2011 McNair Research Journal Montana State University © Copyright 2011 Ronald E. McNair Postbaccalaureate Achievement Program Montana State University 240 Gaines Hall, PO Box 172560 Bozeman, MT 59717 Production of this manual was made possible through funding by the U.S. Department of Education. The McNair Scholars Program is a TRiO Program. McNair Research Journal Montana State University Spring 2011 Volume 1 Table of Contents McNair Program Staff i Acknowledgements ii Camilla Armijo-Grover 1 Is Selectivity the Best Method for Aid Allocation Mentor: Christiana Stoddard, Ph.D. Deb Blanchard 17 Unmasking the Superhero: Analyzing Junot Diaz’s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao as “Multicultural Hybridity” Literature Mentor: Bridget Kevane, Ph.D. Dewey Brooke 39 Analysis of phospholipase activity in adeno-associated virus particles by liquid chromatography/mass-spectrometry Mentor: Brian Bothner, Ph.D. Kelsey Guffey 49 Foraging Ecology of Bison in a Mixed Grassland-Steep Ecosystem Mentor: Clayton Marlow, Ph.D. Treacy Gumeson 73 Toward a Holistic Model of Managing Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Montana Veterans Mentor: Lawrence Gross, Ph.D. Eric Hansen 101 Analysis of Non-Motorized Use In Grand Teton National Park 2010 Mentor: Pat McGowen, Ph.D. Jacob Hunter 168 Moments in Time Mentor: Chris Livingston, M.Arch. II Jordan Kennedy 176 Rheological Characterization of Thermally Reversible Gels Mentor: Jennifer Brown, Ph.D. Dustin Kuipers 189 Cosmology of Incarceration: American Indians in Prison Mentor: Walter Fleming, Ph.D. Megan Malone 214 Water, the Essence of Survival and the Symbol of Oppression: Gender Inequalities Collide with Development Mentor: Leah Schmalzbauer Zachary Morris 251 X-Ray CT Scanning Techniques on Soil Samples Mentor: Robert Mokwa, Ph.D. Shelby Rogala 289 Establishing an International Voluntouring Ethic Mentor: Kristen Intemann, Ph.D. Jocee Stirling 303 The Impact of Management Intensive Grazing Mentor: Chuck Coffey, Ph.D., Clayton Marlow, Ph.D. Francisco Velasco Asymmetrical Conflict: Sleep Deprivation as a Precursor to PTSD Among Veterans 315 Mentor: Michelle Meade, Ph.D. i McNair Program Staff Principal Investigator Gregory Young, Ph.D. Vice Provost for Undergraduate Education Program Director Shelly Hogan, Ph.D. Program Assistant Elise Coy Faculty Mentors Graham Austin, Ph.D Business Brian Bothner, Ph.D. Chemistry & Biochemistry Jennifer Brown, Ph.D. Chemical & Biological Engineering Walter Fleming, Ph.D. Native American Studies Lawrence Gross, Ph.D. Native American Studies Shawna Heiser, M.S. Psychology Shelly Hogan, Ph.D. Health & Human Development Kristen Intemann, Ph.D. History & Philosophy Minette Jessup, M.S. Business Bridget Kevane, Ph.D. Modern Languages & Literatures Lori Lawson, M.S. Liberal Studies/Honors Program Chris Livingston, M.Arch. II Architecture Clayton Marlow, Ph.D. Animal & Range Sciences Pat McGowen, Ph.D. Western Transportation Institutes Michelle Meade, Ph.D. Psychology Mary Miles, Ph.D. Health & Human Development Robert Mokwa, Ph.D. Civil Engineering Leah Schmalzbauer, Ph.D. Sociology Michael Sexson, Ph.D. English Stephen Sofie, Ph.D. Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Christiana Stoddard, Ph.D. Agricultural Economics/Economics i i Acknowledgements The McNai r staff would like to commend the schola rs on thei r pursuit of academic exce llence. W e would like to expr ess a grate ful and sinc ere thank you to the facult y ment ors for supporti ng the McNair Schola rs Progra m at Monta na State Uni ver sity. Also a s pecial thank you to the Office of the Provost and Univer sity College . Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Is Selectivity the Best Method for Aid Allocation? Cami Armijo - Grov er Abstra ct: This paper questi ons the wisdom of using sel ectivity to alloca te aid to developing count ries, by looki ng at the link between gove rnance qualit y and the effect ive use of aid dollars to decrease poverty. After comparing 10 “better” governed countries to 7 “poorly” governed ones we found a weak rela tionship between increase d aid and a greater decrea se in pover ty in the latter. Case studi es of Jorda n, Yeme n, Ghana and Uganda proffer insi ght int o the conditi ons under which sel ectivit y works. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 1 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami The aim of the Worl d Bank when it was fir st formed in 1944 at the Bret ton Woods Confer ence was to hel p Europea n countr ies rebuild after the dest ruction of Wor ld War II. Upon comple ti on of thi s goal , the bank committ ed itself to hel ping devel oping countries to buil d thei r economie s. Their approach in accomplishi ng this has been varie d over the year s. Initiall y state gover nment assistance was seen as essential to devel opment and money was lent to gover nment s primarily for infrastructure projects. This approach, known as „top - down‟ because money is give n to government s (those at the top) wit h the belie f that it will eventually trickle down to the poore r mass es through increased spending on social services, lasted until the end of the 1970‟s. In the early 1980‟s a switch was made and lending was made to help develop a market - le d syst em rather than the state -le d as was previ ously the case. Under the market - le d approa ch count ries under went struct ural adjustment progr ams where econo mie s were libe ralized, deregulated and state owned enterprises were privat ized. Addit ional ly lending was gener all y made condit iona lly, mea ning that in orde r for a country to recei ve mon ey it often first had to agree to a set of poli cies or conditi ons tha t it would adopt. Condit ional ity, used by the Worl d Bank, the IMF, and ma ny othe r devel opment agenci es continued to be the used through the mid - 1990‟s (Crawford, 2006, P 116 - 7). From th e late 1990‟s through to today the World Bank has lent money to developing countries on the premise of „selectivity‟ an approach that is characterized by “channeling re latively more aid resourc es to poor countries with reas onably good insti tuti ons and poli cies” (Burns ide and Dolla r, 2004, P3); that is, those countries who are deemed to be well gover ned are more likely to receive aid funds than those who are less well gover ned. Though it was the Worl d Bank who brought us this concept of sel ectivit y, it was not long before it was adopt ed by a wide range of development agencies. As Crawford tells us, “Following its introduction by the World Bank, it is well known that good gover nance has been adopted as a policy obje ctive almost univer sall y by int erna tional development agenci es, for example , by the regional development banks, by UN agencie s such as UNDP, by the IMF since 1997, and by mos t bilatera l agenci es such as Danida (Danish International Development Assistance) and the UK‟s Department for Int er national Development” (Crawford, 2006, P 119). It is this newest trend of selec tivit y in Worl d Bank aid allocati on that this paper examine s. Sect ion 2 will focus on previous resear ch done on selectivity acr oss all aid agenc ies (not just the Worl d Bank) and whet her it seems to be the best method for the allocation of aid mon ey. Sect ion 3 will look at ne w data to see if there is evidenc e that countries with better gover nance , as defined by Worl d Bank Gover nance Indicat ors , are better able to use aid dollars give n th em. Sect ion 4 will look at case studies of Worl d Bank loans given to Uganda, Ghana, Jordan and Yemen to see if their exper ie nces fit with the overa ll data . Sect ion 5 will concl ude. Sect ion 2 – Previ ous Resea rc h The argume nt that better gover ned countr ies (those who have sound institut ions and poli cie s in place) are more like ly to alloc ate aid funds more appropr iately is an intuitive one. It simply mak es sense that the more corrupt a government is, the less likely it is to distribute funds effect ive ly . Insta nces of government abuse of aid money can be found in Zair e under Mobut u Sese Seko, Nicar agua at the time of the Somoza dynas ty and the Philippines under President Ferdi nand Mar cos (Hout, 2007, P 135). But intuiti on is not always correct and must be backe d up by hard evide nce before it can be concl usive . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 2 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami In “Aid, Policies and Growth”, Burnside and Dollar analyzed the effectiveness of aid on var ious countr ies by using the Sachs - War ner Inde x (whic h looks at budget sur plus, the inflation rate and tra de openne ss) to judge instit utiona l and poli cy quality and a Worl d Bank database on foreign aid to meas ure the amount of aid to each countr y. They used 275 obse rva tions to look at 56 count ries over six four year time per iods from 1970 - 1973 unti l 1990- 1993. They concl uded that, “on average aid has had little impact on growth, although a robust finding was that aid has had a more posi ti ve impact on growth in good poli cy environment s. Our results indicate that maki ng aid more syst emat icall y condit ional on the qual ity of poli cie s would likel y incr ease its impact on developing country growth” (Burnside and Dollar, 2000, P 864). This paper generated much debate on the subject, with some economists agreeing with Burnside and Dollar‟s ass ess ment , and othe rs ques ti oning its methods and the robustne ss of its concl usion s. East erly, Levine and Rood man attempte d to recreate the findings of Burns ide and Doll ar exac tly (2003). They were able to duplicate the result s using the same count ries, sources and time per iods used previ ously, but things changed when they added new data that had become avai lable and extended thei r anal ysis to 1997. Now they had 356 obser vati on in 62 countr ies in seve n time periods to look at and they found that the Burnsi de and Doll ar concl usion s that supported the idea that better policies and institutions lead to faster growth, “do not hold when we use new data that includes additional countries and extends the coverage through 1997” (Eas terly et al., 2003). Other develop ment econo mist s create d their own, differ ent methods to test the idea that success of aid is conditional on effectiveness of governance. Hansen and Tarp‟s assessment inc lude d both the good - gover nance/bet ter used aid int era ction and the idea of decr eas ing margina l returns to ai d flows (2001). They also began wit h the Sachs - War ner Inde x but adde d meas ure s of the state of the financi al syst em (meas ure d by M2 relative to GDP), polit ical inst abilit y and gover nment bureaucracy (meas ure s of ethnol ingust ic fractiona lization, assassina tions and a measur e of institutional quali ty), and the ini tial levels of per capita GDP. In one of thei r regressions they are able to arrive at the same conc lusi ons as Burns ide and Dolla r “but only through a statistically invalid reduction of our model and sample data” (Hansen and Tarp, 2000, P 553). Overall, Hansen and Tarp find that aid does increase the growth rate via inve stment regar dless of the effect iveness of the gover nment . Due to the amount of backlash received by the publication of “Aid, Policies and Growth”, Burnsi de and Dolla r publi shed anot her paper in 2004 in which they created a new dataset that looked exclusively at the 1990‟s. Rather than using their previously constructed measures of gover nance qual ity, they chose instead to use the ne w Gover nance Matter Indi cators compil ed by Kaufmann, Kraay, and Zoido - Lobaton. This dataset compil es 300 governance indic ator s for 150 count ries, groups thes e indic at ors into 6 basi c categor ie s (Voice and Accounta bili ty, Poli tical Stabi lity and Absenc e of Violenc e, Gover nment Effecti veness, Regul at ory Qual it y, Rule of Law, and Contr ol of Corrupt io n) and give s each category a score of -2.5 to +2.5 (Kauf mann et al., 1999). They test the following three hypothe ses: 1. Aid contribute s positi vel y to growth in all countr ies 2. Governments wit h better poli cie s and inst itutions see more growth from aid than gover nment s with poorer policie s and inst itutions 3. Aid does not contribute positively to growth in any country McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 3 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Using this new method of cal cul ati on, Burns ide and Doll ar arr ive at hypothe sis 2, again finding that the quality of inst it uti ons and poli cie s does affect the extent to which aid impacts growth. They poi nt to case studie s such as Eur opean growth under the Mar shall Plan post Worl d War II, individua l proj ect s in countries suc h as South Korea , Kenya and Zimbabwe and agreement from 84% of “opinion makers” from various developing and developed countries that suppor t their cla im that good governance is the key to aid effect ive ness . They also argue tha t t he old syste m of conditi onality has not worked, but perhaps donors wil l be able to influence recipient‟s policies and institutions in the future if developing country governments know in advanc e that they must make certa in reforms in orde r to recei ve aid a ssistance . Colli er and Dollar (2001) reach simil ar concl usions to thos e of Burnsi de and Doll ar when they look for the best method to maxi miz e pover ty reduction around the worl d in order to meet the Mille nnium Development Goal of halving worl d poverty by 2015. They use the $2 per day pover ty line to meas ure both current and expect ed pover ty under the scenario for aid allocat ion that they propose. The Countr y Policy and Instit uti on Assessment or CPI A (which classi fied gover nment s with in countr ies as very poor, poor, moder at e, good, and ver y good) is used to meas ure effect ivenes s of gover n ment policie s and inst itutions. Addit ional ly a pover ty ela sti cit y of 2 is used for all countri es, rather than findi ng each country - spec ific elast icity, as it has been shown in the past to be the medi an (Ravallion and Chen, 1997). The authors pre sent support that worldwide poverty rates would decr ease by more under the selecti vit y method than the curr ent method of ai d allocati on where some aid is given sel ectively and other aid is given for poli tical, str ate gic or commer ci al reasons . It is furt her argued that the 1996 all ocat ion of $38 bil li on in aid coul d have been 50% more effect ive under their methods. They claim th at it would have had as much impac t as $56 billion under the actual allocat ion syste m. Clar ification is made that the int enti on of sel ectivit y is not to disconti nue all aid to badl y gover ned countr ies and give it only to those that are better - governed (who may also be better off), but rather, “For countries wi th simil ar policy, aid should increase wit h the level of pover ty becaus e the growth promoti ng -effect of aid has more poverty effect in a very poor countr y. For countr ies wit h simil ar levels of pover ty, aid shoul d increase with the level of polici es becaus e is has a larger growth effect in the better policy environment” (Collier and Dollar, 2001, P 1792 - 3). It is noted that over time, as pover ty levels decli ne, so too would the amount of aid a countr y receives. Mosl ey, Hudson and Verschoor (2004) agree with Colli er and Dolla r that sel ectivit y is a better appr oach to develop ment than conditionality was, but they propose another method of aid allocation that they have termed „New Conditionality.‟ Their proposed concept is based on 3 pri ncipl es: - Aid shoul d be broke n down into various dimensi ons – “aid for policy reform, accelerated debt reli ef under the Highly Indebte d Poor Countr ie s initiative, and social - sec tor aid for education, health, rural infrastructure, etc.” If a country has a „very good‟ governance ra ting they will be eligible to receive all thr ee types of aid, where as countri es that are „moderate to poor‟ will only receive social - sector aid. - In certai n cases gover nment s will be bypass ed and aid will go dir ectly to NGOs or even the private sect or at times. Kenya, Bangl ades h and Zambia are example s of countri es where aid money has been funneled through NGOs due to gover nment s tha t rate as „moderate to poor.‟ - Gentl e social, pol itical and economi c press ure can be applied to advocate confli ct prevention, foster democr acy and equal citizenship and fight corr uption through thi s more long - term appr oach. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 4 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Their regr essions focus more on the impact that aid has on pover ty, rather than the traditi onal method of lo oking at the impact of aid on GDP growth. They do thi s by looking at what aid does to public expenditure, specifically „pro - poor‟ expenditure such as those for health, primary educa tion, water and sanitation, rural roads and agri cult ural exte nsion services. They then est imat e sector - speci fic pover ty elasti cit ies. Inequal ity and corruption are als o taken int o account in thei r model and the results of their regre ssi ons are very differ ent from the findings of Colli er and Dollar (2001) who used a sta ndard pover ty reducti on elasticity of 2, but when inequa lity and public spendi ng are fact ored into the poverty equat ion a growth elastici ty of headc ount poverty reducti on of 0.48 is found. This is a very conser vative est imat e since an increase in growth leads to an increase in pro - poor expenditures resulting in a pover ty reducti on elasticit y of 0.92. This tell s us that for ever y 1% extr a growth, pover ty decr eases by less than 1%, rather than decreasing by 2% as Colli er and Dollar found. Mosl ey, Hudson and Verschoor give example s of countries such as Ethi opia , Moza mbique, Tanzania and Uganda where this idea of „new conditionality‟ has worked saying that, In all of these cases a virtuous circle oper ated that contradicts the Collie r -Dollar proposit ion of donors havi ng no influence and, as a consequence, there hav e been