meters measured) 2.36% 17.13% 56.72% 4.90% 0.59% 10.41% 1.42% 0.20% 0.33% 0.67% 1.03% 0.12% 0.27% 2.17% 0.43% 0.43% 0.58% 0.22% 1B 3A 4A 4B 4C 5 6A 7B 7C 8B 8C 9A 9B 9C 10B 14A 15 Cover Facies Proportions: Tutapuha South Measured Section; CC1B Channel Off Axis (25.77 meters measured) 1.98% 1.45% 7.38% 17.47% 1.79% 9.12% 4.10% 49.57% 1.30% 5.84% 4A 6A 9A 9C 10B 13 14A 14B 15 Cover Facies Proportions: Tutapuha South Measured Section; Mudstone Interval (Waikiekie MTD); (5.15 meters measured) 10.24% 48.81% 6.25% 5.05% 10.17% 3.80% 3.31% 1.96% 5.39% 3.99% 1.02% 3A 4A 4B 4C 5 6A 7A 7C 8A 9A 9C Facies Proportions: Tutapuha South Measured Section; CC2 Channel Off Axis (6.66 meters measured) 2.67% 8.57% 17.86% 0.65% 40.10% 15.46% 14.70% 4A 5 7C 9C 11A 15 16 Facies Proportions: Warekarianga Measured Section; Mudstone Volcanic Interval; (5.74 meters measured) 1.69% 0.89% 28.58% 36.03% 0.44% 8.70% 4.80% 0.87% 4.26% 0.43% 8.78% 0.19% 0.36% 3.99% 1B 2 3A 4A 4B 4C 5 9A 9C 14A 14B 15 16 Cover Facies Proportions: Warekarianga Measured Section; CC1B Margin (24.16 meters measured) 37.33% 3.24% 1.63% 5.09% 3.13% 10.09% 17.58% 5.26% 0.28% 0.68% 6.79% 4.21% 4.70% 4A 5 6A 6B 7C 9A 9C 10A 11A 14A 14B 15 16 Facies Proportions: Warekarianga North Measured Section; CC1B Margin (13.6 meters measured) 4.37% 43.91% 14.88% 32.36% 4.47% 4A 9C 14A 14B 15 Facies Proportions: Gibb's Hill Measured Section; 1.2 meters measured; Mud Below CC1A 14.25% 6.01% 16.83% 28.88% 3.17% 1.83% 21.13% 0.54% 7.34% 1A 1B 3A 4A 4B 4C 5 6A 9C Facies Proportions: Gibb's Hill Measured Section; 16.8 meters measured; CC1A Axis 8.51% 67.28% 1.11% 2.40% 3.33% 6.63% 7.22% 3.51% 3A 4A 4C 5 7C 9A 9C 10B Facies Proportions: Locked Gate Measured Section; 5.52 meters measured; CC1B Axis/Off-Axis 3.52% 1.11% 8.03% 72.34% 13.10% 1.31% 0.40% 0.18% 1A 1B 3A 4A 4C 5 6A 13 Facies Proportions: Locked Gate Measured Section; 12.44 meters measured; CC2 Off-Axis 6.67% 24.85% 2.59% 4.56% 6.36% 27.67% 6.24% 10.06% 1.39% 9.62% 1B 2 3A 3B 4A 5 6A 6B 9C 12 Facies Proportions: Locked Gate Measured Section; 15.35 meters measured; CC3 Margin & MTD 14.66% 37.09% 20.12% 14.36% 3.98% 7.82% 1.97% 1B 4A 4B 5 6A 6B 9C Facies Proportions: Locked Gate Measured Section; 5.09 meters measured; CC4 Margin 6.65% 14.42% 25.57% 5.41% 10.94% 0.90% 17.09% 4.32% 11.62% 2.33% 0.75% 1A 1B 3A 3B 4A 4B 5 6A 6B 9B 14B Facies Proportions: Locked Gate South Measured Section; Upper CC2 Axis; (5.41 meters measured) 6.84% 13.45% 1.07% 41.73%1.86% 0.89% 0.36% 33.80% 1B 3A 3B 5 6A 9C 10A 12 Facies Proportions: Locked Gate South Measured Section; CC3 Margin & MTD (7.39 meters measured) 2.18% 8.04% 2.09% 2.42% 15.30% 5.24% 18.77% 1.76%3.00%0.53% 0.74% 0.23% 2.23% 0.35% 33.06% 3.83% 0.22% 1B 2 3A 3B 4A 4B 5 6A 6B 7B 7C 9A 9C 13 14A 14B 15 Facies Proportions: Locked Gate South Measured Section; CC4 Margin; (29.83 meters measured) 6.75% 5.73% 16.46% 2.82% 0.84% 10.16% 29.15% 0.27% 27.83% 4A 5 9C 11B 13 14A 14B 15 Cover Facies Proportions: Locked Gate South Measured Section; Mudstone Above CC4 (10.03 meters measured) 0.17% 1.22% 22.97% 1.10% 13.49% 1.26%5.48% 1.64% 9.03% 43.65% 1B 3B 4A 4B 5 6A 7C 13 14A 14B Facies Proportions: Locke Gate Upper Measured Section; Mudstone Interval Above CC4 (7.03 meters measured) 31.04% 0.88% 12.39% 0.67% 1.37% 13.05% 40.60% 4A 5 9C 10A 13 14A 14B Facies Proportions: Locked Upper Measured Section; Mudstone Interval Above CC4 (12.03 meters measured) 1.60% 3.28% 14.32% 0.71% 41.00% 2.94% 2.22% 4.31%1.01% 0.83% 3.74% 0.28% 0.66% 8.00% 2.29% 12.82% 1B 2 3A 3B 4A 4B 4C 5 6A 6B 7C 9A 9B 9C 10B Cover Facies Proportions: Mackenzie Ridge Measured Section; CC1A Off Axis (23.48 meters measured) 14.11% 0.13% 3.34% 0.26% 1.43% 1.97% 38.71% 3.36% 2.97% 0.21% 0.59% 1.55% 21.17% 0.93% 9.25% 4A 5 7C 8C 9A 9B 9C 10A 10B 11B 13 14A 14B 15 Cover Facies Proportions: Mackenzie Ridge Measured Section; Mudstone above CC1A (37.25 meters measured) 0.45% 8.37% 13.92% 34.19% 6.59% 14.35% 1.83% 0.30% 0.85% 0.13% 6.31% 2.01% 3.05% 0.76% 0.87% 4.74% 0.56% 0.71% 1B 2 3A 4A 4C 5 6A 6B 7B 7C 9C 11B 12 13 14A 14B 15 16 Facies Proportions: North Waikiekie Measured Section; CC1B Off Axis (18.03 meters measured) 4.09% 19.28% 24.18% 5.21% 0.50% 4.57% 26.70% 9.16% 4.93% 1.20% 0.17% 3B 4A 5 7A 7B 7C 8A 9C 10B 11B 15 Facies Proportions: North Waikiekie Fault Measured Section; CC1B Axis (7.17 meters measured) 1.05% 38.69% 7.79% 8.37% 22.97% 1.05% 8.45% 0.11% 0.24% 7.87% 0.28% 2.36% 0.69%0.07% 1B 3A 4A 4B 5 6A 6B 7C 8B 9C 12 13 14A 15 Facies Proportions: North Waikiekie North Measured Section; CC1A Margin to Overbank (26.45 meters measured) 10.74% 4.78% 2.86% 3.70% 72.13% 1.05% 3.29% 0.29% 0.39% 0.76% 1A 1B 2 3A 4A 5 10A 11B 12 13 Facies Proportions: South Waikiekie Measured Section; CC2 Axis (18.03 meters measured) 0.98% 15.07% 11.01% 0.13% 4.25% 3.79% 0.23% 0.04% 0.39% 1.03% 0.22% 10.71% 0.15% 0.19%1.06% 1.32% 4.33% 42.20% 0.58% 2.33% 1B 3A 4A 4B 4C 5 6A 7C 8B 9A 9B 9C 10A 11A 11B 13 14A 14B 15 16 Facies Proportions: South Waikiekie South Measured Section; Outside Channel Margins (52.7 meters measured) 5.58% 1.03% 0.71% 1.38% 2.43% 0.41% 1.92% 1.37% 0.86% 2.81% 9.90% 71.54% 0.07% 4A 4B 5 6A 8A 9A 9B 9C 11A 13 14A 14B 15 Facies Proportions: Tehoro Beach Measured Section; Mudstone Above CC4 to MTD (14.3 meters measured) 5.28% 2.50% 1.68% 11.80% 1.21% 3.86% 58.56% 0.04% 15.08% 4A 5 6A 9C 13 14A 14B 15 Cover Facies Proportions: Tehoro Valley Measured Section; Mudstone Interval Above CC4 (36.04 meters measured) 1.39% 0.67%0.83% 2.92% 92.66% 0.46% 1.07% 4A 5 13 14A 14B 15 16 Facies Proportions: Tehoro Valley Overlap Measured Section; Mudstone Interval Above CC4 (7.5 meters measured) 14.62% 0.38% 11.64% 6.88% 0.92% 18.35% 47.21% 4A 5 9C 11B 13 14A 14B Facies Proportions: Tutapuha Measured Section; Mudstone Above CC2 (4.96 meters measured) 0.77% 7.41% 0.97% 24.61% 4.91% 21.86%1.60% 0.55% 1.04% 0.32% 0.58% 21.64% 10.85% 2.91% 1B 2 3B 4A 4B 5 6A 9A 9B 9C 13 14A 14B Cover Facies Proportions: Tutapuha Measured Section; Overbank to Margin CC3/CC4 (27.73 meters measured) 6.86% 85.81% 7.33% 14A 14B Cover Facies Proportions: Tutapuha Measured Section; Mudstone Interval Above CC4 (6.9 meters measured) 3.96% 11.54% 1.52% 10.65% 0.50% 0.87% 23.17% 0.88%1.07% 0.98% 29.63% 0.10% 13.89% 1.23% 3A 4A 4B 5 6A 7C 9C 10A 10B 11B 12 14A 14B 15 Facies Proportions: Locked Gate Measured Section; 10.95 meters measured; Waikiekie Stream MTD 2.17% 20.14% 2.60% 7.73% 0.36% 1.59% 8.12% 24.40% 31.59% 1.30% 4A 9C 10A 10B 11A 13 14B 15 16 Cover Facies Proportions: Tutapuha North Measured Section; 5.27 meters measured; (Muddy, Volcanics below CC1B) 5.10% 37.90% 3.68% 4.21% 1.14% 9.96% 5.61% 22.30% 0.35% 8.91% 0.07% 0.77% 3A 4A 5 9A 9C 10A 10B 11A 14B 15 16 Cover Facies Proportions: Warekarianga North Measured Section; Mudstone Volcanic Interval; (10.7 meters measured) 89 Figure 20. Sedimentary facies proportions calculated for each measured sedimentological profile across the LMMF. Documented within the chart are each lithostratigraphic interval described in figure 3. Sedimentological profiles were spatially positioned to reflect changes from the axis to the margin of channel complexes. Fi gu re 21 .C ro ss -s ec tio n of CC 1A sh ow in g m ea su re d se di m en to lo gi ca lp ro fil es w ith ev en tb ed co rre la tio ns be tw ee n lo ca lit ie s. 90 G ib b’ sH ill M ac ke nz ie R id ge N or th W ai ki ek ie D at um :T op of N or th W ai ki ek ie M TD N E (~ 50 o ) SW (~ 23 0o ) 2 km N =1 5 Av er ag eP al eo flo w 010 515 M et er ag e C ha nn el C om pl ex C C 1A M ea n Ve ct or :3 27 .7 o A xi al O ff- A xi s M ar gi n- O ve rb an k Ev en t b ed co rre la tio n Co rre la tio n of sim ila r f ac ie s h or iz on s 91 overall fining- and thinning-upward trend occur approximately 12.5 meters from the base of the channel, followed by a thickening-upward trend of structureless sandstone. Within the Mackenzie Ridge section, fining- and thinning-upward trends of structureless sandstone are capped by plane-parallel laminated sandstone and ripple cross-laminated to convoluted sandstone (Figure 21). They reflect the deposits of a nearly complete idealized Bouma sequence (Figure 5). Massive sandstones become more prevalent away from the base. Small scours are filled by matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate and minor amounts of convoluted bedding. Approximately 9 meters above the base of the section, a thick-bedded sandstone with cross-stratified facies marks the start of a fining- and thinning-upward succession. Increasing amounts of siltstone and thin-bedded sandstone with ripple cross-laminated bed tops are present within a two meter thick interval above the massive bed. The overlying beds thicken and are filled by cross-stratified sandstone with ripple cross-laminated bed tops, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, and wavy-laminated to convoluted sandstone with minor amounts of siltstone. Increasing amounts of siltstone and silty sandstone are present up-section toward the top of the channel. The upper interval reflects three fining- and thinning-upward trends, marked at their base by massive structureless sandstones, each approximately 80-140 centimeters thick (Figure 21). Along the coastal section, thick-bedded sandstones dominate the succession. The base is filled by plane-parallel laminated sandstone with minor amounts of matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate and shell debris (Figure 21). Up-section increasing amounts of cross-stratified sandstone and plane-parallel laminated sandstone 92 are present. Approximately 6.5 meters from the base, a localized interval of centimeter- scale floating mudstone-clasts is present, with increasing wavy-laminated to convoluted bedding above. The interval is capped by a 13 centimeter plane-parallel laminated sandstone. Thick-bedded cross-stratified sandstone increases up-section to thick-bedded climbing ripple cross-laminations approximately 14 meters from the base (Figure 21). Four packages of climbing ripple cross-laminations are documented, commonly occurring with plane-parallel laminated sandstone. Above the climbing ripple cross- laminated sandstone succession, increasing amounts of convoluted to wavy-laminated sandstone represent the upper five meters of the channel. Paleoflow Analysis Paleoflow analysis for CC1A was documented from the axis of the channel at Gibb’s Hill and the overbank of the channel north of Waikiekie Stream. Fifteen measurements were acquired. Two flame structures present at the Gibb’s Hill locality indicate flows were directed 315° and 321°, and two climbing ripple measurements indicate flows were directed 330° and 340°. Within the overbank deposits north of Waikiekie Stream, climbing ripple measurements range from 323° to 339°. The mean vector for paleoflow is 327.7°, or to the northwest. Event Bed Thickness Analysis Event bed analysis of CC1A reflects the presence of two or three distinct thickening-thinning trends (Figure 22). At Gibb’s Hill, these packages reflect thinning-upward successions, with the lower being approximately 10 meters thick. The upper succession is represented by two ~1.25-2.25 meter event beds 93 with thin beds above. Three event beds near the top of the outcrop exposure show a slight thickening-upward trend (Figure 22). At Mackenzie Ridge, the lower package shows a thickening-upward trend. The lower package at Mackenzie Ridge is also approximately 10 meters thick and marked at the top by two events beds almost 1 meter thick. Above these beds a 2.8 meter event bed with a thin-bedded interval above is correlated to the base of the upper interval at Gibb’s Hill (Figure 22). Event beds show a second thickening-upward trend followed by beds that thin near the top of the channel. The uppermost event bed thickens to almost 1.5 meters. Correlating the channel to the outcrops north of Waikiekie Stream was partially completed through event bed analysis. The exposures north of Waikiekie Stream reflect two thickening-thinning packages. Event beds present in this locality likely represent a more complete analysis of the flows that were responsible for the deposition of CC1A due to less erosion and preservation outside the margin of the channel. The lower package thickens upward to a 1.5 meter event bed followed by a thinning trend above (Figure 22). The lower package is 8.5 meters thick, likely representing the same correlation within the inland outcrops. The second package is marked by a slight upward thickening trend at its base to a 2.25 meter thick event bed that is inferred to be the same bed that marks the base of the upper trend in the inland outcrops (Figure 22). Above this bed, the overlying package show a thinning-upward trend to the top of the outcrop exposure. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 16.87 16.42 15.68 15.03 14.45 14.15 13.90 13.64 9.85 8.06 6.27 3.25 Event Bed Thickness CC1A Axis Gibb's Hill M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 22.10 20.52 17.45 17.23 14.92 13.50 12.97 12.74 12.53 6.29 2.72 0.07 Event Bed Thickness CC1A Off Axis Mackenzie Ridge M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 25.18 24.81 24.10 23.63 22.24 20.98 19.00 14.44 8.50 7.23 3.27 0.63 Event Bed Thickness CC1A Overbank NWK North M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 94 Figure 22. Event bed analysis for CC1A showing correlations between each locality where sedimentological profles were measured. Event beds reflect beds deposited by individual subaqueous flow events. 95 Flow Transformations Sedimentary facies within CC1A’s channel fill show minor flow transformations. The base of the channel is dominated by thick-bedded sandstones at each locality. Cross-stratified sandstone is prevalent near the inferred channel axis, and plane-parallel laminated beds are common within the margin to overbank deposits. The Mackenzie Ridge section, inferred to be off-axis and toward the margin reflects higher abundances of ripple cross-laminated sandstone, structureless sandstone, and plane- parallel laminated sandstone. It is inferred that the lower interval was deposited by high- density turbidity currents within the axis of the channel that transformed to low-density turbidity currents along the margin and overbank of the channel, depositing beds with sedimentary facies that reflect lower flow velocities. The second interval in CC1A is dominated by a high-density of erosional scours and mudstone-clast conglomerate within the interpreted channel axis, and plane-parallel laminated sandstone and cross-stratified sandstone within the channel margin to overbank. The Mackenzie Ridge section is characterized by beds dominated by structureless sandstone and horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone. It is inferred that the second interval was deposited by hyperconcentrated density flows and low-density turbidity currents within the axis of the channel reflected by the high abundance of clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate, the rafting of a sandstone block, and minor amounts of convoluted bedding. The low-density flows deposited plane-parallel laminated sandstone above mudstone-clast conglomerate, and may have been associated with a flow transformation up-dip. Laterally, the margin and overbank deposits were likely deposited by high-density and low-density turbidity currents, 96 evidenced by structureless sandstone, horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone, cross-stratified sandstone, and plane-parallel laminated sandstone. As flows became less confined near the margin and overbank, flow velocity decreased and deposited beds with characteristically different facies. The upper interval within CC1A is represented by bed-thickening successions south of the interpreted channel axis. Beds within the coastal section, and Mackenzie Ridge locality are dominated by cross-stratified sandstone. The Gibb’s Hill locality is dominated by structureless sandstone, minor amounts of convoluted bedding, and thick packages of interbedded sandstone and siltstone. The first occurrences of climbing ripple cross-laminated sandstone are present within the coastal section, and correlate to structureless sandstone and siltstone to the north. Up-section, cross-stratified sandstone fills the channel to the top of the exposure. It is inferred that sediment deposition migrated to the south away from the underlying axis of sedimentation. Deposition was likely from high-density turbidity currents evidenced by the high abundance of cross-stratified sandstone, and from low- density turbidity currents inferred by the presence of climbing ripple cross-laminations and thinner-bedded sandstones and siltstone to the north. Channel Complex 1B Sedimentary Facies The channel fill for CC1B represents the deposition of approximately 27 meters of sandstone dominated sediments. At the margin, thick-bedded sandstones are capped by thin-bedded siltstone. Away from the margin, massive 97 amalgamated and thick-bedded sandstone is prevalent. Sedimentary facies proportions for CC1B are shown in figure 20, and a cross-section for the channel from correlated sedimentological profiles is shown in figure 23. Two sections measured along the margin at Warekarianga Stream indicate the presence of a variety of sedimentary facies. The most marginal section is represented by thin- to medium-bedded plane-parallel laminated sandstone and climbing ripple cross- laminated sandstone. Minor amounts of structureless sandstone and volcaniclastic sandstone are also present. Beds increase in thickness up-section and are filled with structureless sandstone (Figure 23). Siltstone dominated sediments and moderate amounts of volcaniclastic sandstone fill the channel approximately 8 meters above the base. Medium-bedded structureless sandstone and siltstone are present at the top of the section. Immediately to the south, the second measured profile is characterized by thick- bedded sandstone that is deposited in horizontal beds (Figure 23). Plane-parallel laminated sandstone, cross-stratified sandstone, and structureless sandstone are present at the base. Increasing amounts of cross-stratified sandstone, and minor amounts of plane- parallel laminated sandstone, horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone, and massive sandstone with floating mudstone-clasts are present up-section to 8 meters above the channel base. Above this interval, massive sandstone with floating mudstone-clasts is more prevalent. Beds are medium- to thick-bedded and separated by siltstone partings. Plane-parallel laminated sandstone in beds up to 20 centimeters, structureless sandstone, and cross-stratified sandstone are also present, but in lower abundances than below. One 30 centimeter matrix supported conglomerate fills the channel approximately 12 meters Fi gu re 23 .C ro ss -s ec tio n of CC 1B sh ow in g m ea su re d se di m en to lo gi ca lp ro fil es w ith ev en tb ed co rre la tio ns be tw ee n lo ca lit ie s. 98 W ar ek ar ia ng a St re am Tu ta pu ha St re am Lo ck ed G at e N or th W ai ki ek ie D at um :B as e of W ai ki ek ie St re am M TD N E (~ 50 o ) SW (~ 23 0o ) 1 km N =1 0 Av er ag eP al eo flo w M ea n Ve ct or :3 16 .7 o 010 515 M et er ag e C ha nn el C om pl ex C C 1B M ar gi n -O ve rb an k M ar gi n A xi al O ff- A xi s Ev en tb ed co rre la tio n Co rre la tio n of sim ila r f ac ie s h or iz on s 99 above the channel base within an erosional scour (Figure 23). Medium- to thick-bedded structureless sandstone and bioturbated siltstone are most prevalent within the upper 8 meters of the channel. Further to south at Tutapuha Stream, sandstones near the base are massive and amalgamated. The basal interval of the channel shows an approximately 5 meter succession of sandstone with a slight fining-upward trend. This succession is filled by structureless sandstone, cross-stratified sandstone, horizontally-stratified or spaced- stratified sandstone, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, and ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Figure 23). Increasing variation is seen laterally above a massive-bedded cross-stratified sandstone. The lowermost interval shows minor erosion at its base. A small scour is filled with matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate 22 centimeters thick. Floating mudstone-clasts, convoluted bedding, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, ripple cross-laminated sandstone, and siltstone are present above, reflecting a fining- and thinning-upward trend two meters thick. A thickening-upward succession dominated by structureless sandstone and minor dewatering structures is deposited above the lower interval (Figure 23). A 30 centimeter scour truncates the underlying bed approximately 14 meters within the section. Thick-bedded sandstones capped by thin siltstones increase in abundance up-section. Minor