more opport unities to tur n potential into act ual aid lever age. Needl ess to say, this proces s did not always run smoothl y and exactly how this proc ess has occurred, in the places it has, is not always comple te ly clear but one key element in it appea rs to be that, in those place s, aid donors made the ms el ves a political as well as a financ ial asset to recipient s – in part thr ough a negoti ati ng styl e char acteri sti c of a new clus ter of donor influe nce, whic h we have termed „new conditionality‟ (Mosley et al., 2004, P F229). Whil e it is true that certain countries may be hur t by selectivity (low - inc ome, low- ine qual ity countries like Mozambique who tend to score low in governance indicators), „new conditionality‟ is not without its pariahs. Middle - inc ome, high inequalit y count ries such as Honduras would receive about half as much aid money under „new conditionality‟ as they would under selectivit y, due to the presence of an equal ity meas ure account ed for in this model , though emphasi s is put on the esti mat e that this new method would be 12% more effect ive per year than the one proposed by Collier and Dollar. Overal l, previous studies done on the success fulness of selectivity have not reached a conse nsus. Some bel ie ve it is the best approach and have credib le methods of data anal ysis to back them up. Others use equa lly plausibl e data to concl ude that selectivity shoul d not be used to allocate aid. Let‟s look now at some possible explanations for the disagreements. A large part of the reason the effect ivene ss of selecti vit y is disagr eed upon may be becaus e those creating the model s cannot agree upon the best methods for testing it. Nearl y every time the theory of sele cti vit y is examine d somet hing new is adde d to or taken away fro m th e model , even when those assessing it have done so in the past . This lack of agre ement as to what most needs to be accounte d for in th e model is a fundament al one, but there are other discrepanc ies as well . One issue is that there are so many definitions of “good governance” and one has not yet been found that everyone can agree on. And even if an organization such as the Worl d Bank or Millennium Chall enge Corpor ation has hit upon a definit ion that they like, who is to say that it is right (Cra wford, 2006, P 119)? Afte r all, the y are outsi ders and without the feedback from the McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 5 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami citizens within a country how can they tell how good the gover nance really is? Whil e it is true that there are some coun tr ies in thi s world that have truly terri ble (or exceptionally wonder ful) gover nment s , what about those that are more in the middl e? (East erly, 2006, P 136 - 7). Without a better system for judging the effect ivenes s of government s, aid agencies should not be too quick to favor one gover nance rating system over another. Rather than relying on any one gove rna nce indicator, Hout argues that development agencies should, “define the conditions under which they would no longer be prepared to support particular countries” (Hout, 2007, P 136) and if a devel opment agency does decide to stop supporti ng a par ticular gover nment , then they can move to supporting the population through non - gover nment al aid channel s, a view shar ed by East erly (2006) . Additi onal ly, the CPIA, one of the most used indicators to judge a count ries gover nance qual ity, is accuse d of being neo- liberal in its approach, putting too much emphasi s on economic growth and none on democra cy, poli tical participat ion, the rule of law, and human rights. It is further argued that the human deve lop ment definit ion of devel opment include s some aspe ct s of heal th and educat ion rather than solely GDP per capi ta as the CPIA does. This means that a count ry such as Cuba can come in 52 n d in the Human Develop ment Index in 2005, but still be considered “out of bounds by the World Bank” (Hout, 2007, P 1 37). Another argu ment agai nst selectivity heral ded by a number of promine nt economist s is the idea that whil e there is a correlation between bad gover nance and slow econo mic growth ther e is not neces sarily causality . It is argued that in man y cases countr ies may have bad government s beca use they are poor , rather than the opposi te (East erly, Sachs, Hout) . Jeffre y Sachs explains it well when he says , As a country‟s income rises, governance improves for two major reasons. First, a more li terate and afflue nt soc iety is better able to keep the government honest by playing a watchdog role over government proc ess es. Newspaper s, televisi on, books, tel ephones, transport , and now the Internet, all of whic h are vastly more avai la ble in rich count ries, enhanc e thi s watchdog functi on and empo wer civil society. Second, a more afflue nt soci ety can afford to inve st in high - quality governance. When gover n ment s are backe d by ample tax receipts, the civil service is better educat ed, extensive compute ri zat ion improves in format ion flows, and the publi c admini str at ion is profess ional ly manage d (Sac hs, 2005, P 312). Whil e this idea makes a lot of sense the lit tle resear ch that has been done on the subject has shown nothing more than that bad gover nment s do cause pover ty ( East erl y, 2006, P 116). Until the above issue s are resolved, there is no reason to believe that there will be any agreement on whether or not selectivity is the best method for aid allocati on, though it will no doubt continue to be used by many well - known orga nizati ons such as the Worl d Bank, the IMF and the UNDP. After all, these organizations must use some syste m to allocate aid and the previous method of condit ional ity has proven to be highl y ineffect ive . The cont inued use of sel ectivit y does not mean that we should judge “poorly” governed countries too harshly because, as Wil li am East erly reminds us, There is a lot of vari ati on, both across devel oping count ries and withi n gover nment s as to qual ity of gover nment offici al s. There is a layer of capabl e, honest , well -meani ng technocra ts in almost ever y gover nment , who themsel ves are a promisi ng group of Sear chers looking for a way to increase opport unit ies for poor people (East erly, 2006, P. 102). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 6 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Section 3 – Looking at the Effect of Governance on Pov er ty The aim of this paper is to look at the impact that good or bad gover nance has on the effect ive ness of using forei gn aid to reduce poverty. To do this analysis , meas ure s of povert y, aid and governance must be used. The $2 per day pover ty line wil l be used in lieu of GDP per capi ta. The drawback to using the $2 per day measure is that it is not gener ally calculat ed on an annual basis for each countr y and ther efore restric ts the number of countri es that can be inc luded in the sampl e. In order to compensa te for this lack of data 3 year time fra mes will be used – 1996 - 1998, 1999 - 2001, 2002- 2004, and 2005- 2007, though the number of countri es wit h even that much dat a remai ns limit ed. To see how poverty has increase d or decreas ed in the indi vidual countries we will look at the change in the $2 per day pover ty line as a percentage of the popula tion from the 1996 - 1998 time per iod to the 2005 - 2007 time fra me. Two meas ure s of aid will be used. The first is the avera ge amount of Officia l Developmen t Assi sta nce (ODA) that count ries recei ved over the whole 12 -year period. ODA is defined by the Organiz ati on for Economic Co- operation and Development as “ Flows of offic ia l financi ng admini ste re d with the promoti on of the economic devel opment and welfare of devel o ping countrie s as the main obje ct ive, and whic h are concessi onal in char acter with a grant element of at least 25 percent (using a fixed 10 percent rate of discount)” (OECD, Glossary of Stat istical Terms). It is import ant to assess countries using ODA as a percent age of GNI becaus e the economie s of cert ain countries are substa nti ally larger than othe rs . Looking at percent ages of GNI put s all count ries on equal footing. The second meas ure used rec ords actual dollar amounts received for ODA and aid (calcul ated in constant 2007 $US). These act ual dol lar amounts are what potential donors want to look at to see where their money would have the most (pote ntia l) impact . The two methods will be compared to see if they are consi stent wit h each other. Whil e there are many gover nance indic es in use toda y, one of the most popular ones remai ns the Governance Mat ter Indictor s ment ioned in Section 2 above, devel oped by Kaufmann, Kraay, and Zoido - Lobaton. The foll owing 6 broad categori es are taken into account: -Voice and Accountability (the degree to which a country‟s residents have a say in choosi ng their gover nment in addit ion to a free medi