amounts of volcaniclastic sandstone is deposited at the base of multiple beds above the erosional scour. Mudstone-clasts present at bed tops also become more common. Beds show minor variation internally, with structureless sandstone most prevalent, and cross-stratified sandstone and plane-parallel laminated 100 sandstone present in lower abundances. The massive-bedded interval is approximately 15 meters thick, capped by a 10 centimeter erosional scour at the top of the channel. Along the coastal section, two measured profiles represent the correlation to inland outcrops. The first profile shows similar facies trends to those seen at Tutapuha Stream and Warekarianga Stream. Medium- to thick-bedded structureless sandstone, horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone, and cross-stratified sandstone fill the channel near the base of the section, although minor abundances of plane-parallel laminated sandstone, ripple cross-laminated sandstone, and siltstone are also present (Figure 23). Volcaniclastic mineral crystals, mudstone-clasts at bed tops, and calcareous debris were also seen within the channel fill. Small erosional scours are filled by ~5 centimeters of mudstone-clast conglomerate. Beds generally decrease in thickness toward the top of the channel, with plane-parallel laminated sandstone and structureless sandstone becoming more abundant. Asymmetric ripple cross-laminations are found at the top of multiple beds within this interval. The upper 5 meters of the channel is characterized by a minor thickening-thinning trend with plane-parallel laminated beds most abundant, and an increasing amount of calcareous facies. Laterally within the coastal outcrops, a composite channel with a high abundance of mudstone-rich beds represents characteristically different sediments than those found at the other localities (Figure 23). Mudstone-rich beds are poorly-sorted with a high- density of volcaniclastics, shell debris, fossils, and sediment grain size up to pebbles. Pebbles reflect the coarsest sediment found in the MMF, although this study does not infer where they originated. Other facies within this interval include structureless 101 sandstone, and plane-parallel laminated sandstone. This interval is approximately 5 meters thick. Inland at the Locked Gate locality, deformed mudstone-rich beds are interpreted to correlate to the coastal section. Laterally, similar facies are seen within the margin at Warekarianga Stream, but without the presence of deformation. Paleoflow Analysis Paleoflow analysis for CC1B was documented from the axis to the margin of the channel by ten measurements. Along the margin of the channel at Warekarianga Stream, climbing ripple cross-laminations indicate paleoflow ranged from 310° to 319°, and one groove cast reflects a flow direction of 146°/326°. Within the axis of the channel, two measurements from ripple foresets indicate a paleoflow of 312° and 350°. The mean vector for paleoflow is 316.7°, or to the northwest. Event Bed Thickness Analysis Event bed analysis for CC1B reflects the presence of two large-scale thickening-thinning trends, although smaller-scale thickening-thinning trends are seen within the beds present along the margin at Warekarianga Stream (Figure 24). Beds within the basal 2.5 meters show an initial thickening-upward trend along the margin of the channel. Above this interval, beds show overall thinning along the margin to approximately 16.5 meters above the base, although the most marginal section shows a slight thickening-upward trend for the same beds (Figure 24). Four packages in the lower interval reflect smaller-scale thickening-thinning trends that are 3 to 4 meters thick, likely representing the deposition of individual elementary channels (Figure 24). The base of the second interval is marked by a 1 to 3.25 meter event bed. The variation in bed thickness represents the transition from the margin to the axis of the 102 channel. Beds show an overall thinning-upward signature above this bed to the top of the outcrop. Similar to the lower interval, the upper interval is characterized by smaller-scale thickening-thinning trends. Three smaller-scale trends are present along the margin of the channel in the upper interval. Each package is approximately 2-3 meters thick (Figure 24). Correlation of CC1B to the coastal section north of Waikiekie Stream was partially completed through event bed analysis. The correlations are shown in figure 23 and 24. It is inferred that the exposures along the coastal section correlate to beds approximately 6 to 10 meters above the base of the channel. The overall event bed signature is similar to those along the margin of CC1B. Flow Transformations Sedimentary facies present within CC1B’s channel fill show minor flow transformations from the margin to the interpreted axis. The base of the channel is dominated by cross-stratified sandstone and massive structureless sandstone. These are laterally correlated to minor abundances of plane-parallel laminated sandstone, and ripple cross-laminated sandstone toward the margin. Up-section, an increasing abundance of minor erosional scours, and structureless sandstone, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, ripple cross-laminated sandstone, and siltstone are seen. The lower interval is interpreted to be deposited by high-density and low-density turbidity currents, with flows likely transforming to the latter toward the margin. High abundances of cross- stratified sandstone and massive amalgamated sandstone indicates highly turbulent flows, and ripple cross-laminated sandstone, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, and siltstone indicate lower velocity flows that were more variable in their deposits. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 23.95 21.87 19.66 16.57 14.86 13.41 11.87 Event Bed Thickness CC1B Margin Warekarianga North M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 38.50 37.49 34.63 31.05 27.66 24.71 21.37 17.27 Event Bed Thickness CC1B Margin Warekarianga M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 12.57 9.24 6.73 Event Bed Thickness CC1B Margin Tutapuha North M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 6.10 3.75 1.48 Event Bed Thickness CC1B Margin-Off-Margin Tutapuha M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 25.68 23.30 20.18 17.02 15.12 10.93 10.55 9.34 Event Bed Thickness CC1B Off Axis Tutapuha South M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 103 Figure 24. Event bed analysis for CC1B showing correlations between each locality where sedimentological profiles were measured. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 17.16 15.52 13.47 12.68 11.69 7.87 4.29 2.16 Event Bed Thickness CC1B North Waikiekie M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 13.18 12.06 10.23 9.18 6.88 3.06 0.26 Event Bed Thickness CC1B Off-Axis Locked Gate M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5.99 4.42 3.42 2.59 1.58 0.00 Event Bed Thickness CC1B Axial NWK Fault M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 104 Figure 24. (Continued) Event bed analysis for CC1B showing correlations between each locality where sedimentological profiles were measured. 105 The middle interval is characterized by minor flow transformations from the axis to the margin of the channel. Deposits near the axis show minor erosional scours, and the presence of mudstone-clast conglomerate, cross-stratified sandstone with floating mudstone-clasts, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, and structureless sandstone. Toward the margin, facies are similar, although an increasing amount of structureless sandstone with floating mudstone-clasts dominate. Minor amounts of mudstone-clast conglomerate and cross-stratified sandstone are present. Flows were likely deposited by high- and low- density turbidity currents, with little variation laterally. The upper interval is characterized by a variety of sedimentary facies. The presence of poorly-sorted mudstone-rich beds with a high abundance of structureless sandstone laterally represent different processes for deposition. Mudstone-rich beds were likely deposited by cohesive debris flows and hyperconcentrated density flows or concentrated density flows. This is interpreted from the chaotic assemblage of sediments, and presence of graded beds. Localized slumping was likely confined within the axis of the channel. Laterally, beds represent deposition by high- and low-density turbidity currents evidenced by thick amalgamated sandstone beds, and the presence of plane- parallel laminated sandstone and mudstone-rich caps. Low-density turbidity currents are inferred for the uppermost interval, with little variation from the axis to the margin of the channel. 106 Channel Complex 2 Sedimentary Facies The channel fill of CC2 is characterized by approximately 25 to 30 meters of sandstone-rich sediments. Six sedimentological profiles document the lateral variation of sedimentary facies. Sedimentary facies proportions for CC2 are shown in figure 20, and a cross-section for the channel from correlated sedimentological profiles is shown in figure 25. Within the inland outcrops, the marginal exposures are primarily filled with plane-parallel laminated sandstone, structureless sandstone, and ripple cross-laminated sandstone at the base of the channel. Minor amounts of medium- to thick-bedded sandstone with floating mudstone-clasts and matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate are also present. The basal interval represents a 2.5 meter fining- and thinning-upward succession. Above this interval, massive sandstone dominates. The base of the overlying sandstone is represented by a 22 centimeter muddy sandstone with convoluted bedding and mudstone-clasts. This correlates to an amalgamation surface at Locked Gate, and a matrix-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate south of Waikiekie Stream (Figure 25). Dewatering structures, cross-stratified sandstone, and sandstone with floating mudstone-clasts are present up-section. The top of the section is marked by a 30 centimeter muddy sandstone with centimeter-scale mudstone-clasts, and convoluted bedding, or dewatering structures. This is overlain by thinner-bedded structureless sandstone capped by ripple cross-laminations. Correlating to Locked Gate and the coastal section south of Waikiekie Stream, thick-bedded sandstone present within the channel margin records lateral variation. At Fi gu re 25 .C ro ss -s ec tio n of CC 2 sh ow in g m ea su re d se di m en to lo gi ca lp ro fil es w ith ev en tb ed co rre la tio ns be tw ee n lo ca lit ie s. 107 Tu ta pu ha St re am Lo ck ed G at e So ut h W ai ki ek ie D at um :T op of W ai ki ek ie St re am M TD N E (~ 50 o ) SW (~ 23 0o ) 1 km N =6Av er ag eP al eo flo w 010 515 M et er ag e C ha nn el C om pl ex C C 2 M ea n Ve ct or :3 30 o A xi al A xi al -O ff- A xi s M ar gi n -O ff- A xi s to p of ch an ne lt ru nc at ed : M TD /e ro de d by CC 3 Ev en tb ed co rre la tio n 108 Locked Gate, it is reflected by two thick-bedded structureless sandstones separated by a thin interval of plane-parallel laminated sandstone. At Waikiekie Stream, multiple erosional scours are filled with mudstone-clast conglomerate, with structureless sandstone, horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone, cross-stratified sandstone, and plane-parallel laminated sandstone above. Minor amounts of shell debris are also seen. The upper muddy sandstone within the margin correlates to clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate that significantly thickens toward the coastal outcrops (Figure 25). Thick-bedded structureless sandstone with floating mudstone-clast facies overlie the conglomerate. A second mudstone-clast conglomerate is present above this interval, with erosion decreasing toward Locked Gate from the coastal section. Lateral variability increases between the Locked Gate sections and the coastal section in the uppermost interval. At Locked Gate, massive amalgamated sandstones transition to a variety of facies approximately 100 meters to the south. Facies include mudstone-clast conglomerate, cross-stratified sandstone, wavy-laminated sandstone, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, and structureless sandstone, as well as thin siltstone partings. Within the coastal section, the same interval is represented by structureless sandstone with amalgamation surfaces. Paleoflow Analysis Paleoflow analysis of CC2 documents six measurements from climbing ripple and asymmetric ripple foresets. Within the axis at Locked Gate, climbing ripple cross-laminations indicate paleoflow directions of 310°, 324°, 334°, 340°, and 345°. One measurement from the base of CC2 at Tutapuha Stream shows a flow direction of 327°. The mean vector for paleoflow 330°, or to the northwest. 109 Measurements for CC2A were acquired within levee deposits south of Waikiekie Stream outside the southern margin of the channel. A diversity of paleoflow indicators were present, including climbing ripple cross-laminations, asymmetric ripple cross- laminations, a flute cast, and the smile from a scour. CC2A’s mean vector for paleoflow is 333°, or to the northwest. Event Bed Thickness Analysis Event bed analysis for CC2 reflects the presence of three thickening-upward trends (Figure 26). These trends show beds up to 3.3 meters thick, with the thickest beds present within the axis south of Waikiekie Stream. The best outcrop exposures for CC2 are at Locked Gate and south of Waikiekie Stream, reflected by the ability to gather continuous sedimentological profiles from the base of the channel and up-section more than 10 meters. Correlations to the coastal section were inferred primarily from these localities. Each thickening-upward trend is approximately 3 to 4 meters, and individual event beds correlated from the coastal section inland generally show minor thinning away from the axis of the channel. The uppermost beds at Locked Gate show similar thickness trends to those along the coastal section (Figure 26). Flow Transformations Sedimentary facies present in CC2’s channel fill show minor flow transformations. Facies transition from clast-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate within the channel axis, to structureless sandstone and cross-stratified sandstone toward the margin. Beds are amalgamated with an increasing presence of 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 13.03 12.53 Event Bed Thickness CC2 Margin Tutapuha M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 1.62 0.49 0.00 Event Bed Thickness CC2 Margin Tutapuha M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 37.29 33.63 33.42 32.93 32.48 Event Bed Thickness CC2 Off-Margin Tutapuha South M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 11.07 8.28 5.96 3.24 Event Bed Thickness CC2 Off-Axis Locked Gate M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5.20 4.80 3.24 2.01 Event Bed Thickness CC2 Off Axis LGS South M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 16.64 7.61 4.17 1.91 Event Bed Thickness CC2 Axis South Waikiekie M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) CC2 cannibilized by CC3 erosion at MTD 110 Figure 26. Event bed analysis for CC2 showing correlations between each locality where sedimentological profiles were measured. 111 sandstone with floating mudstone-clasts up-section from the base. The interval at Locked Gate shows high variability in the channel fill 100 meters laterally toward the south. CC2 was likely deposited by high-density turbidity currents evidenced by cross- stratified sandstone, structureless sandstone, and the abundance of amalgamation surfaces. Flow transformations to low-density turbidity currents are inferred along the channel margin, and also south of Locked Gate where increasing amounts of plane- laminated sandstone and ripple cross-laminations are found. Correlation of the mudstone- clast conglomerate inland from the coastal section shows the flow was laterally continuous with minor variation between localities. The thick clast-supported mudstone- clast conglomerate intervals may have been deposited by hyperconcentrated density flows, and subsequently overlain by sandstone-rich sediments from high-density turbidity currents representing a flow transformation up-dip. Channel Complex 3 Sedimentary Facies The channel fill of CC3 is characterized by approximately 20 to 25 meters of sandstone-rich sediments. Three sedimentological profiles document the lateral variation of facies, although the southernmost profile is truncated by CC4 five meters from the base of the channel. Sedimentary facies proportions for CC3 are shown in figure 20, and a cross-section for the channel from correlated sedimentological profiles is shown in figure 27. The lowermost interval of CC3 is dominated by multiple beds of matrix supported mudstone-clast conglomerate along erosional surfaces down-cutting through the 112 underlying stratigraphy. Plane-parallel laminated sandstone and cross-stratified sandstone are also common, capped by ripple cross-laminated sandstone and siltstone (Figure 27). Up-section, a 2.5 meter thick sandstone shows lateral variation from plane-parallel laminated sandstone toward the south to a plane-parallel laminated sandstone, cross- stratified sandstone, and climbing ripple cross-laminated sandstone to the north. The southern exposure is subsequently truncated by erosion from CC4. Beds thin above this interval to a high abundance of plane-parallel laminated and ripple cross-laminated sandstone. Approximately 6 meters from the base of the channel, an increasing amount of horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone dominates the section above a small erosional scour filled with mudstone-clast conglomerate (Figure 27). Thin beds of plane- parallel laminated and ripple cross-laminated sandstone are also common. The upper interval of CC3 is characterized by thinning beds filled with plane-parallel laminated sandstone capped by ripple cross-laminations. The top of CC3 is subsequently truncated by CC4. Along the margin at Tutapuha Stream, CC3 is represented by similar facies to that at Locked Gate, although beds are thinner and show more variation. The lowermost interval is dominated by thin sandstones with a high abundance of bioturbated mudstone (Figure 27). An 80 centimeter sandstone with faint laminations is correlated to the 2.5 meter thick sandstone at Locked Gate. It shows a thinning trend to the north and east. The overlying sediments increase in facies variation. Structureless sandstone is commonly overlain by plane-parallel laminated sandstone and bioturbated sandstone present in nearly equal quantities. Minor abundances of ripple cross-laminated sandstone, Tutapuha Stream Locked Gate Datum: Top of MTD above CC2 at Locked Gate NE ( ~ 50o ) SW ( ~ 230o ) N=10 Average Paleoflow 0 10 5 15 Meterage Channel Complexes CC3 and CC4 Mean Vector: 327.2o Margin - Off-AxisMargin - Overbank CC3 N=10 Average Paleoflow Mean Vector: 331.7o CC4 0.5 km Correlation to beach reflected by stratigraphic dip SWK incision ~10 m elevation Locked Gate incision ~65 m elevation 55 m 460 m = 6.86o Event bed correlation Figure 27. Cross-section for CC3 and CC4 showing measured sedimentological profiles with event bed correlations between localities. 113 114 mudstone-clasts, and horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone are also present. The top of the Locked Gate exposure is correlated laterally to an increasing presence of plane-parallel laminated sandstone, and decreasing presence of bioturbated sandstone along the margin. Minor erosional scours and ripple cross-laminations are also present. Above this interval, a massive-bedded sandstone 4 meters thick has multiple amalgamation surfaces internally (Figure 27). At the base it is filled by horizontally- stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone, with structureless sandstone above. The uppermost bed is bioturbated, with a 4 centimeter mudstone-clast horizon. Beds thin above this interval to the top of the channel. South of Waikiekie Stream, measured profiles were not possible due to truncation at the channel margin and the inaccessibility to climb the coastal cliffs. From photo-panel analysis, higher amounts of mudstone-clast conglomerate are present with thick-bedded sandstone above (Figure 14). Beds generally thin up-section with a second interval of thick-bedded sandstone deposited toward the top of the outcrop. Paleoflow Analysis Paleoflow analysis for CC3 is documented from ten measurements. Measurements were acquired from asymmetric ripple cross-laminations and climbing ripple cross-laminations from Locked Gate and Tutapuha Stream. At Locked Gate, asymmetric ripple cross-laminations indicate flows were directed at 5°, 7°, and 270°. Asymmetric ripple cross-laminations along the margin at Tutapuha Stream indicate a paleoflow direction than ranges from 326° to 338°. The mean vector for paleoflow is 327.2°, or to the northwest. 