a, freedom of expr ess ion and freedom of assoc iation) -Poli tical Stability and Absence of Viol ence (how likel y the publ ic perceiv es the gover nment to be ove rthrown or dest abil ized) -Governmen t Effect ive ness (how publi c service, civil service, poli cy creation, imple ment at ion and commit ment are per ceived) -Regulat ory Qual it y (how the government creation and imple ment at ion of privat e s ect or poli cie s and regulations is perceived) -Rule of Law (how effe ct ive the polic e and judicial syste m is as well as laws governi ng prope rt y rights and contract enforcement ) -Control of Corrupt ion (again based on publi c perception) The data that goes into this index conta ins hundreds of variables drawn from 35 indi vidual data sources from various parts of the world. The most rece nt report give s a score of - 2.5 to +2.5 (wit h higher number s corres ponding to better gover nance) for each of the 6 cat egori es to 212 countries on a yearly basi s from 1996 to 2008 and it is from these score s that the effect iveness of governance wi ll be judge d withi n the countr ies in the data sample (Kauf mann et al., 2009). For simpli ci ty sake the scor es in each of the 6 cate gories for each McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 7 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami indi vidual year are averaged toget her to give an annual governance score and then the annual scor es for the years between 1996 and 2007 are averaged toget her to give each country only one over all governa nce score for the entire 12 year time per iod . In this way we can see whic h count ries were better gover ned throughout the entire time per iod. Of the countr ie s that have adequate data on the $2 per day and ODA as a percenta ge of GNI vari ables, the one s that receive less than 1% of their annual GNI fr om ODA are excl uded, leavi ng only 23 count ries. The average governance scores of include d countr ies range fro m a +0.05 for Jorda n to a -1.41 for Burundi . These 23 countries are then broken down into thos e that are compar at ively well governed, those that are less well governed, and those that are in the middl e. This anal ysis captur es only those count ries that fit into the top and bottom cat egor ie s. Ten countries are considered to be “well” governed, though the scores in this category range fro m a +0.05 to a - 0.45, and 7 countries considered to be “poorly” governed, receiving scores fro m -0.71 to -1.41. These countri es are graphed in Figure s 1 and 2 with Average ODA as a percenta ge of GNI on the x-axi s and the Change in the percenta ge of the population li ving on $2 or less per day on the y-axi s with the country name and Worl d Governance Indicator scores writ ten next to each data point . Figur e 1 shows nine out of ten wel l - gover ned countr ies have pover ty levels that are either decr easing or remai ning the same, giving the imp re ssi on that good governance may indeed lead to effic ie nt alloc ati on of aid dollars . But when a line of regression is added, it appear s that the more ODA give n to these count ries, the less pover ty decreases (as defined by the $2 per day meas ure ). Figur e 2 reveal s that only five out of seven of our poor ly governed countrie s show a decr ease in pover ty over the 12 -year time per iod. This time when a line of regr ession is added it shows that additi onal ODA lea ds to a decrease in povert y, tho ugh not by a subst anti al amount. Figur e 1 Effect of ODA on percentage of population liv ing under $2 per day in well-gov erned countries -80.00% -60.00% -40.00% -20.00% 0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00% 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Average ODA ('96-'07) as a % of GNI C h a n g e $ 2 / d a y f r o m ' 9 6 - ' 9 8 t o ' 0 5 - ' 0 7 Macedonia -0.41 Madagascar -0.22 Nicaragua -0.45 Mongolia 0.01 Ghana -0.13 Bolivia -0.35 Jordan .04 Moldova -0.44 Egypt -0.43 El Salvador -0.19 Figur e 2 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 8 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Effect of ODA on percentage of population liv ing under $2 per day in poorly-governed countries -80.00% -60.00% -40.00% -20.00% 0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00% 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Average ODA from '96-'07 as a % of GNI C h a n g e $ 2 / d a y f r o m ' 9 6 - ' 9 8 t o ' 0 5 - ' 0 7 Georgia - 0.73 Burundi -1.41 Uganda -0.71 Pakistan -0.91 Bangladesh -0.77 Kenya -0.76 Yemen -0.95 Figur es 3 and 4 look at actual doll ar amounts of ODA, thi s time incl uding additional for ms of aid . When a line of regr ession is fitted to the better -gover ned countr ies plotted in Figur e 3, we see that there is almost no relations hip between the amount of aid receive d and the change in the per centa ge of the population livi ng on $2 or less per day. Fitting a line of regre ssi on to the less well - governed countries of Figur e 4 emphasi zes what was seen in Figure 2 – the more aid dollars given to “poorly” governed countries, the gre ater t he decr ease in pover ty. Figur e 3 Effect of ODA + aid on percentage of population liv ing under $2 per day in well- governed countries -80% -60% -40% -20% 0% 20% 4 % 60% 80% 100% 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 Billions Average ODA + aid (in constant 2007 $US) C h a n g e $ 2 / d a y f r o m ' 9 6 - ' 9 8 t o ' 0 5 - ' 0 7 Macedonia -0.41 Egypt -0.43 Madagascar -0.22 Bolivia -0.35 Ghana -0.13 Nicaragua -0.45 Jordan 0.05Moldova -0.44 El Salvador -0.19 Mongolia 0.01 Figur e 4 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 9 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Effect of ODA + aid on percentage of population liv ing under $2 per day in poorly- governed countries -80% -60% -40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 Billions Average ODA + aid received (in constant 2007 $US) C h a n g e $ 2 / d a y f r o m ' 9 6 - ' 9 8 t o ' 0 5 - ' 0 7 Georgia -0.73 Yemen -0.94 Burundi -1.41 Kenya -0.76 Uganda -0.71 Bangladesh -0.77 Pakistan -0.91 This model is of cours e very crude and there fore is not entirely concl usive. To begi n with there are only 17 developin g countr ies that were able to be incl uded and the re was nearly as much vari ation of the Worl d Governance Indicators within the two cate gori es (well governed versus poorly gover ned) as there was between them. After all the 10 well governed countries scor es differ ed fro m best to wors t by .5, the 7 worst gover ned count ries scores were spre ad over a range of .69, and there was only a difference of .25 between the 2 categori es. Additional ly aver ages over long time per iods were used, suc h as to calculate a sing le 12-year governance scor e and the avera ge amount of aid a countr y receive d within that 12 -year time fra me. This use of aver ages may cause distorti on by not reflecting the true value s of the datum though it keeps thi ngs simple and makes the data easie r to work with. It must also be reme mbered that occur rences such as politic al or civil unre st may cont ri bute to the effect iveness that ODA has on pover ty, but these may not be accounte d for in the Worl d Governanc e Indicat or scores. Looking at case studies an d compar ing two countries that are simil ar may help compensa te for the lack of str ong evidence found in the previous model s. Unfort unat ely there are few countries with enough data to be used so we must be conte nt using countries that lie in the same geogr aphi c region, regardless of what other simil aritie s or differ ence s the y may have . Sect ion 4 – What the case studies indic ate The Worl d Bank Group is made up of two differ ent types of inst itutions called the Int er national Bank for Recons tr uction and Deve lop ment (IBRD) and the Int er national Developmen t Assoc iation (IDA), which provide very differ ent types of funds to countr ies around the world. The IBRD makes loans at market rates to middle - inc ome count ries and those poor er count ries that are deemed to be creditwort hy while the IDA provide s int erest - free loans and grants to the world‟s poorest countries. Although loans are given for a variety of different proj ects including education, health, infra str uct ure and natural resource manage ment the over ri ding purpos e of every loan or grant is to decrea se poverty, henc e the Worl d Bank mott o of, McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 10 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami “Working for a World Free of Poverty.” It is this combination of IBRD and IDA loans that will be examine d in the four case study countr ies. And agai n the percenta ge poin t cha nge in the $2 per day meas ure will be used in order to compar e the effect ivenes s of Worl d Bank loans within count ries depending on their Worl d Governanc e Indi cator score s. The fir st two count ries to be compar ed come fro m Africa – Ghana and Uganda. Ghana has 24 mil lion people , made up of more than 100 differ ent ethnic groups who live with each othe r in rela