115 Event Bed Thickness Analysis Event bed analysis for CC3 reflects the presence of two thickening-thinning upward trends, although smaller-scale thickening-thinning trends are seen within the beds present along the margin at Tutapuha Stream (Figure 28). Within exposures at Locked Gate, the lower package is represented by four smaller-scale packages, each with a thinning-upward signature (Figure 28). Each package is approximately 2 to 4 meters thick and represented by one thicker bed at their base, with significantly thinner event beds above. The upper package at Locked Gate is represented by one thinning-upward package that is 4.5 meters thick and marked at its base by a 2.4 meter event bed. The overlying stratigraphy is truncated by CC4. Along the margin at Tutapuha Stream, four smaller-scale packages are also seen in the lower interval (Figure 28). These packages generally show a thinning-upward trend, although the lowermost interval shows a slight thickening trend. Each package is approximately 1 to 2.5 meters thick and represented by one thicker bed at their base with thinner event beds above. The upper package at Tutapuha Stream is characterized by four thickening-thinning trends upward from its base (Figure 28). Event beds thicken in the lower two meters to a bed 1.6 meters thick, followed by significant bed thinning. The overlying packages reflect event beds with nearly symmetric thickening-thinning trends, although the thickest event beds at the turnaround are generally less than 0.5 meters each (Figure 28). Each package in the upper interval is approximately 1 meter thick, although the lowermost package is 6 meters thick. Flow Transformations Sedimentary facies present in CC3’s channel fill show minor flow transformations from the channel axis to margin. At Locked Gate, the 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 24.09 21.87 21.03 20.15 16.19 14.43 13.96 12.65 11.20 9.94 7.27 6.26 5.20 Event Bed Thickness CC3 Margin-Overbank Tutapuha M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 28.26 27.62 26.70 23.61 22.36 22.02 20.72 20.41 20.08 19.61 18.96 16.39 15.23 Event Bed Thickness CC3 Margin Locked Gate M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 10.40 9.09 Event Bed Thickness CC3 Margin-Off Axis Locked Gate South M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 116 Figure 28. Event bed analysis for CC3 showing correlations between each locality where sedimentological profiles were measured. 117 transition from mudstone-clast conglomerate at the base to plane-parallel laminated sandstone, cross-stratified sandstone, and ripple cross-laminated sandstone correlate to a sandstone bed with faint laminations overlain by siltstone along the channel margin at Tutapuha Stream. Up-section, increasing amounts of horizontally-stratified or spaced- stratified sandstone correlate to structureless sandstone overlain by plane-parallel laminated sandstone, ripple cross-laminated sandstone, and bioturbated sandstone along the margin. The uppermost interval is represented by plane-parallel laminated and ripple cross-laminated beds at Locked Gate. Laterally at Tutapuha Stream, the same interval shows structureless sandstone overlain by plane-laminated sandstone and minor amounts of thin mudstone-clast conglomerate, bioturbated sandstone, and ripple cross-laminated sandstone. Deposition of CC3 was likely dominated by low-density turbidity currents evidenced by the high abundance of plane-parallel laminated and ripple cross-laminated sandstone. The middle interval may represent a brief transition to high-density flows that laterally transitioned to low-density turbidity currents. This is inferred by the increased presence of horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone at Locked Gate and the lateral correlation to plane-parallel laminated sandstone and bioturbated sandstone capped by a minor abundance of ripple cross-laminations at Tutapuha Stream. Within the interpreted axis of CC3 along the coastal section south of Waikiekie Stream, deposits likely represent high-density flows. Erosional surfaces are filled by mudstone-clast conglomerate and subsequently overlain by massive sandstone that thins up-section. 118 Flows likely transitioned from high-density turbidity currents at the base to low-density flows above. Channel Complex 4 Sedimentary Facies The channel fill of CC4 is characterized by approximately 20 to 25 meters of sandstone-rich sediments. The base of CC4 truncates into the underlying strata of the CC3 channel. Sedimentary facies proportions for CC4 are shown in figure 20, and a cross-section for the channel from correlated sedimentological profiles is shown in figure 27. Minor amounts of matrix-supported mudstone-clast conglomerate are present within the base of the channel. Up-section, sandstones are characterized by a variety of facies. Plane-parallel laminated sandstone, cross-stratified sandstone, and bioturbated sandstone are present in the most abundance, with a minor abundance of ripple cross- laminations. Bioturbated sandstone becomes the dominant lithology two meters above the channel base. Inclined elementary channels within this interval typically are filled by wavy-laminated sandstone and ripple cross-laminated sandstone. Bed tops are iron-rich and overlain by bioturbated sandstone. The bioturbated interval is approximately 5 meters thick. The overlying sandstones are thicker bedded, and filled by horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone, plane-parallel laminated sandstone, structureless sandstone, and convoluted sandstone (Figure 27). Minor ripple cross-laminations, bioturbated sandstone, and siltstone partings are present. The interval thins up-section to a siltstone- rich interval correlated to the coastal section south of Waikiekie Stream. Beds are 119 bioturbated and wavy-laminated to convolute. Bioturbated sandstone increases in abundance above the siltstone-rich interval. Minor amounts of plane-parallel laminated sandstone and structureless sandstone are present. The uppermost interval of CC4 is characterized medium-bedded sandstones filled with plane-parallel laminated sandstone. Bioturbated sandstone is common at bed tops. Minor amounts of horizontally-stratified or spaced-stratified sandstone, structureless sandstone, and ripple cross-laminations also are present to the top of the channel (Figure 27). Correlation to the margin at Tutapuha Stream shows similar facies for the upper intervals. There is some uncertainty whether the basal section at Locked Gate correlates to the thick-bedded interval along the margin, or if it represents the uppermost fill of CC3 (Figure 27). The margin of CC4 is dominated by plane-parallel laminated and wavy- laminated sandstone, with moderate amounts of bioturbated sandstone and structureless sandstone. Beds are medium- to thick-bedded at the base, and decrease in thickness up- section. Increasing amounts of bioturbated sandstone and mudstone are present toward the top of the channel. Along the coastal outcrops, mudstone-clast conglomerate fills the base of the channel. Sandstone beds above the conglomerate thin upward to a mudstone-rich interval. The mudstone-rich interval shows minor deformation and wavy-laminated bedding (Figure 14). One ~15 centimeter sandstone bed splits the middle of the interval and pinches out laterally. The upper interval present in the coastal section is thick-bedded and shows no traceable bedding planes laterally. 120 Paleoflow Analysis Paleoflow analysis for CC4 was documented from ten measurements. Asymmetric ripple cross-laminations and climbing ripple cross- laminations within the outcrops at Locked Gate indicate paleoflow direction ranged between 311° to 359°. The mean vector for paleoflow is 331.7°, or to the northwest. Event Bed Thickness Analysis Event bed analysis for CC4 reflects the presence of two large-scale thickening-thinning trends, although multiple smaller-scale thickening- thinning trends are seen within outcrops south of Locked Gate and at Tutapuha Stream (Figure 29). Within exposures at Locked Gate, the lower package is represented by eight or nine smaller-scale thickening-thinning trends. Individual packages are approximately 2 to 4 meters thick. These likely represent individual elementary channels that filled the channel complex. Event bed thickness is significantly lower than those present in the underlying channels. The thickest event bed in the lower interval is approximately 85 centimeters. The upper package at Locked Gate is represented by three to five smaller- scale thickening-thinning trends. Individual packages are approximately 1 to 3 meters thick (Figure 29). At Tutapuha Stream, it is interpreted that only the upper package is present. This reflects the large erosional surface that is present at the Locked Gate locality. It is assumed that flows were largely confined within this erosional surface south of Locked Gate and did not extend to the Tutapuha locality, although this may be explored further. The upper interval at Tutapuha reflects three to five smaller-scale thickening-thinning packages. They are less pronounced than those in the Locked Gate locality, but still easily 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 32.23 31.34 30.84 30.41 29.89 28.82 27.59 26.97 26.53 25.00 24.09 Event Bed Thickness CC4 Margin-Overbank Tutapuha M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 31.66 30.73 29.09 27.60 Event Bed Thickness CC4 Margin-Off Axis Locked Gate M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 40.26 38.61 34.91 32.49 29.73 28.67 26.40 23.90 20.77 17.50 15.32 12.92 Event Bed Thickness CC4 Margin Locked Gate South M et er ag ei n M ea su re d Se ct io n Event Bed Thickness (meters) 121 Figure 29. Event bed analysis for CC4 showing correlations between each locality where sedimentological profiles were measured. 122 recognizable (Figure 29). Individual thickening-thinning trends are approximately 1 to 3 meters. Flow Transformations Lateral flow transformations are not discussed for CC4 due to insufficient data, and uncertainty in the correlation to the margin at Tutapuha Stream. Overall, the sediments present within CC4 reflect deposition by low-density turbidity currents. An increasing abundance of bioturbated sandstone represents flows were less frequent than those in the underlying channels. Event bed analysis shows they were also much smaller. Minor amounts of plane-parallel laminated sandstone and ripple cross- laminations indicate flow velocity was waning. Channel Stacking Patterns Exposures of six channel complexes present in the LMMF characterize a large channel belt that evolved through time. This channel belt is inferred to be approximately 3 to 3.5 km wide and 150 meters thick. The channel belt represents the evolution and stacking of smaller channel complexes through time that are approximately 800 meters to 1.3 km wide and 25 to 30 meters thick. Paleo-channel trends determined by paleoflow analysis are presented in figure 30. Outcrop exposures show the channel belt evolved from multilateral offset at its base to channels that were more multistory above the Waikiekie Stream MTD. The large- scale stacking pattern is inferred to reflect a multistory nesting of channels migrating through time (Figure 7). 123 Figure 30. Paleo-channel trends from documented paleoflow analysis and correlations of channel bodies. Crab Gulch Fault ~ 15 m offset Geologic Map: (1:21,500) Warekarianga Stream Waikiekie Stream Mangapukatea Fault ~ 15 m offset; down to the southeast Crab Gulch Fault ~ 15 m offset Geologic Map: (1:21,500) Waikiekie Stream Mangapukatea Fault ~ 15 m offset; down to the southeast327.7° 316.7° Crab Gulch Fault ~ 15 m offset Geologic Map: (1:21,500) Crab Gulch Fault ~ 15 m offset Geologic Map: (1:21,500) Waikiekie Stream 330° 327.2° Crab Gulch Fault ~ 15 m offset Geologic Map: (1:21,500) Waikiekie Stream Mangapukatea Fault ~ 15 m offset; down to the southeast Crab Gulch Fault ~ 15 m offset Geologic Map: (1:21,500) 331.7° 333° CC1A CC1B CC2A CC2 CC3 CC4 124 The basal channel shows minor scours at its base with loading into the underlying mudstone. It is interpreted that CC1A likely represents sediments that were deposited by relatively unconfined flows at the channel base, followed by an increasing amount of confinement and channelization up-section. Deposition of CC1B represents multilateral offset from CC1A with flows that were more confined at the base of the channel, reflected by the presence of a large erosional surface (Figure 31). Flows were likely able to scale to the boundary of the major erosional surface and are laterally continuous within the channel. Above CC1B, a second multilateral offsetting is represented with the deposition of CC2A. CC2A is the southernmost channel within the study area. Above CC2A, channels migrated back toward the north where CC2, CC3, and CC4 were subsequently deposited with a multistory stacking pattern (Figure 31, 32). The stacking pattern of CC2, CC3, and CC4 indicates more confinement within the depositional system. Paleogeography Influence from Mass-Transport Deposits Mass-transport deposits likely influenced the deposition of channelized intervals within the LMMF. The NWK mass-transport deposit is present below CC1A. It is highly deformed north of Waikiekie Stream, but less deformed within the inland outcrops. Within the outcrops north of Waikiekie Stream, a localized section of deformation extends vertically into the mass-transport deposit (Figure 8). It is hypothesized that this localized deformation may have influenced the fluidization of overlying sediments. Large 125 Figure 31. Stacked channel complex trends from paleoflow analysis for the LMMF showing CC1A in yellow and CC1B in light green toward the north offsetting multi- laterally to the south. CC2A through CC4 are stacked overlying one another with a multistory stacking pattern to the south above the Waikiekie MTD. CC1A CC1BCC2A to CC4 Fi gu re 32 .S im pl ifi ed cr os s- se ct io n of th e de po sit io na ls ys te m w ith in th e stu dy ar ea .S ol id lin es re pr es en te xp os ed str at ig ra ph y, an d da sh ed lin es ar e in te rp re ta tio ns in to th e su bs ur fa ce .T he m ul til at er al to m ul tis to ry sta ck in g pa tte rn is se en w ith in CC 1A to CC 4. Ye llo w re pr es en ts sa nd sto ne -ri ch un its ,l ig ht gr ee n re pr es en ts le ve e an d ov er ba nk un its ,b ro w n re pr es en ts m as s- tra ns po rt de po sit s, lig ht gr ay re pr es en ts m ud sto ne -ri ch th in be ds ,a nd da rk gr ay re pr es en ts vo lc an ic la sti c- ric h se di m en ts. 126 Sa nd sto ne El em en t1 CC 1A CC 1B N W K M TD SW K M TD CC 4 CC 2A CC 2 CC 3 M TD El em en t1 Th in Be d El em en t 1 Th in Be d El em en t 2 Th in Be d El em en t3 CC 1B Le ve e CC 2A Le ve e 0 m 50 m 10 0 m 15 0 m 20 0 m 25 0 m 30 0 m 0 km 1 km 2 km 3 km 4 km 5 km 6 km N or th So ut h 127 deformed sandstone blocks are present immediately overlying the deformation, and the mass-transport deposit thickens to the south from the locality. It is likely that sandstone deposition within CC1A was already occurring when the mass-transport initiated, evidenced by the incorporation of large sandstone blocks into the flow. It may be possible that the second composite channel within CC1A was partially influenced by the NWK mass-transport deposit, although data is inconclusive for this hypothesis. The Waikiekie Stream mass-transport deposit overlies CC1B, with subsequent deposition of CC2A through CC4. This mass-transport deposit is characterized by increasing deformation to the south toward Waikiekie Stream where the interpreted axes of the overlying channels are present. It is hypothesized that localized topography created from the mass-transport deposit influenced the placement of the overlying channels. CC2A steps the furthest south above the MTD and the overlying channels reflect a different stacking pattern than the underlying CC1A and CC1B. Channels are more confined and more erosional than those below, reflected by a multistory stacking pattern. Deformation of the mass-transport deposit decreases to the north within the study area. Sediment Provenance Analysis Southern: Long Distance Transport Quartz-rich sediments within the MMF are interpreted from the literature to reflect long distance transport from a southern hinterland (Jordan et al., 1994; Kamp et al., 2004). Within the LMMF, channelized sandstone deposits are largely dominated by these quartz-rich sediments. Quartz-rich sandstones account for 85 to 90 percent of the 128 sedimentary fill of channel deposits (Figure 20). Outside the channel margins, less sandstone is present. Within these intervals, quartz-rich sandstone account for 20 to 40 percent of the sedimentary fill (Figure 20). Sandstone is less prevalent above the channel belt where increasing abundances of bioturbated mudstone are seen. Northern: Mohakatino Volcanic Arc Volcaniclastic-rich sediments within the MMF are interpreted from the literature to reflect transport from a northern volcanic arc (King et al., 1993). Volcaniclastic sediments are primarily found outside the channel margins, although few occurrences are seen within the channel bodies at the base of sandstones (Figure 20). Volcaniclastic sediments decrease in abundance up-section in the LMMF, with the highest percentage present outside the channel margin of CC1B. Mudstone dominated intervals along this margin are comprised of volcaniclastic-rich sandstone and claystone, accounting for 30 to 70 percent of the sedimentary fill. Within channelized deposits, volcaniclastic sediments account for less than 1 percent of the channel fill across the channel belt, although interpreted levee deposits are characterized with up to 10 percent. The mudstone-rich thin-bedded interval overlying the channel belt shows similar trends to the channelized sections, with volcaniclastic sandstone accounting for less than 1 percent of the sedimentary fill (Figure 20). The overall influence of volcaniclastic sediments within the LMMF was low. 129 Eastern: Shelf/Slope Strata rich with bioclastic shell debris and organics are interpreted to represent sediments originating from the eastern shelf or slope. Shell debris is found across the LMMF, both within and bounding channel deposits, and organic-rich deposits are primarily found outside the channel, and within channel levees (Figure 20). Bioclastic shell debris accounts for less than a percent up to 7 percent of the sedimentary fill depending upon the locality. The highest abundances of shell debris are found within channel margins, channel levees, and mass-transport deposits, although one interval within the axis of CC1B represents percentages between 1 to 2 percent. Organic-rich sediments account for less than a percent up to 2 percent of the sedimentary fill across the LMMF. The overall influence from the eastern shelf or slope was low within the LMMF. 130 CONCLUSIONS Sedimentology This study analyzed outcrop exposures within the LMMF along the Taranaki coast of New Zealand to document a detailed description of sedimentary facies, event beds, and sedimentary bodies within a deep-water channelized depositional system. Measured sedimentological profiles document a number of attributes with centimeter- scale resolution to interpret hydrodynamic facies and formative processes at the time of deposition. Sedimentological profiles totaling 552 meters reflect 30 hydrodynamic facies described from outcrop exposures and thin section analysis. Facies vary from mudstone- clast conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, post-depositionally modified sediments, and tuffaceous sediments. Each facies represents varying hydrodynamic processes and sediment sources present during deposition. Sediments in the LMMF are inferred to reflect deposition by high- and low-density turbidity currents, concentrated and hyperconcentrated density flows, en masse movements, and debris flows. The sediments of the LMMF are highly variable and record multiple flow processes that represent differing flow strengths, flow frequencies, and event bed thicknesses. Through the evolution of the LMMF, deposits were dominated by high- density turbidity flows near the base that decrease in frequency toward the top of the channel belt. The uppermost intervals reflect deposition by a higher abundance of low- density turbidity flows that were less frequent, and smaller in their event size. 131 Architectural Elements and Stratigraphic Evolution Architectural elements documented in the channelized interval of the LMMF exhibit a number of varying attributes. These include scale, geometry, complexity, lithology, and facies associations. This study analyzed channelforms, wedgeforms/levees, drapes, mass-transport deposits, and laminated thin beds, although lobeforms are present at the base of the LMMF. Two mass-transport deposits, the NWK MTD and the Waikiekie Stream MTD are hypothesized to have influenced channelized intervals above. The NWK MTD shows rafting of large sandstone blocks correlated to the base of CC1A. This indicates deposition of CC1A had already begun when the slumping initiated. Higher abundances of erosional scours and mudstone-clast conglomerate increase up-section and likely represent an increase in confinement within the system. The Waikiekie Stream MTD is present below CC2A and CC2, with CC3 and CC4 up-section. These channel complexes overlie the deformed interval of the mass-transport deposit and show increased confinement reflected by a multistory stacking pattern. Six channel complexes are inferred within the LMMF. The lowermost CC1A is represented with moderate amounts of erosion at its base, and increasing erosion up- section. It is hypothesized that CC1A was likely deposited by partially confined flows at its base followed by the slumping of the NWK MTD which increased confinement within the depositional system allowing increased channelization to occur in the upper composite channel. 132 CC1B is dominated largely by confined to partially confined deposits that fill a 15 to 20 meter erosional scour above undeformed mudstone. It is inferred that flows scaled to the boundary of the erosional surface reflected by bed correlations from the margin to the axis. Up-section flows became less confined than below, spilling sandstone sediments outside of the major erosional surface and toward the channel levee. CC2A through CC4 are deposited above the Waikiekie Stream MTD. An increased abundance of large erosional scours and mudstone-clast conglomerate found within the inferred channel axes south of Waikiekie Stream likely represent channels were more confined than below. A change from multilateral stacking of channels to more multistory story stacking also reflects increased confinement within the depositional system. The correlations presented here reflect a few key differences from previous authors. The 2007 study by GNS does not correlate the coastal section south of Waikiekie Stream to the inland outcrops (Arnot et al., 2007). The change in channel architecture is inferred to represent two channels (C5 and C6) that are younger than those inland (Arnot et al., 2007). Their study discusses the possibility of multiple channels down-cutting within a master erosion surface, subsequently depositing the coastal interval (Arnot et al., 2007). This study agrees that more confinement was present within this interval, although new data presented here shows the channels within the inland section do correlate to the beach outcrops. The change in channel architecture is inferred to primarily reflect spatial variation from the margin to the axis of the channel. Deposition of CC2A through CC4 likely represents confinement within a 1.7 km wide master channel represented by the 133 multistory stacking pattern. The underlying CC1A and CC1B were likely less confined, reflected by multilateral offset toward the south. This study hypothesizes a larger 3.5 km wide channel belt, initiated by the slumping of the NWK MTD that increased confinement up-section. Subsequent channels were offset to the south where the Waikiekie MTD is fully deformed. A localized topographic high created by the Waikiekie Stream MTD is hypothesized to have influenced confinement in the overlying channels. The 2013 study by Masalimova infers CC1A represents a proximal frontal or crevasse splay setting. This study agrees with Masalimova’s interpretation. Flows were more erosive up-section from the base, but the presence of a large-scale erosional surface at the base was not observed. Minor amounts of erosion, up to 7 to 10 meters into the underlying mudstone, indicate less erosional confinement than the channels present above. Her study shows similar correlations presented within this study for the upper channels, although with decreasing confidence up-section for CC2 through CC4. She describes the channels south of Waikiekie Stream as A, B, and C from youngest to oldest, but does not show how they correlate to the inland section (Masalimova, 2013). Channel trends within the LMMF indicate little variation in their paleoflow direction. Channels were directed to the northwest during the deposition of CC1A through CC4, although minor fluctuation is seen between each locality. The stacking pattern of channel complexes records changes in confinement temporally up-section through the LMMF. CC1A and CC1B offset laterally to one another toward the south. Above CC1B, channel complexes CC2A through CC4 are spatially confined above one 134 another with little offsetting. This transition reflects a change from multilateral channel stacking to multistory channel stacking within the depositional system. Overall, a multistory nesting of channels is inferred for the LMMF. The LMMF records a deep-water depositional system that transitioned from weakly confined deposits near its base, to deposits that progressively became more confined up-section. Large channels directed sediment basinward through a variety of subaqueous flow types, although high- and low-density turbidity currents are inferred to have been most common. The uppermost intervals of the LMMF recorded a temporal decrease in flow strength, with more variation in their sediments. 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Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Recession More bed amalgamation above white bench surface white bench surface E.B.; thins to 7 cm thick laterally Recession E.B. Channel Margin Top of massive sandstone Thin beds above Bench 3 beds; more resistant Bush Bench 3 more resistant beds 7 cm vfL; 3 cm vfL; bioturbated S S S S 14 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 15 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 8 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 80 cm vfL sandstone; faint horizontal lamination; thins to east 20 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 23 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal laminations and burrows concretions 10 cm 52 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated12 cm 13 cm 24 cm vfL sandstone; structureless 46 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 9 cm vfL sandstone 4 cm vfL; bioturbated; 8 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 3 cm vfL; h. lam.; 7 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 4 cm vfL; bioturbated 16 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 4 cm vfL; bioturbated 15 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 30 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfL-M sandstone; thickens to 60 cm laterally 2 cm vfL sandstone 15 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal laminations 13 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; burrowed, concretions 9 cm vfL sandstone; 8 cm sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfL sandstone; 7 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturb. 5 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 17 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated, shell hash 2 cm vfL; bioturbated; 3 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 11 cm vfL sandstone; 12 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 10 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; 3 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturb. 5 cm vfL sandstone; 5 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 3 cm vfL sandstone; 11 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 4 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; 6 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturb. 6 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturb. 7 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; 7 cm vfL bearing siltstone; biot.. 5 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated; 2 cm siltstone 10 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 15 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; shell fragments; bioturbated 4 cm siltstone; dark gray; bioturbated 2 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; 2 cm sandy siltstone; bioturb. 14 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; 2 cm sandy siltstone; bioturb. 24 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; heavily bioturbated; mm shell fragments 5 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; heavily bioturbated 15 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 10 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated; mm shell frag. 17 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated; mm shell frag. 23 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 10 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 52 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 40 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated; few mm shell fragments 47 cm siltstone 1.53 m vfU sandstone; massive, fines to vfM-L 15 cm vfM sandstone 45 cm vfM-U sandstone; fines to vfM 10 cm vfM sandstone 50 cm vfM-U sandstone 10 cm vfM-L sandstone 62 cm vfM-U sandstone; fL max; horizontal lamination 16 cm vfL; structureless to bioturbated cap 11 cm vfL; horizontal lamination to wavy; burrowed, ARL 9 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 21 cm vfL-M; wavy to PPL; burrowed through PPL 7 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 2 cm mm scale mud intraclasts 19 cm PPL with 10 cm wavy ARL cap 3 cm mm scale mud intraclasts; 8 cm vfL; h. lam.; bioturb. cap 2 cm mm scale mud intraclasts; 5 cm vfL; bioturbated 8 cm vfL; bioturbated 9 cm silt bearing vfL; faint h. lam.; 1 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturb. 5 cm vfL; horizontal lam.; 6 cm vfL; structureless 1 cm vfL; discontinuous; 2 cm vfL; wavy 2 cm vfL; wavy, discontinuous; 3 cm vfL 1 cm vfL; wavy, discontinuous; 2 cm vfL 9 cm vfL fining to silt bearing vfL; PPL 21 cm vfM; PPL 21 cm vfM-U; structureless 6 cm vfL; wavy, convoluted; 2 cm vfL; wavy 9 cm vfL; wavy PPL mm scale mud intraclasts; 6 cm vfL; wavy 28 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated mm scale mud intraclasts mm scale mud intraclasts; 12 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 11 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 5 cm vfM sandstone; structureless; 14 cm vfM-L; h. lam. top 5 cm bioturbated 26 cm vfL-M; horizontal lamination 8 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 31 cm vfL-M sandstone; faint lamination 10 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal lamination 1 cm vfL; wavy, irregular; 12 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 4 cm vfL sandstone; wavy 12 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 9 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal lamination 8 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 3 cm vfL sandstone; 7 cm vfL sandstone; wavy lamination 2 cm vfL sandstone; 9 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal lamination 18 cm silt bearing vfL; faint lamination 11 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; wavy; mm scale mud intraclasts 27 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 3 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; ARL 11 cm vfL sandstone; wavy to horizontal lamination 3 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone 30 cm vfL-M sandstone; fines to vfL 22 cm vfL sandstone; wavy horizontal lamination concretions 32 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 46 cm vfL sandstone; faint horizontal lamination S S W W W W W/I Photo Photo ARL 326 329 331 7 cm vfL sandstone; 4 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL-M; 9 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal lamination 5 cm vfL; wavy h. lam.; 4 cm silt bearing vfL; wavy h. lam 2 cm vfL; 4 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 3 cm vfL: structureless; 5 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 6 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 18 cm vfM-U sandstone; structureless 30 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 6 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal lamination 20 cm vfL sandstone; 5 cm PPL; 8 cm bioturbated; 7 cm wavy 3 cm siltstone; wavy 17 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 4 cm vfL-M sandstone; wavy, irregular contact 26 cm vfL sandstone; faint horizontal lamination 16 cm silt bearing vfL; wavy 4 cm, vfL; structureless; 11 cm vfL; bioturbated 5 cm vfL; structureless; 5 cm vfL; bioturbated 10 cm vfL; bioturbated 9 cm vfL; wavy 10 cm silt bearing vfL; wavy 2 cm vfL to siltstone 30 cm vfM sandstone; PPL 66 cm vfM-L sandstone; PPL 20 cm vfL-M sandstone; structureless 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 50 cm vfM sandstone; PPL 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 3 cm vfL sandstone 13 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated; faint wavy lamination 10 cm silt bearing vfL: wavy horizontal lamination 25 cm vfL sandstone; wavy lamination 3 cm silt bearing vfL 2 cm silt bearing vfL; 11 cm vfL; wavy lamination 3 cm vfL; wavy; 7 cm vfL; horizontal lamination 1 cm vfL; horizontal lam.; 5 cm vfL; structureless 4 cm vfL; horizontal lam.; 5 cm vfL; structureless 7 cm vfL; bioturbated 11 cm vfM-L; ARL to PPL 10 cm vfL; bioturbated two pkgs 10 cm vfL; wavy horizontal lamination; bioturbated; 15 cm vfL; bioturbated separated by 1 cm vfL-M sandstone; bioturbated 20 cm vfM sandstone; PPL 65 cm cover 6 cm vfL-M sandstone; wavy lam.; 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturb. 4 cm vfM-L sandstone; wavy lam.; 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturb. 8 cm vfL sandstone; fines up 6 cm vfL-siltstone; fines up; poorly exposed 12 cm vfL sandstone; fines up 15 cm vfM-L sandstone; mm scale mud intraclasts at base 21 cm vfL-M sandstone; bioturbated 6 cm vfL sandstone; 6 cm silt bearing vfL 3 cm siltstone; wavy 10 cm silt bearing vfL cap W W W/I ARL 330 W W W W W 5.45 m thin bedded vfL to siltstone; heavily bioturbated; average event size ~5-10 cm Measurements above head 95 cm vfL with siltstone interbedded; bioturbated 50 cm cover 50 cm partially covered sandstone 35 cm vfM sandstone; faint cm lamination 10 cm convoluted 20 cm interlaminated vfL and siltstone; wavy 2 cm vfL; 3 cm siltstone 3 cm vfL; wavy; 4 cm silt bearing vfL 3 cm vfL; wavy; 4 cm silt bearing vfL 21 cm vfL sandstone; wavy h. lam and faint ARL wavy interlaminated vfL and siltstone; bioturbated 6 cm 7 cm 11 cm 10 cm 10 cm 8 cm 10 cm vfL sandstone; wavy, bioturbated 1 cm vfL sandstone; 2 cm vfL; wavy; 2 cm siltstone; bioturb. 5 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated; 14 cm vfL; faint h. lam. 4 cm vfL sandstone; wavy; 5 cm silt bearing vfL 14 cm vfL sandstone; PPL 1 cm vfL sandstone; 5 cm siltstone; h. lam. 3 cm silt bearing vfL; wavy; 8 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL; 4 cm vfL; wavy lamination 1 cm vfL; 20 cm vfL; wavy PPL 8 cm vfL; structureless; 7 cm vfL; wavy 24 cm silt bearing vfL; wavy lamination 30 cm vfL; horizontal lamination 15 cm interbedded siltstone and vfL; ARL 32 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 8 cm vfL; wavy horizontal lamination 9 cm vfL; wavy base; 3 cm vfL; bioturbated 3 cm vfL; wavy 20 cm vfL sandstone; faint horizontal lam; ARL 2 cm vfL; wavy; 12 cm vfL; bioturbated 2 cm vfL; h. lam.; 3 cm wavy 14 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 3 cm vfL; h. lam.; 16 cm vfL-M sandstone; wavy cm sale h. lam. 5 cm interbedded vfL and siltstone; wavy 2 cm vfL; 8 cm silt bearing vfL; wavy, bioturbated 8 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated to wavy 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated to wavy 10 cm vfL; 4 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated ARL 334 338 Top of section; 39.6 m Tutapuha Stream Upper Section Mudstone above CC2 to 2/13/13 1 1 NC TA CC3 and CC4 Margin and Above bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MS m -le an Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Tutapuha East Composite CC1B to Base CC2 NC TA 1/9/13 S 2.7 m exposed of massive fL sandstone; two wavy beds amalgamated at 1.4 m and 1.55 m 5 cm siltstone; sharp contact 50 cm fL sandstone 7 cm siltstone; sharp contact 25 cm fL sandstone 10 cm siltstone 10 cm fL sandstone 20 cm siltstone 60 cm vfU-fL sandstone 10 cm siltstone 75 cm fL sandstone 10 cm siltstone 45 cm fL sandstone 5 cm siltstone 17 cm fL sandstone 60 cm silty sandtstone; heavily bioturbated 5 cm fL sandstone; 5 cm siltstone 8 cm light gray siltstone; 12 cm dark gray siltstone 43 cm silty sandstone; bioturbated, sands are discontinuous; bioturbation of coarser sand layers 30 cm silty sandstone lenses; heavily bioturbated 1 cm siltstone 2 cm mL sandstone (marker bed) 15 cm silty sandstone 2 cm mL sandstone (marker bed) 35 cm siltstone 5 cm vfU-fL sandstone; discontinuous, bioturbated 15 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated 20 cm siltstone 1 cm vfM sandstone; 7 cm siltstone 4 cm vfM sandstone; bioturbated Cover (massive sandstone) S S S S W W/S W 35 cm siltstone 20 cm siltstone 20 cm siltstone 25 cm siltstone; mm scale sandstone intraclasts; wavy bedding Thick siltstone with sand lenses; heavily bioturbated W 3 cm vfL sandstone, wavy base; discontinuous 40 cm siltstone 5 cm sandstone lenses in siltstone/silty sandstone fU-mL sandstone lenses 40 cm siltstone concretions at top fU sandstone lenses concretions at top 30 cm silt dominated; cm scale sandstone lenses; heavily bioturbated at base 1 cm vfU sandstone; 12 cm siltstone 25 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated, sandstone lenses mU-cL sandstone; bioclastic debris, cm scale intraclasts siltstone; escape burrow fU sandstone; shell hash 25 cm siltstone; little bioturbation 10 cm wavy siltstone; interbedded with sandstone lenses; 15 cm PPL; cm scale sand increases up 10 cm fU-mL sandstone; structureless 40 cm fU-mL sandstone with mud intraclast rip ups cm scale PPL 10 cm ARL; wavy base; upper 12 cm PPL to wavy 80 cm vfU-fL sandstone GPS point @ coarse bed 2N LGS UCSS 146 1 cm vfL sandstone lenses bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MS m -le an Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l Tutapuha Composite Base of CC2 NC TA 1/8/13 1 1 0 1 2 3 10 cm siltstone 94 cm fM-fU sandstone; SnF Mudstone intraclast conglomerate; cm scale clasts 23 cm vfU sandstone, wavy to rippled; cm scale intraclasts 58 cm fL-vfU sandstone; floating cm scale mud intraclasts 8 cm ARL 13 cm vfL sandstone; PPL 20 cm fL sandstone; PPL Amalgamation surface Mudstone marker beds from 2N LGS 327 147 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Vo lc an ic sa nd M ud st on e be lo w C C 1B 10 cm mudstone 35 cm siltstone with volcanic ash lenses, plag, qtz subangular to subrounded phenocrysts; bioturbated 2 cm mL-mU volcanic rich sandstone; subangular/subrounded 20 cm volcanic rich siltstone 2 cm mudstone; hemipelagic, fossil/organic rich; floating vfL 40 cm siltstone; graded, floating volcanic grains, qtz, plag 10 cm fL sandstone 45 cm volcanic rich muddy siltstone; bioturbated, ash bearing; concretions, graded; qtz, plag 15 cm volcanic rich siltstone; lenses of fU sand/ash Thick volcanic rich siltstone; phenocryst bearing; organic rich, volcanic rich, calcareous rich siltstone dominated with fU-mL sandstone lenses; silty to muddy matrix 30 cm graded bed; welded tuff, concretions and relic bedding; qtz, plag, kspar, mica 24 cm volcanic rich; siltstone matrix, graded 19 cm volcanic rich; siltstone matrix, graded 20 cm volcanic rich; siltstone matrix, graded 12 cm volcanic rich; siltstone matrix, graded 12 cm volcanic rich; siltstone matrix, graded 14 cm volcanic rich; siltstone matrix, graded 15 cm silt dominated; volcanics at base, graded 17 cm silt dominated; volcanics at base, graded 20 cm silt dominated; volcanics at base, graded 40 cm siltstone; less volcanics and sand, clay rich structureless to wavy PPL and SnF fL sandstone; well sorted, structureless Base of sandstone bench A.S. fL sandstone; PPL to wavy bedding; ARL fL sandstone; possible scours (may be psuedo) no rip-up clasts, PPL fL sandstone; SnF, poorly exposed at top centimeter wide deformation bands possible truncation Fracture; ripples grains; dark brown; calcareous S G S S PPL fL sandstone; poorly exposed Top of exposure in north section exposure quality decreases Elementary Body Break ~7.5 m fL massive sandstone; partially exposed ~27 m thick sandstone succession Approximately 6 m covered in pine forest; trenched 2 m intervals exposing fL sandstone Tutapuha North Composite Volcaniclastic & CC1B NC TA 1/9/13 1 1 148 149 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Cover Heavily fractured thick bedded sandstone; SnF Horst block; hanging wall to the west, measured footwall Thick bedded fM sandstone mud intraclast conglomerate, thickens laterally; cm scale clasts Elementary Body 70 cm fL sandstone 15 cm fL sandstone; floating mm scale mud intraclasts Dewatering and dish structures 65 cm vfU-fL sandstone, PPL 5 cm ARL with PPL laterally, dish structures 15 cm ripple laminated PPL 10 cm vfL silty sandstone; increasing sand up 60 cm sandstone and siltstone interbedded, wavy beds; 19 cm rippled sandstone fL-fU structureless sandstone faint wavy PPL fM-fU structureless sandstone, graded at base Amalgamation Surface; mU max 35 cm fL-fM sandstone; truncated 20-30 cm vfU-fM silt bearing sandstone; wavy bedding; rip-up clasts; cm scale mud intraclasts 70 cm vfU sandstone; dewatering structures 10 cm vfU sandstone; wavy bedding, burrows faint PPL 13 cm PPL, concentration of organics; clay rich 45 cm interbedded sandstone, siltstone 10 cm volcaniclastic 70 cm fL sandstone grading to siltstone; siltstone clay rich 12 cm vfL sandstone 2 cm fU volcanic rich sandstone 6 cm siltstone 80 cm fL sandstone grading to vfU; gray SnF possible SnF Cross-cutting relationship Elementary Body; W 30 cm vfU-fL sandstone; tan cm scale mudstone intraclasts Siltstone; vfL max 40 cm fL sandstone; structureless 1.2 m fL sandstone; wavy to SnF bedding faint PPL 3 cm organic rich, iron rich vfM sandstone 8 cm vfL sandstone; mm mud intraclasts 2 cm siltstone; 2 cm iron rich vfL-U sandstone; 6 cm siltstone 5 cm fU volcaniclastic rich fL structureless sandstone Iron rich; possibly an amalgamation surface 5 cm PPL capped by vfL sandstone to siltstone; mica rich cap 18 cm siltstone interbedded with vfL; few organics volcaniclastic sandstone; mm mud intraclasts 47 cm fL sandstone; structureless; gray 9 cm siltstone vfL sandstone; faint PPL; interbedded sand/silt 70 cm fL sandstone; structureless 34 cm vfU sandstone interbedded with vfL to siltstone; wavy Thick bedded fL sandstone; faint PPL Structureless 5 cm wavy to convolute bedding Dewatering structures; possible intraclasts 10 cm fM sandstone; mud intraclasts; irregular contact;Elementary Body 4 cm siltstone 39 cm siltstone; bioturbated more calcareous rich sandstone, siltstone; interbedded vfL sandstone; structureless 13 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated 15 cm vfU sandstone; bioturbated 15 cm siltstone Interbedded vfU sandstone and siltstone; heavily bioturbated; difficult to break out events (5 cm - 25 cm event beds) 13 cm vfU sandstone; wavy cap S S S W/I Interbedded vfU sandstone and siltstone; heavily bioturbated Rippled to wavy bedding; burrowing, heavily bioturbated 5 cm fM-fU sandstone; phenocryst rich volcanics; GPS 34.8 m 50 cm siltstone; little bioturbation 1 cm vfL-vfU sandstone; volcanic bearing Partially covered Siltstone; little bioturbation; gray cm scale concretions Siltstone; tan, increasing abundance of concretions Siltstone; gray Siltstone; tan; faint PPL increasing spacing up decimeter scale concretions Siltstone; dark gray fL sandstone S/W PPL wavy to rippled bedding 65 cm fL sandstone; structureless; GPS 40 m 5 cm PPL to ripple wavy, mm mud intraclasts in PPL, fines up 15 cm vfL-silty sandstone; few organics, interbedded 15 cm vfU sandstone; PPL with 5 cm ARL cap 11 cm vfU sandstone; structureless 4 cm vfU sandstone; PPL with flame structure cap 25 cm vfU sandstone; PPL with wavy rippled cap 28 cm interbedded vfL sandstone and siltstone; PPL to wavy; 18 cm interbedded vfL sandstone and siltstone; sands thin up Convoulted bedding; mudstone intraclasts faint wavy bedding; possible dewatering 2.9 m thick fL sandstone; S faint laminations sands thin up Floating mud intraclasts E W/E 30 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; cm scale mud intraclast conglomerate; rip ups, SnF, dewatering 35 cm vfM sandstone; structureless 5-10 cm ARL cap; siltstone 27 cm vfM sandstone; structureless Tutapuha South Composite CC1B to CC2 NC TA 1/13/13 1 1 150 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 and volcanics below Truncation to Ash Layer (50 cm below) @ margin 3.78 m volcaniclastic Ash mud mud conv. sand sand sand mud with volcanics @ 3N LGS fault, channel margin has truncated to 22 m in section; mudstone Missing Section Horizontal lamination thinning upwards; poor exposure Silty sandstone interlaminated with vfL-vfM; poor exposure Clay rich siltstone/mudstone siltstone matrix; phenocrysts up to cL; white sodium plagioclase 45 cm poor exposure fU sandstone to volcaniclastic ash in 65 cm volcaniclastic; fL-fM phenocrysts dispersed in silty matrix; poorly exposed 1-2 cm volcaniclastic ash; mU-cL phenocrysts 10 cm clay bearing volcaniclastic rich siltstone 3 cm volcaniclastic ash; mU-cL phenocrysts 6 cm clay bearing volcanic ash; 3 cm mU-cL phenocrysts 10 cm clay bearing volcanic ash 4 cm volcanic ash; mU-cL phenocrysts; 8 cm clay bearing ash 2 cm volcanic ash; mU-cL phenocrysts; 2 cm clay bearing ash 3 cm volcanic ash; mU-cL phenocrysts; 5 cm clay beaing ash 8 cm volcanic clay beaing; 3 cm volcanic ash; mU-cL phenocrysts 12 cm volcanic; clay bearing 3 cm volcanic ash; mU-cL phenocrysts 45 cm volcanic ash; clay beaing; phenocrysts dispersed 2 cm volcaniclastic; fU-mL phenocrysts; white plagioclase 11 cm clay bearing volcanic ash; phenocrysts dispersed 3 cm volcanic ash; mU phenocrysts 20 cm volcaniclastic; clay bearing; phenocrysts dispersed 3 cm volcanic ash; mU phenocrysts 7 cm clay bearing; phenocrysts dispersed 1 cm volcanic ash; mU phenocrysts Apprx. 65 cm volcaniclastic; clay bearing; phenocrysts dispersed 5 cm volcaniclastic; wavy, possibly bioturbated 7 cm siltstone; 5 cm volcaniclastic volcaniclastic Begin channel cut; CC1B 60 cm horizontal lam.; siltstone and sandstone interlaminated 1 cm volcanic ash; amalgamation surface vfM-vfU sandstone; massive, SnF Amalgamation surface 110 cm vfU sandstone 7 cm convoluted; granule to pebble intraclasts mud and sand intraclasts 12 cm vfL to siltstone cm scale volcaniclastic; cL-cU phenocrysts vfM sandstone; SnF 1.45 m vfU sandstone; SnF 14 cm siltstone to vfL; bioturbated vfU-fL sandstone; SnF vfU-fL sandstone; h. lam. cap; 1 cm silt dominted; volcanics 2-5 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; 11 cm siltstone and volcanics cap 65 cm fL sandstone with vfU-fL cap; SnF 11 cm silt to vfL; bioturbated 40 cm vfU-fL sandstone Amalgamation Surface vfU-fL sandstone; faint laminations SnF vfM sandstone; cm scale siltstone intraclasts, floating vfU sandstone; wavy to SnF vfL cap 11 cm siltstone to vfL; bioturbated 14 cm vfM-vfU; horizontal lamination 16 cm vfU sandstone with vfL to siltstone intraclasts; pinches laterally 5 cm vfL to siltstone; possible bioturbation 20 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; horizontal lamination 7 cm siltstone to vfL; possible bioturbation 60 cm vfU-fL sandstone; structureless to horizontal lam. 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated, burrows 50 cm vfU sandstone; floating siltstone intraclasts 11 cm siltstone; bioturbated 6 cm fL sandstone; horizontal lam.; possible volcanics @ base 110 cm fL sandstone; SnF to horizontal lamination 6 cm siltstone; possible bioturbation 20-30 cm vfU sandstone; mm-cm scale mud intraclasts 10 cm siltstone 30 cm vfU sandstone with cm scale mud intraclasts 85 cm vfU sandstone W W S S S S S W/S W W/S S S S S W W W/E Few intraclasts 4 cm siltstone 13 cm vfM sandstone 9 cm siltstone 16 cm vfU sandstone 4 cm vfL to siltstone vfU-vfM sandstone; structureless 8 cm silt dominated 15 cm vfM sandstone 90 cm vfU sandstone; wavy horizontal lam. to SnF Amalgamation surface 60 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; intraclasts throughout 14-24 cm siltstone; wavy cap, bioturbated 2.1 m fL sandstone grading to vfU 15 cm siltstone 1-2 cm volcaniclastic; 3 cm siltstone 1 cm volcaniclastic; 2 cm vfU sandstone 18 cm silt dominated; bioturbated, horizontal lamination 37 cm vfU-vfL sandstone 5 cm siltstone 41 cm vfU sandstone grading to vfL Silt dominated; heavily bioturbated, coarser sands remain in burrows 50 cm vfU sandstone 15 cm siltstone 30 cm vfU sandstone 80 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated, sand stringers 1 m cover 30 cm interbedded sand and silt Heavily bioturbated siltstone with sand grains 10 cm siltstone remaining in burrows 10 cm vfU sandstone with cm scale mud intraclasts 34 cm vfL sandstone; 2 cm PPL cap 17 cm vfM sandstone; 3 cm PPL cap 10 cm vfM sandstone W 15 cm vfM sandstone; faint lamination at base 16 cm vfL-vfM sandstone Warekarianga Stream 1 1 Volcanics & CC1B Margin NC TA 1/25/13 3 cm siltstone 151 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 N N N N N E E E composite 2, interfingering with composite 1 Base composite 3 20 cm vfL sandstone; poor exposure 1.05 m poor exposure; clay rich, silt dominated; vfL to siltstone 1-2 cm clay rich siltstone vfL sandstone with clay rich matrix; faint PPL 72 cm vfL sandstone grading to clay rich silt dominated matrix 7 cm vfM sandstone; structureless 25 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; PPL 50 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; clay rich 17 cm 14 cm 20 cm 13 cm 10 cm 12 cm 9 cm 27 cm 17 cm 15 cm 9 cm 25 cm 45 cm 16 cm vfM sandstone grading to vfL sandstone 5 cm bioturbated cap 12 cm vfM sandstone 55 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; SnF grooves at base 60 cm vfM sandstone grading to vfL sandstone 40 cm silt dominated with few vfL grains; PPL 40 cm volcaniclastic ash; clay rich; begin volcaniclastics 10 cm volcaniclastic; dark brown 5 cm light gray volcanic ash 20 cm volcaniclastic; dark tan 18 cm light gray volcaniclastic 5 cm volcaniclastic; very dark brown 15 cm light tan volcanic ash 3 cm volcaniclastic; dark brown 5 cm volcanic ash 7 cm volcaniclastic; dark brown 12 cm volcanic ash; light gray 2 cm volcaniclastic; 10 cm light gray ash 3 cm volcanic; 5 cm ash Best estimate given; not accessible, cliff face Cover below 0 m Groove 326 2 cm volcaniclastic; 4 cm ash 1 cm volcaniclastic; 10 cm ash, bioturbated, burrowed 4 cm volcaniclastic; 12 cm ash 2 cm volcaniclastic; 12 cm ash 2-3 cm volcaniclastic; 17 cm ash 3 cm volcaniclastic; 12 cm ash 2 cm volcaniclastic; 17 cm ash 2 cm volcaniclastic; 4 cm ash 2 cm volcaniclastic, dark brown; 7 cm ash 2 cm volcaniclastic; 20 cm ash 5 cm volcaniclastic; 10 cm ash 64 cm volcanic ash/siltstone outcrop character changes in appearance 2 cm volcaniclastic; 3 cm ash 2 cm volcaniclastic; 16 cm siltstone, bioturbated, wavy h. lam. 16 cm siltstone; bioturbated with vfU sandstone lenses 1-2 cm vfU sandstone; 7 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm volcaniclastic, discontinuous; 6 cm siltstone 1 cm volcaniclastic; 2 cm siltstone/ash 2 cm vfU sandstone; burrowed; ARL to PPL 40 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; h. lam., 5-6 cm spacing 30 cm vfU sandstone; PPL with ARL to SnF cap (photo) 6 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; horizontal lamination 3-7 cm fL sandstone; wavy 22 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; climbing ripples 11 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; structureless 21 cm siltstone; climbing ripples 2-5 cm volcaniclastic in sandstone matrix 4 cm siltstone 12 cm fL sandstone 10 cm vfM sandstone grading to vfL; ARL cap, pinches laterally 22 cm siltstone; climbing ripples with ARL cap 7 cm vfL-vfM sandstone, structureless; 4 cm org. rich, bioturb. 4 cm siltstone 29 cm vfU sandstone grading to vfL; structureless 7 cn vfL to siltstone; bioturbated cap 9 cm vfL sandstone; structureless 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated 15 cm vfL-vfM sandstone 5 cm siltstone 3 cm vfL sandstone; 4 cm siltstone 50 cm fL sandstone; (multilateral body within CC1B) 15 cm siltstone; wavy top 10 cm vfU sandstone 92 cm sandy siltstone cap; fissile weathering 90 cm fL sandstone; massive, structureless; thins to 50 cm north Base of composite 3 within CC1B 5 cm ash/siltstone 30 cm fL sandstone; structureless 8 cm silty ash W W W S S S S S S S S I/E W/E N 312 312 310 311 310 316 319 70 cm fL sandstone; structureless 1 cm siltstone; dark brown, burrowed 9 cm silty ash 36 cm fL sandstone grading to vfM; 22 cm PPL; 14 cm ARL 6 cm siltstone cap 10 cm vfM sandstone 9 cm siltstone 10-13 cm vfU sandstone; wavy top 33 cm siltstone with fL sandstone lense 8 cm fL sandstone with cL volcanics 38 cm siltstone; bioturbated 6 cm vfM sandstone 23 cm siltstone 35 cm volcaniclastic sand rich matrix; fL with mL max 5 cm vfU sandstone; fL max 32 cm siltstone 6 cm vfM sandstone 47 cm siltstone mm vfL sandstone; 5 cm siltstone 4 cm vfU sandstone 54 cm siltstone; faint PPL Approximate measurements; above head24 cm sandstone 14 cm siltstone 11 cm sandstone 8 cm siltstone 9 cm sandstone 12 cm siltstone; fissile 14 cm sandstone 13 cm siltstone 19 cm sandstone 13 cm siltstone 26 cm sandstone 13 cm siltstone Faint PPL S W S S S Warekarianga Stream CC1A?/Volcanics/CC1B Magin-OB NC TA 1/27/13 1 1 4 cm volcaniclastic 3 cm volcanic; 7 cm ash Poor exposure; wet stream bed 152 EB EB EB EB EB EB EB EB EB Rotate d bloc k - raf ted Conv olute d bed ding Gibb’s Hill Composite Mud below CC1A to CC1A NC TA 2/14/13 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 22 cm siltstone 1 cm volcanic ash; 6 cm siltstone 3 cm vfL sandstone; 26 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2 cm volcaniclastic; 4 cm siltstone 13 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 4 cm siltstone 15 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated mm volcaniclastic; 2 cm siltstone, brown 4 cm siltstone; gray, burrowed mm volcaniclastic; 12 cm siltstone 70 cm fM-fU sandstone conglomerate; Begin CC1A 1.6 m to possible A.S. fM-fU sandstone; massive, SnF 48 cm fM-fU sandstone; wavy lamination 77 cm fL-fM sandstone; wavy lamination 85 cm fL-fM sandstone; SnF 40 cm fM with mL-mM matrix; 47 cm fU-mL sandstone with mM max 45 cm fU-mL sandstone; mU max; mud intraclasts with rafted siltstone blocks 47 cm fU-mL sandstone; mU max; 1.5 m vfL sandstone with rafted blocks; convoluted laterally 43 cm mud intraclast conglomerate; rafted angular clasts, cm to decimeter 20 cm fU-mL sandstone; mM-mU max; faint lamination floating clasts at base 15 cm fU-mL sandstone; mud intraclasts throughout clasts smaller than below; cm scale 25 cm fU-mL sandstone; floating mud intraclasts 10 cm mud intraclast conglomerate 40 cm fU-mL sandstone; mU max; PPL floating mud intraclasts @ top 40 cm vfU-FL sandstone; fU max, rafted and floating mud blocks; H. lam and PPL laterally 55 cm fL-fM sandstone; mL max, mud intraclast conglomerate; angular rafted blocks; H. lam and PPL laterally 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ARL laterally 50 cm fU-mL sandstone; PPL 27 cm fU-mL sandstone; mud intraclasts 2 cm with cm scale mud intraclasts 2.28 m fU-mL sandstone; PPL Floating cm scale mud intraclasts 15 cm fL-fU sandstone; wavy convoluted bedding 1 m fL-fU sandstone; structureless to faint lamination vfU-fL 18 cm vfL sandstone; PPL 1-2 cm flame structures to convolute bedding 7 cm vfU-fL sandstone; structureless, mm rip ups 10 cm vfL to silty; convoluted, flame structure 82 cm vfU sandstone with silt interbedded; approx. 2-3 cm per bed; approx. 14 event beds 30 cm fU-mL sandstone; cm scale PPL 10 cm vfL sandstone; wavy ARL cap 45 cm vfL sandstone interbedded with siltstone; 5 event beds 21 cm fM sandstone; structureless 13 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; H. lam 51 cm fM-fU sandstone; mL max, structureless 35 cm thin bedded; inaccessible 20 cm vfM sandstone 10 cm vfM sandstone Massive sandstone and cover above 18 m ARL 18 mud intraclasts laterally mud intraclast conglomerate mud intraclast conglomerate bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MS m -le an Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 153 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 S S S S S S S S W/I W W W E/W W W 14 cm vfU sandstone; present in creek bed 5 cm interlaminated siltstone and vfL sandstone 8 cm vfU sandstone; 2 cm siltstone 10 cm vfU sandstone 22 cm siltstone 93 cm vfU sandstone grading to vfL in top 20 cm 10 cm siltstone 1.01 m fL sandstone; grades to vfL silty mudstone; structureless exposure 19 cm silty mudstone 10 cm vfL silty sandstone to vfM-U; pinches laterally 2 cm vfL sandstone 1.75 m vfM-U sandstone; grades to vfL-M at top 8.5 cm vfL sandstone; PPL to wavy; grades to siltstone at top 33 cm siltstone with mm scale vfL to siltstone beds; photo 10-16 cm vfU-fL sandstone; wavy cm scale siltstone intraclasts; PPL to wavy beds Begin deformed section 74 cm siltstone; deformed with mm thin beds of vfL to sandy siltstone lamination; photo 1-4 cm sand bearing siltstone; wavy lamination 60 cm vfM-U sandstone; SnF PPL to SnF PPL cap 1-8 cm vfU-fL volcaniclastic bearing; mU-cL max; scours below 23 cm vfU-fL; grades to vfL with vfU max 13-17 cm siltstone; wavy bedding interlam. with vfL-siltstone 20 cm vfU sandstone; rafted, intraclast/block 70 cm siltstone with mm interlamination of sandy siltstone 70-90 cm wavy siltstone with mm interlamination of sandy siltstone; deformed; photo 3-4 cm siltstone; wavy, orange Begin CC2 MTD; 1.67 m deformed siltstone/mudstone; shell hash, crinoid fossils 1 cm volcaniclastic bearing; bioturbated 60 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm volcaniclastic bearing; possible bioturbation/burrowed 37 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL sandstone; discontinuous,bioturbated 58 cm siltstone; possible bioturbated; poor exposure, trenched 7 cm vfU sandstone 5 cm mudstone 22 cm siltstone 11 cm vfM-L sandstone; PPL to wavy; photo 2 cm volcaniclastic bearing 11 cm siltstone; 3 cm mudstone 6-8 cm vfU-fL sandstone; grades to vfL 12 cm siltstone 15 cm vfM-L; PPL, photo 9 cm siltstone; clay rich 12 cm siltstone; concretions, calcareous shell hash; photo, GPS; Sampled 27 cm siltstone 15 cm faint lamination 15 cm PPL 10 cm vfU sandstone 1 cm fU-fL sandstone; unknown black mineral present 13 cm siltstone 40 cm vfU-fL sandstone; PPL cap 27 cm siltstone 2-5 cm vfL-M sandstone; wavy top; ARL 10 cm siltstone 12 cm vfL-M sandstone 4 cm vfL-M sandstone; 4 cm siltstone 5 cm siltstone 45 cm vfM-U sandstone; faint lamination 7 cm vfM-U sandstone 4 cm volcaniclastic; fL with vcU max; cm scale mud intraclasts; 13 cm vfU sandstone 1-2 cm volcaniclastic; vfU-fL with mU-cL max 5 cm siltstone 22 cm vfU sandstone 33 cm siltstone lens of fL sandstone laterally S S S S S S S W W W W S G ARL 312 Locked Gate Lower CC1B to base CC2 NC TA 2/1/13 1 1 154 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Lenticular intraclast conglomerate 270 ARL 7 5 3 2 1 1 2 3 30.6 Amalgamated sandstone with floating mudstone intraclasts 40 cm mud intraclast conglomerate; subrounded to fM amalgamated sandstone; loaded contacts; Base of CC2 sandstone Deformed light grey siltstone; MTD Concretions at amalgamated surfaces, scattered throughout; SnF faint PPL mud intraclasts cut by 30 cm wavy to rippled sandstone Discontinuous contact mudstone intraclasts subangular clasts; 30 cm relief into lower sandstone irregular and discontinuous faint PPL at amalgamation surface fU sandstone grading up Chaotic folded silt-dominated mudstone; truncated top 30% mudstone concentration at base SnF; set size decreases up 7 cm siltstone; eroded laterally rafted blocks 1 m wide at base PPL grading up to wavy laminae; sub-supercritical Dispersed/isolated lens mudstone intraclasts; erosional base PPL to SNF; laterally cut by mudstone intraclast conglomerate in sandstone matrix; 1 m relief on erosional surface mudstone intraclast conglomerate in vfU matrix; 36 cm wide clasts 60 cm fL sandstone; PPL wavy to ARL/climbing ripples Partially exposed fM sandstone cm scale mudstone intraclasts fM sandstone SnF; cm scale mudstone intraclasts MTD PPL to ARL Elementary Body Elementary Body S/L E/L PPL ARL PPL Amalgamated sandstone; cm spaced PPL PPL Lenticular bed pinches out to the west Structureless sandstone; truncated ARL; 20cm sets with PPL cm spaced PPL fL sandstone with siltstone partings cm spaced PPL ~ 5 cm siltstone parting PPL; 5 cm beds with siltstone interlaminae Ripple lamination; opposed coset and ARL; 3-5 cm sets Mounded wavy stratification PPL to ARL with siltstone parting in 15-25 cm event beds; laterally continuous for 100 m E E 270 ARL S S Siltstone drape; mudstone intraclast conglomerate ARL Dewatered dish structures? PPL ARL Wedge shaped event bed; PPL Dish structures Structureless sandstone mudstone intraclast conglomerate structureless sandstone truncated by erosional body mudstone intraclast conglomerate Base CC4 ARL PPL ARL E E Locked Gate Middle CC2 to CC3 and CC4 MHG NC TA 1/13/12 1 1 Base of CC3 section 155 EB EBscours EB EB End CC2 Begin CC3 Folded MTD EB/composite ties into CC2; intraclasts below MTD 20 cm mud intraclast conglomerate floating mud intraclasts 73 cm vfU-fL sandstone; SnF 15 cm ARL capped by iron rich ARL 5 cm vfL ARL; 3 cm cross stratification 10 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; wavy to faint ARL 15 cm vfM sandstone; climbing ripples 9 cm vfL to siltstone; wavy bedding 53 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; SnF 6 cm vfL to siltstone; wavy cap 20 cm vfM sandstone; mounding to wavy 3-5 cm vfL to siltstone; PPL, mounding to wavy cap 15 cm vfL sandstone; PPL; 2 cm wavy to ARL cap 27 cm vfM sandstone; PPL 18 cm vfM sandstone; climbing ripples 8-9 cm vfL sandstone; mounding to wavy cap 3 cm vfL to siltstone; wavy PPL 11 cm vfM sandstone; climbing ripples 2 cm trough cross-stratification; 3 cm wavy to PPL cap 3 cm vfL sandstone; mounded to wavy cross-stratification; 4 cm vfL to silt; PPL, bioturbated 3 cm vfL sandstone; mounded to wavy cross-stratification; 2 cm vfL to silt; PPL, bioturbated; 10 cm vfM sandstone; PPL, truncated 32-37 cm mud intraclast conglomerate; lenses of vfL sand, clast supported 78 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; 18 cm floating mud intraclasts; 38 cm SnF; 40 cm PPL Begin MTD 17-28 cm mud intraclast conglomerate; cm to pebble clasts; matrix supported 20 cm vfU sandstone with mm scale mud intraclasts 10 cm vfL sandstone; cm to mm scale mud intraclasts; Begin folded beds within MTD 10- 55 cm mud intraclast conglomerate; truncates top of MTD folded beds 70 cm vfU-fL sandstone; PPL; floating mud intraclasts Folded sandstone and mudstone interbedded S RC E I/W E S S E/W W S S 345 334 310 340 324 EB EB EB Begin CC4 EB EB EB ARL 336 312 faint CR CR 340 359 ARL 329 339 358 Mud/silt and VFM sand 2.5 m PPL sandstone Bioturbated Bioturbated iron cap iron cap iron capBioturbated 110 cm vfU-fL sandstone; SnF 9 cm trough cross-stratification; 4 cm siltstone 14 cm ARL to wavy; 2 cm siltstone 7 cm wavy; 2 cm siltstone 40 cm vfU-fL sandstone with mud intraclast conglomerate; pinches out to the west 30 cm vfU-fL sandstone; wavy PPL; floating cm scale mud intraclasts 43 cm vfU-fL sandstone; PPL with mud intraclasts at base 2.5 m fL sandstone cut by EB; PPL 4 cm vfM-vfU 2 cm mud intraclasts; EB 13 cm vfM sandstone; bioturbated 29 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; ARL & PPL 4 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; PPL wavy 45 cm vfU sandstone fining to vfL-vfM; PPL @ base faint SnF 6 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; wavy 21 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; fL max fining to vfU max iron stained wavy contact; EB 28 cm vfL-silt dominated; heavily bioturbated, sprites 5 cm silt bearing vfU-fL sandstone; climbing ripples 20 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated; wavy to PPL; iron staining 12-45 cm vfU-fL sandstone; wavy erosional cap; PPL to wavy cap; iron stained 35-57 cm silt dominated vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturb. 16 cm vfU-fU sandstone; wavy to PPL 12 cm vfM sandstone; bioturbated 12 cm vfU sandstone; ARL 11 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated base/cap 4 cm vfU-fL sandstone; low angle stratification, wavy 5 cm silt dominated vfL sandstone 4 cm vfL-vfU sandstone; climbing ripple to wavy 24 cm vfL sandstone; structureless to wavy 3 cm silt dominated vfL sandstone 6 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; PPL at base 0-17 cm fL sandstone; wavy to cross stratification/ARL EB (bar form) 7-17 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; wavy to bioturbated 11 cm vfM-vfU sandstone fining to vfL sand bearing siltstone 0-32 cm vfU sandstone; wavy to low angle climbing climbing cross stratification EB (bar form) 27-46 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; wavy, bioturbated 0-31 cm fL-fU sandstone fining to vfU-fL EB (possible bar form) 9 cm vfM sandstone; PPL 35 cm vfL sandstone; heavily bioturbated (PHOTO) 4 cm siltstone; horizontal lamination 14 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 2 cm vfL to siltstone; horizontal lamination 14 cm vfU-fL sandstone; low angle climbing ripples (PHOTO) 6 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; wavy 9 cm vfL sandstone; heavily bioturbated 5 cm vfM sandstone; PPL to horizontal lamination 15 cm vfL sandstone; heavily bioturbated 19 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; fines up; bioturbated, wavy 9 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; ARL to climbing ARL (PHOTO)16 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; wavy to ARL 7 cm vfM sandstone; PPL 9 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone cap S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S/E S/E S/E E/W W W W/E E Possible new composite bioturbated bioturbated bioturbated bioturbated EB EB EB EBsand convoluted bedding PPL 16 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 62 cm vfU sandstone fining to silt bearing vfL; faint h. lam. 25 cm vfM-vfU sandstone fining to vfL; 20 cm PPL 34 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; h. lam. 6 cm vfL-vfM sandstone 9 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone 70 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; structureless 4 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone cap; wavy 28 cm vfL-vfM sandstone fining to vfL to silt; h. lam. 70 cm vfU-fL sandstone; 40 cm h. lam. to PPL Bioturbated; convoluted to wavy 17-18 cm vfL sandstone; wavy cap, bioturbated 12-20 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; wavy to convolute 18 cm vfL sandstone; wavy, bioturbated 0-12 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; truncated 20-55 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; convoluted bedding 5-33 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; truncated 0-15 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; truncated, wavy h. lam. 12-31 cm vfU sandstone; PPL 18 cm vfL silty sandstone; bioturbated 23 cm vfM sandstone thinning to 16 cm laterally; structureless 18 cm vfL silty sandstone; bioturbated 37 cm vfL silty sandstone; bioturbated; mm scale mud intraclasts; PPL, horizontal lamination mm scale mud intraclasts, floating 13 cm interlaminated vfM-vfU sandstone with mod. sorted volcanics sorted volcanics 10 cm interlaminated vfM-vfU sandstone with mod. 9 cm vfU sandstone; 10 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 34 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 2 cm vfM-vfL sandstone; concretions 2 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; 4 cm vfL sandstone; unamalgamates to 2 beds to the north 6 cm vfL-vfM sandstone 31 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; lower 10 cm faint h. lam.; bioturb. 3-4 cm vfU-fL sandstone 33 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 3 cm vfL sandstone; h. lam. 58 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; well sorted, fines to vfM more silt rich matrix; convoluted; wavy to h. lam. bioturbated 25 cm above base 1 cm vfU-fL sandstone; wavy, 3 cm vfL; wavy h. lam. 3-5 cm vfM-vfU sandstone 34 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; heavily bioturbated 5 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; wavy top, structureless 11 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 15-37 cm vfU-fL sandstone fining to vfL-vfM; PPL, truncated 7 cm vfL sandstone; wavy h. lam. 11 cm vfU sandstone; structureless, truncated 14 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated EB 3-4 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; truncated by bioturbated body 23 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 8 cm vfM sandstone; structureless 17 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated & burrowed 8 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; structureless 9 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; wavy, bioturbated 26-27 cm vfL sandstone to silt; bioturbated 3 cm vfM sandstone; h. lam.; 7 cm vfM sandstone, thins to the south; planar tab. cross-strat., climbing ripple 3 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; 1 cm vfM sandstone 12 cm vfM sandstone; wavy 8 cm vfM sandstone; bioturbated 5 cm wavy to ARL 54 cm heavily bioturbated silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone sed. events: 8, 13, 14, 7, and 12 cm 14 cm 9 cm 6 cm heavily bioturbated silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone (PHOTO) 35 cm vfU-fL sandstone; 15 cm PPL; 20 cm wavy 8 cm vfL sandstone; cross-stratification; fines to vfM 8 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 12 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 23 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; 8 cm bioturbated at base 1 cm vfM sandstone 7 cm vfM sandstone; ARL 66 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; h. lam. 9 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 17 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 8 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 22 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; structureless 21 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 4 cm vfL sandstone; wavy 2 cm vfM-vfU volcaniclastic 13 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; fines to 3 cm silty h. lam. 29 cm vfL sandstone; h. lam., bioturbated 26 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; fines to vfL; PPL 21 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 12 cm vfM sandstone; fines to vfL; wavy lamination 34 cm vfM sandstone; PPL to wavy h. lam.; wavy cap 12 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; burrowed, wavy 26 cm vfM sandstone; h. lam. to wavy, bioturbated 18 cm 12 cm 8 cm 12 cm 50 cm vfL sandstone; heavily bioturbated wavy h. lam. with faint amalgamation surfaces 13 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; h. lam., wavy 10 cm bioturbated 46 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; horizontal lamination Iron cap 60 cm vfU sandstone fining to silt rich vfL sandstone; partially covered, structureless 29 cm siltstone; structureless S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S I/W CR 311 314 320 12 cm vfU sandstone fining to vfL and silt; h. lam. 19 cm siltstone ; faint bioturbation, vfL sand in trace 19 cm siltstone; faint bioturbation mm vfL sandstone 15 cm siltstone; faint bioturbation 2 cm vfL sandstone; horizontal lamination 14 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; faint H. lam 10 cm vfL sandstone; structureless 40 cm siltstone; top 8 cm bioturbated 21 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; fines to vfL 44 cm sand bearing siltstone; faint bioturbation 16 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; fines to vfL-vfM; faint h. lam. 17 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; fines to vfL-vfM; PPL 4 cm sand bearing siltstone; wavy, bioturbated 5 cm vfL sandstone; 2 cm sand bearing siltstone 4 cm vfL sandstone; 5 cm siltstone 43 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; heavily bioturbated 1 cm vfM-vfU volcaniclastic; 6 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; PPL 19 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; heavily bioturbated 4 cm vfL sandstone; 3 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 6 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 3 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 4 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 22 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 18 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; concretions 7 cm vfU sandstone; PPL 9 cm vfL sandstone; structureless 10 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 28 cm vfU-fL sandstone; fines to vfL-vfM 7 cm silt bearing vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 12 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; bioturbated 9 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated mm vfM sandstone 12 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 15 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone 8 cm vfL to siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL sandstone 40 cm siltstone; bioturbated; partially covered 2.5 m covered 50 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; fines to vfL; horizontal lamination 25 cm covered 19 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated volcanics in top 2 cm 10 cm vfU-fL sandstone fining to 7cm vfL laminated silty s.s. 42 cm siltstone bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated mm vfL silty sandstone 29 cm siltstone bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfM-vfU with fL max 19 cm siltstone bearing vfL sandstone 9 cm siltstone; 8 cm siltstone; 24 cm siltstone; Bioturbated 10 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; PPL to horizontal lamination 22 cm siltstone; few shell hash at bed top 2-3 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 16 cm siltstone 10 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 16 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2 cm vfL sandstone; 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated 9 cm siltstone; bioturbated 23 cm siltstone; burrowed and bioturbated 5 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 9 cm vfL sandstone; structureless 15 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2 cm vfL sandstone 4 cm vfL sandstone; 8 cm siltstone; bioturbated 9 cm vfL sandstone; 3 cm siltstone 7 cm vfL sandstone; 2 cm siltstone 23 cm siltstone; bioturbated 12 cm siltstone 7 cm vfM-vfU sandstone; horizontal lams. 53 cm siltstone; small shell hash scattered, structureless 10 cm siltstone with concretions wavy lams in siltstone Tie point to CC4 Lower section W Locked Gate South CC2 to CC3/CC4 and above NC TA 2/11/13 1 1 17 cm siltstone; bioturbated 13 cm sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 21 cm wavy; bioturbated 28 cm vfL-vfM sandstone; 14 cm bioturbated with mm scale mud intraclasts 5 cm PPL cap EB EB EB EB EB EB EB EB EB bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 156 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MS m -le an Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l Locked Gate Upper Thin Beds Above CC4 NC TA 2/8/13 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 W W W W W W W W W W W E/W W Cliff face; jaked laterally 2-4 cm vfU sandstone 19 cm silty sandstone; bioturbated 4 cm vfL 27 cm silty sandstone; bioturbated, concretions 7 cm vfL; wavy 14 cm silty sandstone; bioturbated 6 cm silty sandstone; bioturbated 8 cm vfM; PPL/wavy 10 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 3-6 cm vfU-fL 15 cm vfL-M; PPL to wavy 16 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm siltstone; sand bearing 18 cm siltstone; bioturbated 14 cm vfL-M; fining up to vfL-siltstone 11 cm silty sandstone; bioturbated 8cm silty sandstone; bioturbated 9cm silty sandstone; PPL 10 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 11 cm PPL; top 2 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 11 cm vfM; wavy to PPL 3 cm interlaminated sandy siltstone; 2 cm siltstone; bioturbated 5 cm interlaminated sandy siltstone; 3 cm siltstone; bioturbated 5 cm sandy siltstone; 4 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfL to sandy siltstone; PPL/wavy; 7 cm bioturbated 2-4 cm vfL with 2 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 3-4 cm vfL with 2 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 20-22 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 5-13 cm vfM; wavy base; 1-2 cm vfU-fL @ base; mica & organics 11 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 12 cm vfL to sandy siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfM; wavy base/top 5 cm vfL-M; base/top wavy; 5 cm interlaminated; bioturbated 12 cm vfM-U 8 cm sandy siltstone; PPL to wavy 6 cm vfL sandy siltstone; 6 cm sandy siltstone; bioturb. 10 cm vfL to sandy siltstone; bioturbated 11 cm vfL-M; fining up 7 cm vfL; concretions 15 cm vfL to sandy siltstone; heavily bioturbated 10 cm vfL; structureless 7 cm vfL to silty sandstone; wavy PPL 12 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 11.5 cm vfL; PPL to interlamination; mm scale mud intraclasts 7 cm sandy siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfL-M; 6 cm sandy siltstone; wavy 8 cm vfL silty sandstone; wavy to ARL 15 cm vfL silty sandstone; bioturbated 3 cm vfL 39 cm vfL to sandy siltstone 5 cm vfL-M; laminated; possible organics, mica 1 cm sandy siltstone cap 16 cm vfL; bioturbated, discontinuous 24 cm silty vfL; wavy, bioturbated 30 cm siltstone; laminated; bioturbated 1 14cm vfU; thins to the west; structureless to faint lamination 1 cm vfL-M 3 cm vfL; wavy PPL 8 cm sandy siltstone 5 cm vfL to sandy siltstone; bioturbated 6 cm vfL interlaminated with sandy siltstone; wavy lamination 6 cm vfL structureless to bioturbated 6 cm sandy siltstone; wavy/bioturbated W 157 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 16 cm vfL-M sandstone 51 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated, concretions 19 cm vfL sandstone 32 cm silt bearing vfL-M sandstone; bioturbated, burrowed 39 cm vfM-U sandstone; 7 cm PPL at base 10 cm silt bearing mudstone 31 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 21 cm vfL sandstone 10 cm vfM-U sandstone; 1 cm laminated top 45 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 20 cm vfM-U sandstone 40 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 13 cm vfL-M sandstone 22 cm sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated, wavy top 9 cm vfL-M sandstone 7 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 10 cm vfM sandstone 3 cm vfL sandstone; concretions; 5 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone 24 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone 6-12 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 5 cm vfL sandstone 15 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfL sandstone; discontinuous, bioturbated 5 cm sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 8 cm vfL-M sandstone; 11 cm vfL-M; discontinuous; bioturbated 5 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 8-12 cm vfL-M sandstone 4-6 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 4-5 cm vfL-M sandstone; bioturbated 10-16 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 13-18 cm vfL-M sandstone; wavy 52 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 11 cm vfL-M sandstone 26 cm siltstone; bioturbated 9 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 10 cm vfL-M sandstone 18 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 25 cm vfM-U sandstone 19 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 8 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated 18 cm siltstone; bioturbated 5-9 cm vfL-M sandstone 8 cm siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfL sandstone 8 cm vfL sandstone; 3-4 cm sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 4-5 cm sand bearing siltstone 14 cm vfL-M sandstone 9 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated 9 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone 61 cm siltstone; minor shell hash, concretions W W W W W W W W W S I I W 10 cm siltstone 55 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 30 cm siltstone; bioturbated 40 cm vfL sandstone 24 cm siltstone 27 cm vfL sandstone 6 cm siltstone 10 cm vfL sandstone 6 cm siltstone 7 cm vfL sandstone 26 cm siltstone 17 cm vfL sandstone; wavy 9 cm siltstone 16 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone; bioturbated 3 cm siltstone 15 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; bioturbated Locked Gate Upper 2 Thin Beds Above CC4 NC TA 2/3/13 1 1 158 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 56 57 58 59 60 61 1.36 m to top of outcrop; interlaminated vfL sandstone to silt 1 cm iron rich volcaniclastic 1 cm iron rich volcaniclastic 89 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; poor exposure 4 cm vfM sandstone 0.5 m volcaniclastic; fL, mL max; 8 cm siltstone 11 cm mud rich siltstone 2 cm vfL sandstone 20 cm siltstone 1.2 m cover partially covered siltstone 0.5 cm volcaniclastic 1.5 cm vfU sandstone; fU max; few volcanics 60 cm interlaminated siltstone and vfL sand; mod. clay rich 1.5 cm volcaniclastic; mU max 63 cm siltstone with pockets of volcanics; bioturbated concretions 2 cm volcaniclastic; burrowed 4.75 m massive sand 30 cm localized scour convoluted bedding truncates clay rich trough cross-strat laterally 45 cm Internal scour Photo 1 m fL sandstone; structureless, poor exposure 22 cm fL sandstone; convoluted bedding top 8 cm fL sandstone; mud intraclast rich 40 cm fL sandstone; dispersed mud intraclasts; pinches laterally 4.75 m massive sandstone @ MR Cut; truncates down through trough cross strat. 45 cm to 5 cm from lower sand 55 cm vfM sandstone; structureless to h. lam. 5 cm interlamination; wavy cm scale spacing 1-2 cm wavy cap 80 cm vfU-fL at base; grades to vfM; structureless 8 cm vfU-fL; 2 cm vfL to siltstone; PPL 6 cm vfL sandstone; PPL to wavy cap 10 cm vfL sandstone; silt/clay rich 23 cm vfL sandstone; silt/clay rich 16 cm trough cross stratification;mounding, wavy 3 cm ARL 20 cm vfM sandstone; faint cm scale horizontal lamination 71 cm vfM sandstone; structureless; possible faint h. lam 10 cm vfM; convoluted to flame structures 3-4 cm silt bearing vfM sandstone cap 20 cm ARL 1.5 cm PPL 8 cm horizontal lamination 7 cm vfU; structureless; 1 cm clay to silt rich vfL 7 cm vfU; wavy h. lam; 1 cm vfM-U; PPL 5 cm vfU-fL; PPL 60 cm fL sandstone; structureless Cover below 0 m; found contact but may not be lowermost in sand W W 28 cm interlaminated vfL sandstone and siltstone 60 cm vfU sandstone; grades to vfM 22 cm vfL-M sandstone; wavy lamination 1-2 cm siltstone; wavy 20 cm vfL-M sandstone; wavy lamination 3 cm siltstone; wavy 31 cm vfM sandstone; 20 cm h. lam at base 70 cm vfU sandstone; grades to vfM; SnF Interlaminated vfL sandstone and siltstone 12 cm interlaminated vfL and siltstone 14 cm clay rich vfL to siltstone; ARL at base 45 cm vfM-U; graded, SnF 13 cm clay rich vfL; ARL at base 10 cm vfM sandstone 9 cm vfL to clay rich silt bearing sandstone 10 cm vfM sandstone 2 cm silt bearing clay rich cap; wavy to PPL 10 cm vfM-U sandstone; 7 cm ARL to wavy base 6 cm vfL-M sandstone 7 cm interlaminated sandstone and siltstone 20 cm vfM-U sandstone 23 cm with 1-2 cm beds of interlaminated vfL sandstone and clay rich siltstone 6 cm vfU sandstone 27 cm interlaminated vfL sandstone and siltstone 6 cm vfM sandstone 7 cm clay rich silt bearing vfL sandstone 23 cm fL-vfU sandstone 8 cm clay rich vfL sand bearing siltstone 10 cm clay rich vfL sand bearing siltstone; 2 cm vfU sandstone 26 cm vfM-L sandstone 27 cm vfU sandstone; horizontal lamination 2.25 m fL sandstone; structureless to possible SnF 80 cm cover 14 cm interlaminated siltstone 17 cm vfL sandstone 7 cm vfL sandstone; 1 cm siltstone 1 cm vfL sandstone 17 cm interlaminated; 1 cm siltstone 1 cm vfL sandstone; 14 cm interlaminated 1 cm vfL sandstone 20 cm interlaminated 2 cm vfL sandstone; 11 cm interlaminated 23 cm vfL to siltstone; mm to cm interlamination 30 cm vfL sandstone; 4-6 cm beds of interlamination 9 cm interlaminated siltstone and vfL sandstone 5 cm vfL sandstone 15 cm interlaminated siltstone 4 cm vfL sandstone; interlaminated 1 cm vfL sandstone; 10 cm interlaminated siltstone 15 cm siltstone; interlaminated; base is covered Interlaminated vfL sandstone with siltstone; clay rich, attempted to trench 1.4 m fL sandstone; structureless 29 cm interlaminated vfL 23 cm interlaminated vfL to siltstone 1 cm vfL sandstone 18 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone 17 cm interlaminated siltstone 5 cm bed with 1 cm vfL, 4 cm siltstone interlamination 22 cm with 2 cm vfL silty interlamination 43 cm silt bearing vfL sandstone 1 cm vfL sandstone 1 cm vfL; 11 cm siltstone 5 cm 8 cm 10 cm 50 cm 2.2 m cover 2.4 m interlamination; vfL and siltstone difficult to break out event beds; broke out beds based on thickening/thinning sequences; trenched to find sands poor exposure; 1 m partial exposure S&D 152/4 158/4 W S S W S/I/E W 1.5 cm vfL fining to 15 cm siltstone; fissle 2.5 cm vfL; wavy; 1 cm siltstone; interlaminated 11 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone; possible organics 2 cm PPL 27 cm siltstone interlaminated with vfL sandstone mm thick vfL to siltstone 18 cm siltstone interlaminated with vfL mm sandstone 1 cm vfM sandstone 9 cm vfL to siltstone; 4 cm fissile, 3.5 cm dark brown siltstone 8 cm vfL sandstone 2 cm siltstone; wavy caps 8 cm vfL sandstone 12 cm vfU sandstone 6 cm siltstone dominated; PPL 10 cm vfL sandstone 5 cm vfM sandstone with 1 cm siltstone dominated 14 cm vfU sandstone; grades to siltstone 10 cm siltstone 34 cm interlaminated vfL sandstone and siltstone 3 cm vfL with 1 cm wavy interlaminated cap 4 cm vfL sandstone; wavy cap/base; 5 cm wavy interlamination 11 cm siltstone dominated; PPL to wavy 5 cm siltstone dominated; wavy 3 cm PPL to wavy; 5 cm vfL sandstone between mL mica rich 25 cm siltstone; discontinuous interlamination; convoluted 11 cm interlaminated silt bearing vfL 17 cm vfL sandstone; structureless 1 m cover interlamination 10 cm vfM-L sandstone 2-5 cm vfM-U sandstone; 5 cm siltstone 30 cm vfL sandstone with interlaminated siltstone well sorted vfU sandstone 80 cm vfU-fL sandstone; structureless moderately sorted vfU-fL sandstone with mL max 25 cm vfL sandstone to siltstone; thins up 6 cm vfL-M sandstone 6 cm interlaminated 1-2 cm vfL sandstone 22 cm vfL sandstone; interlaminated 5 cm vfL-M sandstone; interlaminated 40 cm vfL sandstone; interlaminated to structureless 4 cm vfL sandstone 8 cm interlaminated 12 cm vfL sandstone 20 cm vfL sandstone with siltstone dominated matrix 5 cm vfM-U sandstone 13 cm siltstone 6 cm vfL sandstone 23 cm interlaminated siltstone; base not exposed 60 cm cover 90 cm fL sandstone; grades to vfU; structureless, poor exposure 1 cm vfL sandstone; 10 cm interlaminated W W W W W S Siltstone interlaminated with vfL sandstone; heavily bioturbated Difficult to break out event beds; poor exposure vfL sandstone Poor exposure above; jaked every meter 20 cm concretion; below sand 55 cm interlaminated siltstone and mm vfL sandstone; wavy 1 cm vfU sandstone; fU max; 5 cm siltstone; fissile 25 cm siltstone; dark gray; thins up to fissile cap 12 cm siltstone; light tan 2-5 cm vfU sandstone; wavy cap; bioturbated laterally (photo) 13 cm siltstone; PPL to interlamination; light tan 4 cm concretions; slight bioturbation 22 cm siltstone dominated; cm stringers of vfU sandstone; wavy beds; dark gray siltstone 47 cm siltstone interlaminated with vfL; discontinuous lenses; bioturbated; gray 10 cm interlaminated; wavy; 1 cm vfL sand with siltstone 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated; 3-4 cm vfM sandstone 2-3 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated, discontinuous 21 cm siltstone with lenses of vfL sandstone; bioturbated 2-3 cm vfL sandstone 30 cm siltstone dominated with lenses of vfL; bioturbated 2-4 cm vfL sandstone; well sorted, quartz rich interlaminated vfL sandstone and siltstone 30 cm vfL sand bearing siltstone 1 cm vfM sandstone; 3 cm vfL; wavy to horizontal lam. 8 cm siltstone; horizontal lam. to PPL 18 cm silt bearing mudstone; brown 20 cm sand bearing siltstone; dark gray 9 cm silt bearing vfL-M sandstone 6 cm interbedded mm vfL sandstone and siltstone 36 cm silt bearing mudstone; interlaminated siltstone intraclasts 18 cm from base G G 54.15 top of section 2 cm volcaniclastic; vfU-fL mean, mU max; burrowed Interlamianted vfL sandstone and siltstone; poor exposure 2 cm volcaniclastic 56 cm interlaminated vfL sandstone and siltstone mm vfM sandstone 50 cm siltstone 9 cm mud cap; volcaniclastic; bioturbated/burrowed 5 cm volcaniclastic; vcU max Interlaminated siltstone with lenses of vfL sandstone; difficult to break out event beds; horizontal burrows, some vertical burrows; sprita locomotion traces heavily bioturbated; poor exposure; 55 cm siltstone 16 cm volcaniclastic; mU-cL max; graded; bioturb., burrowed burrowed and bioturbated; concretions laterally; shell fossils Mackenzie Ridge CC1A and mudstone above 1/31/13 1 1 NC TA 159 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Massive sandstone; ~1-1.5 m exposed before sand moved in; 55 cm exposed with sand cover 4 cm ARL 25 cm siltstone; slightly bioturbated 95 cm graded sandstone; fL grading to vfM; SnF, horizontal lam. 15-25 cm vfU-fL; quartz rich, mica and volcaniclastic grains 13-20 cm graded siltstone; 2 cm ARL mm scale mud intraclasts; mica rich, horizontal lam., wavy 5cm volcaniclastic, grading up, welded, appears vesicular 4 cm vfU; 2 cm volcaniclastic green, red, purple, black lithics; qtz/plag 3.7 m sandstone; massive SnF; horizontal lamination mud intraclasts; mm to cm scale; pinches laterally 1.6 m sandstone; fL grading to vfU SnF heavily bioturbated sandstone; 95% quartz 13 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated; concentrated mica rich sandstone lenses (micas, mU grainsize, sand injection) wavy to PPL; mm to cm mud intraclasts 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2 cm gradational;mm scale mud intraclasts; mica rich cap 30 cm fL grading to vfU; floating mm scale mud intraclasts SnF to faint PPL 8cm siltstone grading up; vfL to siltstone; mm scale mud intraclasts; 1 cm wavy interlaminations 93 cm fL grading to vfU; (60 cm floating mud intraclasts) PPL and SnF 2 cm interlamination; 6 cm siltstone; bioturbated 17 cm vfU-fL; PPL 15 cm vfU-fL; mm scale floating mud intraclasts 5 cm siltstone; concretions, some sand injection top 20 cm; floating mud intraclasts; mm to cm scale 50 cm vfU; faint horizontal lamination Floating mud intraclasts 5 cm thick shell debris, ARL, mud intraclasts (not at bed base) S W/E W/E G G E G W/E W W 16 cm vfU-fL A.S. 18 cm clay rich; 8cm dark gray; 10 cm light gray ash Base of MTD; deformed, convoluted; wavy base 14 cm vfM-U sandstone; shell hash at bed top 17 cm vfM sandstone 20 cm vfM sandstone 3 cm siltstone 30 cm vfM-U sandstone; ARL in top 10 cm 10 cm siltstone; faint lamination 40 cm vfU sandstone; PPL to structureless 15 cm siltstone; sandstone injection, shell hash shell hash 50 cm vfU sandstone; PPL with shell hash at base and top 15 cm siltstone 3 cm vfU sandstone; wavy 36 cm vfU sandstone; horizontal lamination 6 cm siltstone 4 cm siltstone 53 cm vfU sandstone; horizontal lamination; shell hash 15 cm siltstone 50 cm vfU sandstone; shell hash 30 cm graded sandstone; fL-vfM; concretions at bed top 22 cm volcaniclastic rich grading up to vfM sandstone 20 cm volcaniclastic rich grading up to vfM sandstone 19 cm volcaniclastic rich grading up to vfM sandstone truncated laterally 12 cm ARL 3 cm vfU sandstone 13 cm siltstone; bioturbated base 12 cm siltstone; bioturbated base 2 cm vfM sandstone; bioturbated 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated 38 cm vfL-M sandstone; PPL 8 cm siltstone 11 cm vfM-U sandstone 10 cm siltstone 70 cm vfU sandstone; structureless 3 cm siltstone 90 cm vfU sandstone 15 cm siltstone 9 cm vfM-L; PPL to climbing ARL 1.37 m vfU sandstone; W W G W W SnF 350 North Waikiekie CC1A to Waikiekie Beach MTD NC TA 1/18/13 1 1 160 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MS m -le an Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l NWK Fault Block CC1A Axial NC TA 2/5/13 1 Debris flows had sand above mud matrix;Correlates to 12.65 mark on 15 cm sandy siltstone to siltstone 100 cm vfU-fL max; PPL 6 cm shell debris in sandy siltstone matrix 112 cm debris flow; sandy siltstone matrix. shell debris; 10 cm siltstone 23 cm vfM-U; fines upward, moderate to well sorted 9 cm muddy matrix debris flow; volcanics, mud intraclasts; 26 cm vfM-fL max; fining upward; 29 cm mud matrix rich; volcanics; debris flow, poorly sorted; 27 cm volcanic rich; sodium plag., blk mineral (unknown), 3.5 cm mudstone; shell debris 6 cm vfM-U; moderate sorting 7-20 cm vfM-U; wavy to PPL 15 cm siltstone cut by overlying sandstone 43 cm vfU-fU max; shell debris, PPL; 42 cm very mud matrix rich; shell debris rich, volcanic rich; 1 cm volcaniclastic rich; vfU-fL; cU max; 7 cm vfU-fL; PPL 16 cm vfM-U; fining up to mud rich with few vfL sand grains 8 cm vfM; PPL; moderate to well sorted 7 cm vfU-fL; thins to 0 cm (pinches out); volcanics; vcU max; 32 cm siltstone; thins to 25 cm (2 meters to the north) 7 cm vfM-U; PPL, dense shell hash layer; cm scale mud intraclasts 75 cm fL sandstone 10 cm mudstone 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 PPL, roughly the same thickness as the debris flow. Most likely the same event. NWK Fault to MTD section wavy bedding large fossils, not broken/fragmented; cm-5 cm mud intraclasts clast supported, shell debris3 cm siltstone PPL, shell hash in lower 16 cm up to pebble size grains, shell debris, matrix supported 9 cm sandy siltstone quartz; fining up, PPL, mud intraclasts at base 8 cm siltstone fining to vfM-vfU max poorly sorted debris flow; matrix supported 3 cm vfU-fL; PPL/lamination; shell hash abundant in bed top 6 cm PPL 21 cm mudstone mud intraclasts, shell debris; poorly sorted 5 cm mudstone; pinches laterally (cut by shell debris) 6-9 cm vfU sandstone E/W W E 1 161 W W W G/W A.S. G GA.S. G A.S. 85 cm vfM-U; fL max; PPL to SnF 13 cm vfM-U; faint PPL to wavy 6 cm vfU-fL wavy; 3 cm vfU-fL 9 cm vfU-fL wavy, 4 cm vfU-fL 20 cm vfU; fL max 27 cm vfU; fU max; wavy bedding 39 cm vfM-U; fU max; wavy top 78 cm vfU-fL; SnF to faint PPL vfU-fL- localized cm scale floating mud intraclasts -concretions 30 cm vfU; fU max; SnF (Jaked Laterally) 31 cm vfU; faint PPL; top vfM-vfU, more black minerals 62 cm vfU-fM; SnF to PPL 65cm vfM-vfU; SnF 90 cm vfU-fL; PPL; fining to vfU at top 22 cm vfU-fL; PPL 20 cm vfU-fL; SnF top 6 cm rich in micaceous minerals 74 cm vfU-fL; SnF 16 cm vfU-fL; wavy to SnF 60 cm vfU-fM; PPL wavy/PPL 80 cm vfU-fM with mm scale floating mud intraclasts throughout 1 cm floating mm scale mud intraclasts; 4 cm vfU-fL 17 cm vfU-fL; SnF to PPL, wavy 10 cm mud intraclast conglomerate; matrix supported 55 cm vfU-fL; PPL; shell hash concentrated at bed top ~20 m; MTD below; siltstone to vfL sandy siltstone -rafted sand blocks G GA.S. wavy SnF at base to wavy PPL/PPL wavy to SnF Concretions 1 cm floating mm scale mud intraclasts with shell hash incorporated and scattered throughout interbedded with volcanics in MTD (sodium plag.) S 60 cm vfL-M 63 cm vfM-U; climbing ripples to wavy laterally 1.37 m vfM-U10 cm wavy to ARL 64 cm vfM-U; climbing ripples 17 cm vfM-U; faint PPL/wavy 73 cm vfL-M; PPL to wavy/ARL 67 cm vfL-M; PPL to ARL, possible climbing ripples 4 cm vfM; wavy to PPL 43 cm vfL-M; PPL @ base, wavy to climbing ripple ARL top 20 cm vfM-U; PPL 120 cm vfU-FL fining to vfM-U; SnF fL-fM @ Base 37 cm SnF SnF @ base; vfU-fL 70 cm vfU-fL fining to vfM-U; SnF 80 cm vfM-U; faint PPL 85 cm vfU-fL; SnF 75 cm vfU-fL, fU max; SnF, concretions 327 326 331 326 323 329 327 329 339 325 327 10 cm wavy to ARL Concretions Volcanic interbedded (1 cm each) 1.1m siltstone ~1 cm sandstone beds interbedded with siltstone 8 cm sandstone; 3 cm interlaminated (sand/silt) Best estimate using jacob staff 51 cm vfU sandstone; fines to vfM 20 cm vfM; wavy bedding Begin EB (thins laterally) 5 cm siltstone; thins to north; mudstone intraclasts top 30 cm of convoluted interval; burrowed/bioturbated 33 cm vfM-U; convoluted, thin wavy bedding 5-10 cm vfM-U; convoluted Convoluted bedding; Begin EB 15 cm; 2 cm vfL-M; 13 cm vfL; wavy to ARL 6 cm vfL-M; wavy PPL; 12 cm vfL wavy to ARL 9 cm vfM-U; PPL 9 cm vfU-FL; faint wavy 16 cm vfL-U; faint wavy 2 cm vfM-U 33cm fL; fU max; PPL to wavy SnF 34 cm vfU-fL; convoluted bedding to SnF @base 70 cm vfM-U; SnF to convoluted wavy bedding 85 cm vfU-fL fining to vfL-M; SnF Begin EB; scours into underlying bed 60 cm vfL-M; SnF, convoluted S W W W W (cliff face) 1 cm siltstone vfM sandstone; 1 cm fL-M max North Waikiekie North CC1A Margin to Overbank NC TA 2/6/13 1 1bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 162 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Changes laterally within composite body sandstone Massive sandstone; 3.5 m 2% cm scale floating mud intraclasts 10% cm to decimeter scale mud intraclasts; floating m as si v e sa n d st o n e (6 + m ) cu t b y co n g lo m er at e 5.5 m to A.S. MTD @ Waikiekie Stream 60 cm mudstone; drape over MTD 25 cm mud intraclast conglomerate 1 m sandstone; vfU-fL estimate 15 cm mud intraclast conglomerate 35 cm sandstone; vfU-fL estimate; more calcareous 30 cm mud intraclast conglomerate 20 cm sandstone; vfU-fL estimate Amalgamation surface 50 cm sandstone; vfU-fL estimate 25 cm sandstone; mud intraclasts and concretions 52 cm sandstone; 3-8 cm intervals with PPL lamination 18 cm mud intraclast conglomerate; discontinuous 20 cm sandstone; horizontal lamination 1.25 m sandstone; SnF to structureless; truncated by mud intraclast conglomerate above; thins north; thickens south 1.25 m mud intraclast conglomerate; pinches to south; massive sandstone Amalgamation surface; south in ~6 m thick sandstone Massive sandstone; thins and thickens latereally; ~0.75 m thick to the north; 3+ m thick to the south pinches north and southE E E S W S E G Massive sandstone; below composite 10-50 cm mud intraclasts; cm to decimeter scale; 10% intraclasts; grades up to smaller/fewer clasts; 4.2 m to amalgamation surface 3.2 m sandstone 15-20 cm mud intraclasts South Waikiekie Axis CC2 Axial NC TA 1 11/17/13 163 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 PinchoutSand Silt Silt thickens to south EB 155cm 120 cm 110cm C6 GN S Measurement above head 11cm vfM sandstone, bioturbated, top 2cm volcanics, sod. plag. floating mudstone intraclasts, bioturbed top concretions mudstone intraclasts along A.S., pinches to the north, 1cm siltstone to the south 60cm vfU-fL sandstone, SnF 86cm vfU-fL sandstone, SnF 1.97cm vfU-fL sandstone, thickens to 2.2m to the south 3cm siltstone, amalgamates and unamalgamates laterally 1cm siltstone laterally 72cm vfU-fL sandstone 0-16cm vfU sandstone, pinches laterally, faint lam., 2cm silt cap 3cm siltstone cap 7cm up mud intraclasts 13cm vfU-fL sandstone, top 3cm wavy, bioturbated, vfL, silty, 1-2cm vfL sand bearing siltstone, wavy 57cm vfU-fL sandstone, structureless 6cm vfL sandstone with mudstone intraclasts 8cm vfL sandstone with volcaniclastic grains (green, black, mica), 99cm vfU sandstone, SnF 4cm vfM sandstone 2cm siltstone 44cm vfU sandstone fining to vfM, H. lam. 7cm vfL sandstone, silt bearing, bioturbated, few volanics & mica cm scale floating mudstone intraclasts 50cm vfU sandstone fining up to vfM, wavy 5cm vfL sandstone, bioturbated, few volcaniclastic grains 55cm fL to vfU sandstone, space stratification 7cm silty vfL sandstone, bioturbated, volanic black minerals 97cm vfU-fL sandstone, SnF, shell hash in SnF dishes W 331 A.S. A.S. W I E S S W S S E S W/I A.S. wavy lamination, shell hash in burrowed traces, thickens to 29cm to the south low angle cm scale PPL (Photo) floating cm scale mudstone intraclasts mm scale mudstone intraclasts 5cm mudstone intraclast conglomerate, pinches laterally bioturbated 9cm vfM-U sandstone 5cm vfL sandstone, bioturbated, concreations 9cm vfM-U sandstone 8cm vfM sandstone; 3cm vfL sandstone, silt bearing W mudstone intraclasts present 7cm up from base cm to gravel size mudstone intraclasts, SnF 12-20cm sand bearing siltstone, heavily bioturbated, 54cm vfU-fL sandstone, SnF 7cm siltstone 4 cm siltstone, thickens laterally 3 cm siltstone 44 cm vfU sandstone, structureless 2 cm siltstone, changes to mud intraclast conglomerate laterally EB: 20 - 50 cm thick 24 cm vfU sandstone, floating mudstone intraclasts floating mm to cm scale mudstone intraclasts 75 cm VFU sandstone, faint wavy bedding 8 cm vfU sandstone, structureless; 1 cm siltstone 11 cm siltstone, bioturbated 48 cm vfU sandstone, floating mudstone intraclasts 4 cm siltstone, grading up, bioturbated, concretions 15 cm vfU sandstone, floating mudstone intraclasts 3 cm siltstone, bioturbated, localized sand injection, concretion 46 cm vfU sandstone, floating mudstone intraclasts 12 cm siltstone, bioturbated 10 cm mudstone, 1 cm shell hash and few volcaniclastic grains 21 cm vfU sandstone, floating mm scale mudstone intraclasts 7 cm mudstone 30 cm siltstone 1.9 m package of siltstone and interbedded siltstone with thin sandstone lenses 9 cm vfM-U sandstone 54 cm siltstone, PPL 7 cm vfU sandstone 2 cm siltstone 91 cm vfU-fL sandstone, SnF 4 cm siltstone, wavy 1.31 m vfU-fL sandstone, SnF 14 cm siltstone, bioturbated at contact with underlying sand 21 cm vfU-fL sandstone, structureless to climbing ripples 43 cm vfU sandstone; SnF 2-3 cm siltstone, wavy floating mm scale mudstone intraclasts W S W G G W 35 cm siltstone 30 cm interbedded siltstone 9 cm siltstone 30 cm interbedded siltstone 6 cm siltstone 17 cm interbedded siltstone 9 cm vfU sandstone grading to siltstone, bioturb. along contact 2.5 cm siltstone, discontinuous, sand injection laterally, unit is split by 14 cm siltstone 16 cm vfU sandstone, structureless 3 cm vfU sandstone, 10 cm siltstone 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 16 cm siltstone bioturbated 3-5 cm vfM-U sandstone, H. lam.- thins and thickens lat., bioturb. 14 cm siltstone, wavy base, bioturbated, few shell hash 2 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated 9 cm siltstone, 11 cm siltstone, 10 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 13 cm siltstone bioturbated 22 cm siltstone, bioturbated 3 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated 2 cm vfM-U volcaniclastic rich sandstone 1 cm vfM-U sandstone 3 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated 44 cm siltstone, bioturbated 31 cm siltstone bioturb. 1 cm volcaniclastic rich sandstone; 13 cm siltstone 1 cm vfU sandstone; 25 cm siltstone 1 cm vfU sandstone; 22 cm siltstone 5 cm vfU sandstone; 18 cm siltstone, bioturbated 5 cm vfU sandstone; 6 cm siltstone 4 cm interlam vfU & siltstone, bioturb.; 7 cm siltstone bioturb. 4 cm vfU sandstone; 11 cm siltstone bioturbated 1-2 cm vfU sandstone; 20 cm siltstone, bioturbated bearing vfU 2 cm vfU sandstone; 21 cm siltstone, bioturbated bearing vfU 35 cm siltstone, bioturbated with vfU sandstone lenses; 7 cm vfU sandstone 12 cm siltstone, bioturbated 34 cm vfU sandstone, few cm scale H. lam. and floating 4 cm vfU sandstone; 12 cm siltstone with vfU, bioturbated 2 cm vfU sandstone, bioturb.; 9 cm siltstone with vfU, bioturb. 3 cm vfU sandstone, 8 cm siltstone, bioturbated 6 cm siltstone, bioturbated, mud rip ups @ base, grades up 27 cm silstone, bioturbated 18 cm siltstone, bioturbated 12 cm siltstone with vfU sandstone, bioturbated 42 cm siltstone with vfL bearing bioturbated 11 cm siltstone, concretions 13 cm siltstone S S S S S S S S S S S S S W W W W G 9 cm vfU sandstone 12 cm siltstone 27 cm vfU sand- thickens south to 60+ cm, thins north to 5 cm floating mud intraclasts, localized intraclasts 10 cm vfU sandstone 5 cm vfU sandstone 12 cm vfU sandstone, few H. lam. 3 cm vfU silt bearing sandstone, bioturbated 4 cm vfU sandstone, bioturbated 4 cm vfU sandstone mm to cm scale mudstone intraclasts 4-6 cm of siltstone between each lense 11 cm vfU sandstone; 5 cm siltstone, bioturbated mU sandstone lense, few shell hash 12 cm vfU sandstone, wavy 24 cm siltstone, bioturbated 23 cm siltstone, bioturbated 40 cm siltstone, concretions 1 cm vfM-U sandstone 13 cm siltstone, bioturbated. few H. lam. 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated, scattered shell hash scattered shell hash 46 cm siltstone, bioturbated, scattered shell hash 6-8 cm vfM-U sandstone 16 cm siltstone, bioturbated 2 cm volcaniclastic rich sandstone 2 cm vfL sandstone, silt rich 3 cm vfU sandstone; 27 cm siltstone and fU sandstone, interlam. 2 cm vfU sandstone 7 cm siltstone, interlaminated with vfL sandstone, burrowed 10 cm mudstone intraclasts 75 cm to A.S. faint lamination 1.08 m vfU-fL sandstone 7 cm vfL sandstone & siltstone, interlaminated 2 cm well cemented volcaniclastic rich sandstone 30 cm vfL sandstone & siltstone, interlaminated 8 cm siltstone 1 cm volcaniclastic rich sandstone 1 cm volcaniclastic rich sandstone 1.5 cm volcaniclastic rich sandstone 49 cm siltstone, volcanic minerals and mica 2 cm mudstone, volcaniclastic with fL-fU grains 41 cm siltstone, volcanic minerals and mica 28 cm siltstone, bioturbated, volcanic minerals and mica 17 cm siltstone, heavily bioturbated/burrowed 16 cm interlaminated vfL-M sandstone & siltstone 30 cm siltstone 27 cm siltstone, bioturbated 25 cm siltstone, bioturbated 3 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 13 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 5 cm siltstone, bioturbated 3 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 7 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 4 cm siltstone, bioturbated 4 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 9 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 2 cm siltstone, bioturbated 6 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated, burrowed 2 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 7 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 20 cm siltstone, bioturbated 3-4 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 13 cm siltstone, bioturbated 2 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 2 cm siltstone, bioturbated 2 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 14 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 10 cm siltstone, bioturbated 27 cm siltstone, few shell hash debris, slightly bioturbated 5 cm siltstone, bioturbated; 1 cm volcaniclastic rich sandstone 14 cm siltstone, scattered shell hash 1-2 cm vfM-U sandstone, well cemented, bioturb.; 3 cm siltstone 3 cm fU-mL volcaniclastic rich sandstone; 11 cm siltstone 3-4 cm vfM-U sandstone, burrowed, faint H. lam. 3 cm vfM-U sandstone, H. lam.; 5 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 19 cm siltstone, bioturbated 3 cm mL volcaniclastic rich sandstone, cL-M max 2 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 13 cm siltstone, bioturbated 1-2 cm vfM-U sandstone, bioturbated; 13 cm siltstone, bioturbated 16 cm siltstone, bioturbated 3 cm fU-mL volcaniclastic rich sandstone,well-cemented, cL max 33 cm siltstone, bioturbated, small concretions 3 cm siltstone, bioturbated 8 cm siltstone, bioturbated 5 cm siltstone, bioturbated, shell hash 7 cm siltstone, bioturbated 7 cm mudstone 2 cm vfU-mL volcaniclastic rich sandstone, cL max 33 cm siltstone 43 cm siltstone 14 cm siltstone 14 cm fM-fU sandstone, structureless; 2 cm silt dom. fL sandstone siltstone thicken up 15 cm siltstone 9 cm fL-M sandstone, structureless, capped by vfU sandstone, wavy ARL, mudstone interlaminated laterally 21 cm siltstone & vfM sandstone, interlaminated, burrowed 339 330 395CR 1.4 m bioturbated siltstone concretions, wavy 21 cm siltstone; bioturbated 34 cm siltstone; bioturbated 30 cm siltstone; bioturbated 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated 60 cm bioturbated siltstone; faint lamination concretions 20 cm siltstone 20 cm siltstone 4 cm vfU 31 cm bioturbated siltstone; burrowed 12 cm fM-fU moderately sorted; faint horizontal lamination 1 cm vfU; 1 cm siltstone bioturbated 2 cm vfU-fL; bioturbated; 7.5 cm bioturbated siltstone 66 cm bioturbated siltstone with vfL lenses 3-4 cm vfU-fL; flutes at base; mm mud intraclasts above 50 cm siltstone; scattered shell hash bioturbated (7 cm ARL- cross-trough; 7 cm siltstone; bioturbated) 14 cm interlam. vfM with siltstone; bioturbated scattered shell hash 2 cm vfU bioturbated; 29 cm bioturbated siltstone 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated, concretions 6 cm vfU-fL; structureless; 10 cm interlam. siltstone & vfU 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated 10 cm interlam. siltstone & vfU; wavy; wavy top 5 cm vfU-fL; wavy 58 cm interbedded: 2-3 cm siltstone with discontinuous 30 cm vfU-fL; structureless, thins laterally 8 cm siltstone interlaminated with vfU 11 cm vfU mm mudintraclasts 27 cm siltstone interlaminated with vfU Estimate (above head) vfU sandstone; bioturbated 20 cm interlam. siltstone & vfU; bioturbated ~1 m massive siltstone; bioturbated 3 cm vfU 10 cm vfU sandstone W W S S S S S W ARL 325 Flute 320 45 cm bioturbated siltstone 11 cm bioturbated siltstone 21 cm bioturbated siltstone 20 cm vfL sandstone; structureless 90 cm siltstone; bioturbated 23 cm bioturbated siltstone with vfL lenses 25 cm bioturbated siltstone with vfL lenses 22 cm bioturbated siltstone; mm vfL discontinuous lenses 1.1 m bioturbated siltstone with vfL lenses 23 cm bioturbated siltstone with vfL; wavy base 7 cm vfL silt bearing structureless sandstone; 25 cm bioturbated siltstone wavy bioturbated bed top 3 cm volcaniclastic mudstone; cL max 28 cm bioturbated siltstone; concretions 47 cm bioturbated siltstone 15 cm vfL silt bearing sandstone; bioturbated 50 cm bioturbated siltstone 45 cm bioturbated siltstone 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 5 cm interlaminated vfL & siltstone 3 cm vfL sandstone 22 cm interlaminated vfL & siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL; silt bearing 23 cm siltstone; bioturbated 15 cm siltstone; bioturbated 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated 19 cm siltstone; bioturbated 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated 22 cm vfL; iron stained PPL Pleistocene Rapanui Contact SWK South Composite Above Waikiekie MTD; NC TA 2/19/13 1 1 Outside CC2 to CC3 to the south 164 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 63 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated 1 cm vfL; bioturbated 14 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated 13 cm vfM; faint PPL, heavily bioturbated 23 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated 16 cm vfM; wavy ARL 8 cm PPL 15 cm vfL; silt bearing, bioturbated 20 cm siltstone; heavily bioturbated 22 cm interlaminated vfL & siltstone; wavy 10 cm vfL-M; wavy cross-stratification 13 cm interlaminated vfL & siltstone; wavy, convoluted 10 cm interlaminated silt & vfL; 3 cm siltstone; convoluted top 7 cm siltstone; PPL 15 cm interbedded to interlaminated vfL & siltstone 67 cm siltstone bearing vfL; heavily bioturbated 1-2 cm vfU; structureless, bioturbated 30 cm siltstone; bioturbated, concretions 2 cm vfL-M; bioturbated; 6 cm siltstone; bioturbated 3 cm vfL-M; bioturbated; 12 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL; bioturbated; 4 cm siltstone; bioturbated 9 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 2 cm discontinuous vfL-U; FL max, bioturbated 1-3 cm wavy interlaminated siltstone & vfL; bioturbated 31 cm siltstone; bioturbated 4 cm vfU; wavy, bioturbated 5-10 cm event beds 2.75 m siltstone with vfL; bioturbated; 78 cm siltstone; bioturbated, iron-rich concretions W W Possible correlation 5 cm silt bearing; flame structure 29 cm vfL-M 8 cm interbedded; ~1 cm vfL sandstone beds; ARL, planar tab. 33 cm convoluted siltstone with vfL; planar tabular cross stratification and intraclasts 1 cm vfL; planar tabular cross strat, ARL capped by PPL ~7 event beds; 5-12 cm each 3 cm volcaniclastic mudstone; bioturbated 17 cm siltstone; bioturbated 8 cm volcaniclastic mudstone 17 cm siltstone; bioturbated 13 cm siltstone with vfL; bioturbated 5-6 cm silt bearing vfL-M; bioturbated 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 17cm siltstone with vfL; bioturbated concretions, bioturbated, shell hash 1 cm volcaniclastic; 10 cm siltstone A.S. A.S. A.S. A.S. A.S. A.S. ~5-10 cm h. lam concretions 3 cm vfL with siltstone; bioturbated 2cm vfL; bioturbated 13 cm siltstone; bioturbated 20 cm vfM sandstone; ledge former 25 cm siltstone; bioturbated 25 cm siltstone; bioturbated 12 cm silt bearing vfL; tan 85 cm siltstone; bioturbated Approximate measurements 2 cm vfL 25 cm siltstone; concretions, bioturbated 3 cm vfL 15 cm siltstone; bioturbated 50 cm siltstone; bioturbated G 5 cm vfL-Mmm vfL; 4 cm siltstone; bioturbated 57 cm siltstone; bioturbated Fault 228 Trend Ledge 3 cm vfL; bioturbated; 7 cm siltstone; bioturbated 35 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm silty vfL; bioturbated 8 cm siltstone; bioturbated side of cliff edge 65 cm siltstone; bioturbated, concretions 3 cm vfL 3 cm vfL 24 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL; bioturbated Tehoro Beach Composite Muddy Interval above CC4 NC TA 2/18/13 1 1 165 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerate sandstone mud Location: Strat. Interval: grain size, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, etc. pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rro w in g So rti ng th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un d st on e Logged by: C on ta ct Notes vc > c m f vf < m -ri ch Date(s): Page of GS PS WS MSm-l ea n Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 30 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2 m poorly exposed siltstone poorly exposed siltstone 20 cm vfM; well exposed 2.4 m poor exposure; 1.4 m covered by vegetation 70 cm partially exposed; thin bedded vfL-M; 1.9 m partially exposed; siltstone; bioturbated concretions, cL volcanics in burrows well exposed siltstone with a few beds of vfM sandstone fining upward to siltstone; horizontal lams. S S S S S G G G S S S S S S S S S S S G W 22 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2cm vfL-M; bioturbated 30 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2-3 cm vfM-U 37 cm siltstone; bioturbated; a few mm of shell hash 3 cm vfM-U; horizontal lamination; fines to silt 35 cm siltstone; bioturbated 3 cm vfM-U 5 cm siltstone; few vfL grains 5 cm vfL; bioturbated; fines to silt 1.17 m siltstone; slight bioturbation 1.15 m covered by vegetation 23 cm vfM-U 17 cm vfM-U 20 cm vfM-U possible ARL, wavy h. lam; 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated 37 cm siltstone with vfL-M; bioturbated 52 cm vfM-U 8 cm vfL; 7 cm siltstone; bioturbated mm iron stained volcanic; 8 cm siltstone 21 cm vfL-M; bioturbated; fines to silt 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 33 cm vfL-M; bioturbated 37 cm siltstone; bioturbated 15 cm vfL-M; wavy horizontal lams. fines to silt 38 cm siltstone; bioturbated, concretions 3 cm vfL-M; bioturbated 33 cm siltstone; bioturbated; bearing vfL grains 32 cm siltstone; bioturbated with vfL siltstone; bioturbated with vfL siltstone with volcanics; cL max siltstone; bioturbated with silt bioturbated; PHOTO 22 cm vfL to siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL with siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL sandstone with silt S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S G G G G G G G G G 15 cm siltstone; bioturbated 21 cm siltstone; bioturbated 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm siltstone; bioturbated 7-8 cm vfM-U 3 cm vfM-U 7 cm vfM-U 23 cm siltstone; bioturbated, wavy concretions 7 cm siltstone; bioturbated 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 3cm vfM-U; concretions 2cm vfL-M 2cm vfL-M; 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL; 14 cm siltstone; bioturbated 18 cm siltstone; bioturbated 4 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 35 cm siltstone; bioturbated 4 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated; 4 cm siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated siltstone; bioturbated 48 cm siltstone; bioturbated concretions with shell hash 40 cm siltstone; slight bioturbation Partially Exposed; 2.75 m siltstone 1.1 m siltstone; bioturbated with volcanics 4 cm vfL; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfM; bioturbated 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated 8 cm siltstone; bioturbated 3-4 cm vfM-U; bioturbated base 25 cm siltstone; bioturbated 17 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL; 5 cm siltstone; bioturbated, concretions 11 cm siltstone; bioturbated 10 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 4 cm vfL; bioturbated Poor exposure; few thin vfL-M sandstone beds S S W W S Begin silt dominated bioturbated interval; ~10 m 4 cm vfM-U; 10 cm siltstone with vfL; bioturbated 33cm bioturbated silt with vfL 20 cm siltstone; bioturbated 22 cm vfU 12 cm vfU-fL Rough estimate above 5 cm vfM 32 cm siltstone; bioturbated 7 cm vfM-U; bioturbated 15 cm siltstone; bioturbated 13 cm siltstone; bioturbated 4-10 cm vfM-U 1-2 cm vfL; discontinuous, bioturbated 2 cm vfL-M; bioturbated; 23 cm siltstone; bioturbated 3-5 cm vfM-U; 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated more iron stained begin coarser grained ~5 cm each (max) and bioturbated siltstone 2-3 cm vfM-U 25 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 2-3 cm vfM-U; interlaminated with siltstone 5 cm vfU 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 25 cm siltstone; bioturbated 35 cm siltstone; bioturbated 5 cm silt bearing vfL; bioturbated 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 17 cm siltstone; bioturbated Tehoro Valley Composite Muddy Interval above CC4 NC TA 2/26/13 1 1 166 bld cob pebble Gr VC C M F VF silt clay 25 6 12 8 64 32 16 8. 0 4. 0 2. 0 1m m 0. 5 0. 25 .1 25 conglomerat e sandst one mud Locat ion: St rat . Int erval: grain size, sediment ary pa le oc ur re nt di re ct io n bu rr ow in g So rt in g th ic kn es s (m ) megabreccia bo un ds to n e Logged by: Co nt ac t Notes vc > c m f vf < m - ric h Dat e(s) : Page of GS PS WS MSm- le an Po or M od W el l Po or M od W el l possible correlation Tehoro Valley Overlap 2/19/13 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Muddy Interval above CC4 NC TA 5 cm volcaniclastic mudstone 90 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm mL-cL sandstone; volcaniclastic bearing 98 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL-M sandstone 50 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL sandstone 17 cm vfL sandstone; few volcanics; burrowed, fines to siltstone 28 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1 cm vfL sandstone 10 cm siltstone; bioturbated 2-3 cm mU-cL; volcaniclastic 30 cm siltstone; bioturbated, lenses of vfL sandstone 10 cm vfL sandstone; silt bearing, well cemented, concretions 1.72 m siltstone; bioturbated 4-5 cm vfL-M sandstone; horizontal lamination 55 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL sandstone; bioturbated, wavy horizontal lams 13 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm volcaniclastic mudstone; cL max 34 cm siltstone; bioturbated 1-2 cm vfL-M sandstone 1.2 m siltstone; bioturbated W G volcaniclastic mudstone grading to volcaniclastic sandstone 167 APPENDIX B THIN SECTION ANALYSIS 168 10x 10x 10x 10x Thin Section sample 1. Sample 1 was collected from volcaniclastic siltstone at Locked Gate. It shows silt sized grains that dominate within a mudstone matrix. Small pockets of coarser grained volcaniclastic phenocrysts and fossils are also present. Phenocrysts con- sist primarily of quartz and plagioclase, although smaller amounts of biotite, hornblende, and oxides are present. Plane Polarized Cross Polarized Hbl Hbl PlPl Pl Pl Pl Pl Qtz Qtz mst mst Bt Bt Hbl Hbl PlPl PlPl Pl Pl mst mst Pl Pl QtzQtz Bt Bt Qtz Qtz Pl Pl QtzQtz Thin Section sample 2. Sample 2 was collected within a bioclastic and volcaniclastic rich interval at Locked Gate within the upper composite of CC1B. It shows a wide range of grain size, mineralogy, and bioclastic input. Grain size varies from mudstone (mst) up to coarse-grained, and the presence of large fossils is common. Volcaniclastic phenocrysts consist of plagioclase (Pl), hornblende (Hbl), and oxides, as well as low percentages of clino- and orthopyroxene. Biotite mica (Bt) and quartz (Qtz) are also common throughout. 169 10x 10x 10x 10x Plane Polarized Cross Polarized mstmst QtzQtz mst mst mst mst Hbl Hbl PlPl Pl Pl mst mst Thin Section sample 2 (continued). Sample 2 was collected within a bioclastic and volcaniclastic rich interval at Locked Gate within the upper composite of CC1B. It shows a wide range of grain size, mineralogy, and bioclastic input. Grain size varies from mud- stone (mst) up to coarse-grained, and the presence of large fossils is common. Volcaniclastic phenocrysts consist of plagioclase (Pl), hornblende (Hbl), and oxides, as well as low percentages of clino- and orthopyroxene. Biotite mica (Bt) and quartz (Qtz) are also common throughout. 170 10x 10x 10x 10x Plane Polarized Cross Polarized 171 Thin Section sample 3. Sample 3 was collected north of Waikiekie Stream in a poorly- sorted mudstone-rich bed within CC1B. Grain size varies from mudstone up to fine- to medium-grained sandstone and coarse-grained volcaniclastic phenocrysts. Large fossils are common. Volcaniclastic phenocrysts consists of plagioclase, hornblende, and oxides, as well as low percentages of clino- and orthopyroxene. 10x 10x 10x 10x Plane Polarized Cross Polarized 172 10x 10x 10x 10x Thin Section sample 4. Sample 4 was collected north of Waikiekie Stream in a muddy sandstone within CC1B. Less mudstone is seen within this sample compared to sample 3. Grain size varies from fine-grained sandstone to very coarse-grained volcaniclastic phenocrysts. Large fossils are also present within this sample. Volcaniclastic phenocrysts consists of plagioclase, hornblende, and oxides, as well as low percentages of clino- and orthopyroxene. Plane Polarized Cross Polarized 173 173 10x 10x 10x 10x Thin Section sample 5. Sample 5 was collected south of Waikiekie Stream in a siltstone dominated volcaniclastic mudstone. Silt size grains dominate within a mudstone matrix. Sharp and angular volcaniclastic silt size grains are inferred to represent volcaniclastic ash. Pockets of very fine-grained volcaniclastic phenocrysts and small fossils are also present. Plane Polarized Cross Polarized Thin Section sample 6. Sample 6 was collected south of Waikiekie Stream within a silt- stone bearing volcaniclastic sandstone with mudstone-clasts. The sample is poorly-sorted with grain size from mudstone up to fine- to medium-grained quartz and volcaniclastic phenocrysts. Volcaniclastic phenocrysts are angular to sharp, and quartz is sub-angular. Millimeter-scale mudstone-clasts that are well rounded show little to no shearing. 174 10x 10x 10x 10x Plane Polarized Cross Polarized Thin Section sample 7. Sample 7 was collected below CC1B at Tutapuha Stream in an organic bearing volcaniclastic mudstone. Within the outcrop, this sample had a fully artic-ulated very small leaf fossil preserved. The sample is poorly-sorted with grain size from mudstone up to coarse-grained volcaniclastic phenocrysts. The sample shows high amounts of alteration, likely reflected by the precipitation of iron between grains. 175 10x 10x 10x 10x Plane Polarized Cross Polarized