tive peace. In Uganda there are 32.4 mil li on people who speak 40 differ ent languages , with no single ethnic group maki ng up a majori ty of the popu lation. Unlike in Ghana, there is confli ct in the nort h of Uganda. Both countries have substa ntia l amounts of natura l resour ces and both are predomina ntl y Chris tian (with Muslims bei ng the next largest religious majori ty) . Table 1 shows the ave rage Worl d Governanc e Indicat or score s for these two countries for each of the years between 1996 and 2007. The data in this table indicates that while Ghana‟s gover nance scor es have fluctuat ed they have improve d overall in the 12 -year time fra me. Uganda‟s scores got worse in the late 1990‟s until 2002, after which time they began to improve, produc ing an avera ge score in 2007 that is nearly identic al to the one they received in 1996. A glance at Figur e 5 reveal s nearly identi cal loan patterns between the two cou ntries, with the amount of the loans increasing and decreasing in the same years for bot h. However , Ghana rout inel y borr owed more Worl d Bank funds per year for an avera ge of 40% more IBRD and IDA loans over the 12 year s. If the theory of sele cti vit y hold s the higher gover nance indi cator score s recei ved by Ghana couple d with the increased amount of loans received shoul d lead to greater poverty reducti on within Ghana, but thi s does not seem to be the case. Figur e 6 indi cates that, over the 12 year peri od, the percenta ge of the popula tion living on $2 per day or less decre ased by 9.73 per centa ge point s for Ghana, whil e in Uganda it decr eased by 10.35 percenta ge point s. When the percentage point decre ase in the $2 per day pover ty level is divided by the tota l amount of IBRD and IDA loans mad e by the Worl d Bank and mult iplied by a billion we are able to see what percenta ge of the popul ation was lifted out of povert y for each $1 bil lion borr owed. This meas ure is especially useful because it controls for popula ti on size, maki ng it easier to compar e countri es that do not have simil ar number s of resi dents. For Ghana the number is -.283 (the negat ive sign indic ating a decr ease in pover ty) , for Uganda it is -.419 revealing that, though Uganda‟s governance scores ar e lower than those for Ghana, each billi on borr owed fro m the Worl d Bank is 48% more effe ct ive at all evia ting poverty, as meas ure d by those livi ng on less than $2 per day. In compar ing these two Afri can countr ies it does not appe ar that selectivity is the best allocati on of aid doll ars . In this case study the less well - governe d count ry (Uganda) used loan dollars more effect ive ly to reduce pove rty. Table 1 Country 1996 AVERAGE 1998 AVERAGE 2000 AVERAGE 2002 AVERAGE 2003 AVERAGE 2004 AVERAGE 2005 AVERAGE 2006 AVERAGE 2007 AVERAGE GHANA -0.283 -0.285 -0.087 -0.213 -0.163 -0.180 -0.044 0.094 0.073 UGANDA -0.569 -0.709 -0.823 -0.851 -0.729 -0.698 -0.663 -0.595 -0.598 JORDAN 0.068 0.062 0.079 -0.124 0.026 0.066 0.050 0.020 0.075 YEMEN -0.770 -0.865 -0.942 -1.055 -1.006 -1.082 -1.007 -0.981 -0.9864 Figur e 5 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 11 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami IBRD + IDA loans for Ghana and Uganda 0 500,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,500,000,000 2,000,000,000 2,500,000,000 3,000,000,000 3,500,000,000 4,000,000,000 4,500,000,000 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years C o n s t a n t 2 0 0 0 $ U S Ghana Uganda Figur e 6 Percentage of the population living on $2/day or less for Ghana and Uganda 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Uganda Ghana Let‟s turn now to the two Middle - Easte rn countries of Jorda n and Yemen. Both count ries are predomi nantl y Muslim and are in the same regi on (separate d by Saudi Arabia ) but thi s seems to be where the simil arities end. At 28 mil li on, Yemen has a much grea ter population than Jordan‟s 5.1 million. Additionally, Yemen is well endowed with oil and natural gas deposits (t hough current ly focuses on extr acting only the oil ), while Jorda n has v ery limit ed resour ces . Jordan, which has a constit uti onal monarchy with a representati ve gover nment , enjoys relative McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 12 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami peac e. Yemen on the other hand, is a Preside nt Republi c with a bicamer al legislature and has a probl em with civil unrest in the northwest of the countr y. There is a great er s pread between the gover nance indi cator score s of Jordan and Yemen than there was for Ghana and Uganda as can be seen in Figure 1. The scores for Jordan varie d some but remai ned fairl y stable overal l, but the gover nance scor es for Yemen got progr ess ivel y worse between 1996 and 2002 and then began to stabilize and are slowly improvi ng. Figur e 7 shows that while Jordan‟s borrowing has remained fairly stable at around $1 billion per year (wit h a slight decline in recent year s), Ye men has borr owed incr easingly more fro m the Worl d Bank. Povert y as meas ure d by thos e living on $2 per day or less decreased by 8.04 percentage point s in Jordan, and actuall y increased by 10.25 per centa ge point s in Yemen. When you look at how effect ive each billion doll ars lent was at decreasi ng poverty in these countr ies you get a -.754 for Jordan (the negat ive sign once agai n denoti ng that it is a decrease in pove rty) and a +.643 for Yemen. So in thi s case, the concept of sel ectivit y does seem to fit – Jordan, the count ry with the higher gover nance scor e is significant ly more effect ive at usi ng Worl d Bank loan monie s to alleviate pover ty. Figur e 7 IBRD + IDA loans for Jordan and Yemen 0 200,000,000 400,000,000 600,000,000 800,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,200,000,000 1,400,000,000 1,600,000,000 1,800,000,000 2,000,000,000 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years C o n s t a n t 2 0 0 0 $ U S Yemen Jordan Figur e 8 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 13 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Percentage of the population living on $2/day or less for Jordan and Yemen 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Years Yemen Jordan Section 5 – Conclusi on Whil e the idea that Worl d Bank fund s and other for ms of aid shoul d be apporti oned on the basis of sel ectivit y makes inst inct ive sens e, the evidence does not always support this as the best method for aid allocat ion. Burnside and Dolla r found evidence in two separate studie s publi shed in 2000 and 2004 tha t supporte d the theor y of selectivity (as did Colli er and Dollar in 2001), but othe r economist s who have done simil ar work have been unable to duplicate their results. A large portion of the probl em stems from the inability of model maker s to agre e on wha t sorts of policies “good” governments possess. Some believe that the focus should be more on a government‟s economic policies; others believe that every country is different and therefore may have be tt er success with a different combina ti on of poli cie s t han those that have worke d in the past so we shouldn‟t try to apply a “one - size fits all” set of policies everywhere. Furt her more , while evidence exists that there is a correlation between how well a countr y is gover ned and its rate of economic growth, ca usalit y has not yet been proven. It is just as likel y that economic growth leads to bett er gover nance as it is the other way around. When var ious deve loping count ries are compar ed based on the $2 per day pover ty meas ure and the amount of Offic ia l Develop men t Assi stance received it appear s that more aid money given to less- well gove rne d countr ies results in a great er decr ease in poverty than when more aid is given to better - governe d count ries. This indicates that selectivit y does not hold in the developin g count ries withi n the model. It must be remembered however that only 17 count ries were able to be include d due to lack of data on the meas ure s used and the need to separate those countries that had data into “good” and “bad” governance, leaving out the c ountries that rated in the middl e of the scale. Looking at the case studies of Worl d Bank loans made to Gha na and Uganda reveals that Uganda, the count ry with lower Worl d Governanc e Indicat or scores , is actual ly more effect ive at using loan money to decr e ase poverty (as meas ure d by the percenta ge of the popul ation living on $2 per day or less). In this case selecti vity may not be the best method for all ocat ing funds . However , it must be noted that while Ghana received bet ter gover nance scor es, the differe nce between the scor es for the two countries was not exce ptiona lly large . Selecti vit y may work better when compar ing Jorda n to Yemen. Jorda n has not ably better Wor ld Gover nance Indicat or scor es and is conside rably more effect ive at usi ng Worl d Bank loan funds to decrease poverty than Yemen (not e that Yemen actua lly saw a 10 perc ent increase in poverty). Perhaps what McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 14 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami these case studie s highlight is that sele ctivity is more likely to work when appl ie d to count ries on the polar ends – those wit h the best and worst gover nance over all, while devel oping countries that fall into the middl e shoul d be consider ed more care fully. Afte r all , corr uption ratings are not exact and contain a high margin of error. According to Easterly, “The high margin of error re flects the diffic ult y that differ ent outsi de rating agenc ies have reaching conse nsus on whic h countries are more or less corrupt. It looks like selecting good governments is not so easy” (P. 137). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 15 Ar mij o - Grover , Cami Works Cite d About Us." World Bank . The Worl d Bank G roup, 17 Mar. 2010. Web. 15 Aug. 2010. Burnsi de, Crai g, and David Doll ar. "Aid, Polic ies, and Growth." The American Economic Review 90.4 (2000) : 847- 68. Print. CIA - The World Factbook. Web. 21 Sept . 2010. . Colli er, Paul, and David Doll ar . "Can the Worl d Cut Povert y in Half? How Poli cy Refor m and Effecti ve Aid Can Meet Int er national Devel opme nt Goals ." World Development 29.11 (2001) : 1787- 802. Print. Crawford, Gord on. "The Worl d Bank and Good Gover nance : Rethi nking the State or Consolida ting Neo - li beralism." The IMF, World Bank and Policy Reform . New Yor k: Routledge , 2006. 115- 41. Print. Dollar , David, and Lant Prit chet t. Assessing Aid: What Works, What Doesn't, and Why. Washi ngton, D.C.: Oxfor d UP, 1998. Print . East erly, Wi ll iam Russel l. The White Man's Burden: Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done so Much Ill and so Little Good. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print. East erly, Wi ll iam, Ross Levine, and David Roodman. New Data, New Doubts: Revisiting "Aid, Policies, and Growth" Worki ng paper no. 26. Washi ngton, DC: Center for Global Developmen t, 2003. Print. Hansen, Henri k, and Finn Tarp. "Aid and Growth Regre ssi ons." Journal of Development Economics 64 (2001) : 547 - 70. Print. Hout, Wil . The Politics of Aid Selectivity Good Governance Criteria in World Bank, US and Dutch Development Assistance . London: Routl edge, 2007. Pri nt. Kaufmann, Daniel , Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastr uzzi . Governance Matters VIII. Worki ng paper no. 4978. Washi ngton, DC: Worl d Bank, 2009. Print. Kaufmann, Daniel , Aart Kraay, and Pablo Zoido - Lobaton. Governance Matters . Worki ng paper no. 2196. Washi ngton, DC: Worl d Bank, 1999. Print . Mosl ey, Paul, John Hudson, and Arjan Verschoor. "Aid, Pov er ty Reduction and the 'Ne w Conditi onality'" The Economic Journal 114 (2004): F217 - 243. Print. "Officia l Devel opment Assis ta nce." OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms . Organi zation for Economic Co-oper ati on and Devel opment , 28 Aug. 2003. We b. 17 Aug. 2010. . Ravall ion, Mar tin, and Shaohua Chen. "What Can New Surve y Data Tell Us about Recent Changes in Dist ri buti on and Povert y?" World Bank Economic Review 11.2 (1997) : 357- 82. Print. Sachs, Jeffre y. The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time . New York: Penguin, 2005. Print. Worl d Bank. Worl d Development Indi cat ors . 2010. Raw data. . “World Economic Outlook Database.” International Monetary Fund . Int erna tional M onet ar y Fund, Apr. 2008. Web. 15 Aug. 2010. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 16 Blancha rd, Deb Unmasking the Superhero: Analyzing Junot Díaz’s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao as “Multicultural Hybridity” Literature Deborah Blanchard, English/Modern Languages - Spanish Bridget Kevane, Ph.D., Mentor Department of Modern Languages and Literature ABSTRACT The term “American Literature” alludes to a hybridity of text and meaning that combines the different languages and cultures that make up America’s writing landscape. When literary students begin to learn about “American Literature,” they are first exposed to a predominantly Euro-American canon and then possibly to a multicultural grouping of American authors set up to represent the rest of America ethnic writing. Ex posure to these “other” literatures raises the following questions: How does multicultural American literature fit into the larger Euro- American canon? Should the two groups remain separate or should they be woven together? How does the “mainstream” reader engage with the multicultural text in a meaningful manner without stereotyping groups of fellow Americans based on one or two works? Utilizing familiar themes that are a part American popular culture and literature, while engaging with the text, allows for meaningful analysis without losing the important messages the text may be trying to relay. Introduction Stude nts of multi cultural literature frequentl y face the challenge of how to int era ct and relate to a te xt when they have no firstha nd experie nce in underst anding othe r Amer ic an subcul ture s outsi de of their own “ mai nstream ” experience . How does a student from rura l Amer ic a relate to the urban lifestyle in one of New York City‟s boroughs" How does the white al l- Amer ic an athlete from a “ good ” school relate to the inne r city kid wit h darker skin going to a lesser - funded inne r city school? Can a non- traditi onal age d stude nt relate to the youth that encompass e s college l ife? All of the indi vidual s ment ione d in the above questi ons are typical ste re otype s relie d upon when disc ussing polarizing ends of society‟s spectrum. Although, for the purposes of this paper, the word “mainstream” is being used to label the majority white McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 17 Blancha rd , Deb Americ an experie nce in the Unite d Stat es, this kind of ste re otypi ng stunts the abil ity of reader s to fully interact wit h m ult icultural literature beyond readi ng it in terms of race and ethnic ity. These kinds of quest ions abou t how one relates to a culture or lifestyle different from one‟s own exper ience fueled the rese ar ch uti lized in this paper . I chose as my pri mar y piece of liter at ure The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz , beca use it provi des many ways for differ ent re ader s, from differ ent backgrounds, to engage and inter act with the litera ture and find meani ng withi n the text. An exa mina ti on of how the aesthetic styles utilized in Dtaz‟s novel – the scie nce fiction and fant asy genres, comic boo k char acters and supe rheroes, and religi ous themes – provi de s a bridge of underst andi ng for mainstr eam readers to engage wit h mult icultural literatur e even if unfa mil iar with the Amer ic an subcult ure out of which the aut hor and the literatur e grow s. After The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao won the 2008 Puli tzer Priz e, it was picked up by academic s in the multi c ultur al literature class room to discus s a variety of iss ues faci ng U.S. Lati nos. It is a nov el used to exempli fy U.S . Lati no lit erature and the issue s surrounding the Domi nic an Amer ic an dia spor a in the Unit ed States , and for Lati no readers, it provides a famil ia r landsca pe with which to relate . For readers who are not a part of the Latino communit y, the novel is somet imes more fa mil ia r as a bildungsroman – a coming - of- age nove l – which, in this case, is about an ove rweight , nerdy , Domini can Amer ic an kid named Oscar who aspires to be a hero and find love . The novel weaves the histor y of a nation into the stor y of Osca r ‟s life. Oscar‟s family comes to Amer ic a when he is young and he grows up in Patter son, NJ. Oscar does not have a lot of fri end and prefers the solitary pursuit of imme rs ing himself in fantasy, scie nce fict ion, and comic books . The novel is a story of his coming - of- age, a bildungsroman , but it is also a novel McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 18 Blancha rd , Deb that speaks dir ectly to the psyc hological makeup of a kid who grows up to will ing ly sacri fice himsel f for his highest ideal – love. Oscar , after being beaten brut all y for havi ng an affai r wit h the love of his life Yb ó n – a woman who is also the girlfri end of a Domini can policeman – retur ns to the Domini can Republi c to purs ue his relations hip with Ybó n, and ends up pass ively allow ing himsel f to be walked int o the cane field to be shot and killed . To unders tand the motivat ions behind t his fina l deadly act , one has to under sta nd what make s Oscar think the way he thi nks . The best way to under sta nd Oscar‟s moti vati ons is to understand the kinds of literatur e and Amer ic an popula r culture he was exposed to that influenced his personal value syst em and the choic es he makes duri ng his lifetime . The world created in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao is a world that reference s sci ence fiction, comic books and religious imager y to explain the affect s of the Truj illo dictators hip on the Domi nic an Amer ic an identi ty. In using these kinds of themes to help the reader understand Oscar‟s exp er ience, the mainstream reader is abl e to engage in a meani ngful way with the text without having had to live through the immigr ant exper ie nce, or be a part of the Domini can Amer ic an subcul ture. The underpinnings of Oscar‟s mind s e t correla te to the ways in which the reader engage s with this novel. Rather than a straight forwar d discussi on of identit y and ethnicity, this novel has created a number of way s for the reader to int eract with Oscar‟s life and through processes. Once the reader under stands Oscar ‟s way of processing the world around him, Oscar becomes a famil ia r character to many readers outsi de the Latino communit y. In a dditi on to seeing the world the way Oscar sees it, the mainstr eam reader begi ns to recogniz e the differ ent ways in which to cro ss over into the text thr ough a study of the way in which thi s novel is writt en . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 19 Blancha rd , Deb A themat ic disc ussion of The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao cannot ensue without a bri ef discussion about how this kind of lite rature is cate gorized . Genera lly, thi s kind of lite rature – literatur e writ ten by an author of some kind of ethni c - Amer ic an minor ity descent – is collectively dumped into the “multicultural” literature category. However, the problem with lumping all ethni c minorit y piece s of literatur e into one category is that it automatically “others” the lit era ture fro m the mainstream, there by maki ng it diffic ult for the mainstr eam reader to under sta nd the true impo rt of the mess age trying to be conve yed. One solu ti on to the probl em of cat egori zing is to utilize Laurie Grobman‟s concept of “ mult ic ult ur al hy bridity” as discusse d in her book Multicultural Hybridity: Transforming American Literary Scholarship & Pedagogy (18) . In discussing “multicultural hybridity,” Laurie Grobman explains that even though “unities and commo n under sta ndings are prerequi sites to cross -cul tura l commu nic ation and globa l understanding,” there is a further “need to bring critical judgment to bear on all cultural norms, beliefs, values, and practices” (18). Although it may be easy to fall back on common ste re otype s, being able to under sta nd a piece of literatur e require s the reader to find new ways of critiqui ng the text , while gaining underst anding of cult ural differ ence s . In reading Díaz ‟s novel, readers need to find a wa y to enga ge with the chara cter of Oscar in order to under sta nd the issue s of identity and sacr ifice that the text is discussi ng. Although it makes sens e to relat e this novel to the issue s of identity surrounding the Domini can Amer ic an exper ience, there ar e other ways for the mainstr eam reader to relate and inte ract with the text , particularly if they have diffic ult y in really understandi ng the affect s of the Truj illo dictat ors hip on the Domi nic an Amer ic an expe rience . Grobma n further expla ins in her theor y of mult icultural hybri dity literat ure , that there is a “space of in - betweeness«>where ] conventi on and reality break down, and new realities must be (re)constructed” (41). Within this gap of “reality , ” McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 20 Blancha rd , Deb between the mainstr eam reader ‟s experience and the Do mini can Amer ic an exper ience, there exists what Grobman calls “crossings,” which consist of “cultural, linguistic, economic, political, and aesthetic” crossings (33). These “crossings” serve as bridges over which the reader can enter int o the world of the fictional text in orde r to gain cle are r under sta nding of the text and the mess age the aut hor may be trying to send. Cert ainly, wit hin The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao , there are numer ous ways the reader can relate to the text . However , the focus of this paper will be on crossi ng s, or bri dges of under sta nding, that fall under the “aesthetic” category . This novel lends itsel f to being able to explor e thi s cate gory more full y by a discussi on of the many genr e style s that Díaz utiliz es and weaves into the novel to tell the story . For the purposes of this resea rch project, thre e differ ent ways for a mainstream reader to relate to thi s text will be used , that fall under Grobman‟s “aesthetic crossings.” First, the reader , if famil ia r wit h the genr e s of sci ence ficti on and fant asy , can under sta nd the feeli ngs that Oscar exper iences as a non - typic al Domini can Amer ic an kid growing up in the United States as an outsi der or an alie n. Secondly, religious themes woven into the text help expl ai n how the sacri fice of identity, through a lite ral loss of physical life, reflect s the horrible circumsta nces of living under the Trujillo regi me and the int ense assimil at ion that immigr ant s have to undergo in orde r to survive and succeed in the Unit ed States. Final ly , references to cartoon superher oes in Amer ic an popular cult ure draw the reader int o the issue s surrounding identi ty and the dual istic natur e of self - image and identit y . Science Fiction & Fantasy The Scie nce Fict ion and Fantas y genre s do not rank as “ hi gh art ” withi n aca demic cir cle s, which is why it is surprising to have a novel receive such praise, and as much liter ary criticism, McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 21 Blancha rd , Deb as has The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao . However , it is thr ough the use of these genr es , that a n ew way of disc ussing history and dictatorships has been created in order to describe the Trujill o regime . The genre s of scie nce fict ion and fantasy can be defined as follows “ [ F] antasy is fiction tha t depends on magi cal or supernat ural ele ment s not s pecifica lly meant to scare you«>i@f the magical elements are replaced with imagined technologies, it‟s science ficti on ” ( Athans 14). In science fiction and fant asy, the main character typically is on a ques t and needs to go through an arduous jour ney of self discovery in order to att ain the final goal of savi ng somet hing or someone – usual ly the world in which they live. Sinc e there are many referenc es withi n The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao to seve ral novel s and writer s withi n these genres, only a few example s will be used to disc uss how Scie nce Fiction and Fantasy relate to the Domini can Am er ic an experie nce under the Trujillo dictatorship and why this kind of literature is import ant to the chara cter Oscar . One of the m ost fa mil iar books in the fanta sy genre util ized in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao to describe Truj illo and his mil it ar y suppor ters is J.R.R. Tolkien‟s The Lord of the Rings . This novel is an epic story about the battle of good versus evil. Tolki en created a univer se people d with m ult iple races and bei ngs with differ ent languages, ori gins and cust oms. It is a story about a ring tha t give s power to whoever wear s it, but in the hands of someone evil, it gives the power to domina te and dest roy. The main hero in The Lord of the Rings is Frodo Baggins, a hobbit , who rece ives the ring from his uncl e as part of his inheritance. Hobbits are “an unobtrusive but very ancient people, « [w ho] love peace and quiet and good tilled eart h ” (1). The y are “merry folk” who wear “bright colors,” have curly hair and “tough leathery soles” on the ir feet (2). T hey were also call e d “Little Folk” and lived in a woodsy plea sant place called The Shir e (146). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 22 Blancha rd , Deb In direct contrast to humble Frodo sits Saur on, the main antagoni st in The Lord of the Rings . He is the Great Eye who wants the One Ring of Power and breeds a sp ecies calle d Orcs, who are disgusti ng foul beings that serve as his mil itary to wage war agai nst the rest of Middle Eart h. Sauron wants to domina te ever ybody and ever ything. Within The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao , Sauron becomes a symb ol representing the ulti mate dictator who rules with terr or and evi l int ent. In one scene in The Lord of the Rings, where Frodo‟s companion Sam is looking i nto the Elf 4ueen Galadrial‟s magic mirror, he sees The Shire‟s trees being chopped down and replaced with “black smoke” (353). It is a vision of what the future could become if Sauron and his mini ons are able to domina te the people and the landscape. The dest ruction of a way of life and t he trust of a communit y is reflecte d in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao . W hen describing Trujillo‟s dictat ors hip, the nar rator Yunior states in the first footnote that Trujillo was “our Sauron«, our Once and Future Dictator, a personaje so outla ndish, so perverse, so dreadful that not even a sci - fi writer could have made his ass up” (2) . Yunior goes on to explain that Trujillo‟s dictatorship was fueled by “violence, intimidation, mass acr e, rape, co - optation, and terror” (2). By using a well known character to mainstr eam Amer ic a , such as Sauron in The Lord of the Rings, the novel is able to be anal yzed in a new way. Mainstream readers unde rs t and , after readi ng The Lord of the Rings , and seei ng the trilogy of movies that began to come out in 2001, that Trujillo‟s dictatorship reflects the same kind of te rr orizing issues played out by Sauron in The Lord of the Rings . It is thr ough unders tanding this connec tion that a mainstream reader can cros s over from sy mpa thi zing to empat hiz ing wit h the pli ght of people livi ng under a dictators hip . No longer is Trujill o just “ some ” cruel Domini can dictator – the reader under sta nds the impli cat ions of a dict at or capable of kil ling with impunit y McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 23 Blancha rd , Deb because they “know” how the char acte r Saur on funct ions in The Lord of the Rings becaus e they have expe rienced an emo ti onal reaction while reading the book or watchi ng the movie s. The science ficti on genre differs fro m fant asy in that it usua lly includes a critique of society‟s relianc e upon machi nes and technol ogy ; however, simil ar to the fantas y genre , it too has a savi or -type main char acter that mu st undergo an arduous journey in orde r to save himsel f and/ or his world . This idea of a savior archet ype is import ant to understanding the under pinnings of The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao and Oscar‟s moti vations for the book finale . This idea of saving the world spea ks directl y to Oscar‟s need to counteract the myster i ous fukú curse that is ment ioned over and over again in the text that Oscar ultimat el y tries to co unte ract . The fuk ú curse has plagued Oscar‟s family and all of the New World since the time of Christopher Columbus‟s “discovery” of it ( Díaz 1). It is the drive to end the cur se and save his family that makes Oscar‟s character a savior archetype. In Yunior‟s description of Oscar‟s nerdiness, he discusses that Oscar immerses himself in the science fiction genre and rattles off seve ra l science fiction authors including “ Lovecr aft, Wells, Burroughs, How ard , Alexander, Herbert, Asimov, Bova and Heinlein” ( Díaz 21). For the purpos es of this paper, onl y one of these author s is going to be used to help explain the rele vance of the Science Fict ion “crossing” with the literature . Frank Herber t published the novel Dune in 1965 in what would become the first in a series about the barre n, dese rt planet of Arra kis. Arrakis is impo rt ant to the created world in this novel because it is the source of the “ spic e , ” a drug that is used for fuel and heal th. A “three- point civilization” must be balanced bet ween “the Imperial Household,” “ the Federated Great Houses of the Landsraad” , and the Spaci ng Guild, which has a “monopoly on interstellar transport”, and there are legends about a Savior that will come and be able to bri ng all these elemen ts into balance (Herbert loc. 472) . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 24 Blancha rd , Deb This novel relates to The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, in that , the main char act er is also a teenage boy who is on a journey or quest of identi ty and personal sacri fice on behalf of the people on his new plane t Arra kis. Paul Atrei des is the Duke‟s son and heir, but his enemies want to prevent his family from controlling the spice. Paul‟s role withi n the story is a journey to his becoming the savior of his planet based on the religi ous beli ef syst em that his mothe r and the majori ty of the empir e cons ci ousl y belie ves in and follows . The Bene Gesser it, a sort of religious h ierar chy, simil ar to the Catholi c Church, is headed by a Rev er end Mother who serve s as counselor to the Emperor. Part of the Reverend Mother‟s duties is “as a Proctor of the Bene Gesser it, [ to @ seek the Kwisatz Haderach” – the name of the Savior who wil l bring peace to Arra kis and the empir e by cont rolling the spi ce production (Herber t loc . 525). Paul is event uall y a ble to succeed in being the Savi or after under going a pai nful test that all ows him to know the past and the futur e and gives him the knowledge to contr ol the dese rt worms tha t create the spice. Oscar, like Paul ‟s charact er s , reflects braver y and a willingness to face fear and engage in sel f- sacrifice. Paul says to the Reverend Mother Bene Gesserit “I must not fear. Fear is the mind - killer. «I will face my fear. «Where the fear has gone there will be nothing. Only I will remain” ( locati on 182). Oscar emula te s this concept of fear lessness because, he “didn‟t cry when they drove him back to the canefields«he tried to stand bravely , ” while knowing that this ti me he was really going to be kill ed (Díaz 320- 1). Oscar acknowledge s that his kille rs wil l feel nothi ng over m urde ri ng him, but that they c an no longer stop his desire and ability to be a hero beca use he has come to believe that “anything you can dream«you can be” ( Díaz 322). Oscar , being famil i ar with this kind of writ ing, can identi fy with the mess age in the novel Dune – McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 25 Blancha rd , Deb self- sacrifice is somet imes necessary in order to protect one‟s family. For the mainstream re ader, this also makes sens e; because, as ment ione d previously, Amer ic an cul ture is obsessed with the hero archetype and by listing various author s in these genr es ; the mainstr eam reader finds another way to engage with this piece of literature. Oscar also ident ifies with Paul because they both are on a journey of self - disc over y. Osca r calls himself a hero, and although his character is very similar in intention as Paul‟s char acter, Paul repre sents the Christ figure more blata ntl y than Osca r (D íaz 322) . However , Oscar als o becom es a Chri st figure withi n the text by virt ue of his sacri ficing his own life in orde r to save hi s famil y fro m the curse and to die for his highest ideal – true love . Again, in under sta nding the kind of lite rature that Oscar immerses himsel f in, fee ding his mind as he grows up, provi des the mainstream reader ano the r way to underst and why this kind of sacr ifice is import ant . Religious Themes Scie nce Fiction, Fant asy, and comic book super her oes overlap as “crossings” in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao . They each share char acters who are enga ged in the bat tle of fighti ng evil influence s and peopl es. The bat tle between good and evi l is a univer sal theme and in Amer ic an cult ure is a reflection of the Christian roots that Amer ic an culture has been built upon. Although the weaving of this kind of a “crossing” in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao is done in a subtle manner , the religious themes are nonet heless relevant to underst anding thi s text and shoul d be included as a way for mainstr eam reader s to relate to the novel . As the disc ussion below wil l show , the reader can make mult ipl e connect ions with the text fro m a religious perspec tive. Although, man y of the religious references with i n the text are base d in McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 26 Blancha rd , Deb Cathol icism, and it is from this tradition that much of the discussi on will stem fro m , other connections to varying forms of Chri sti an Prote stantis m will also be referred to without any dist inction for denomina ti ons. The reader knows that Catholicism plays a part in the narrative because La Inca, Oscar‟s gra ndmothe r, is Catholic. La Inca acts as a sort of medi at or on behalf of Oscar‟s mother Beli and later for Oscar too. When Beli is taken by her lover‟s wife‟s goons, La Inca “did what many women of her background” did – she “pos t ed hers el f by her port rait of La Virgen de Alta grac ia and prayed” and was soon joined by many other women who prayed “to exhaustion and beyond ( Díaz 144- 5). The act of praying could be inte rprete d to be just what it is – an act that alle via tes the worrier in times of despa ir . However , in this stor y, dur ing the horrific beating that Beli is undergoing, she sees “for a brief instance La Inca praying in her room” ( Díaz 148). Beli then sees “an amiable mongoose«>with@ golden lion eyes” and a “black pelt,” that tells her she has to get up and keep moving (14 9). La Inca is able to transfor m hersel f into a mongoose as Beli‟s motivation to keep moving – a medi at or of sort s between life and deat h. The Nati onal Geographic website expl ains that “some species of mongoose will boldly attack venomous snakes.” In a religious conte xt, the mongoose could represent some kind of a savior symbol in that it is str onger and more able to defeat snakes – the serpent ment ione d in the Garden of Eden in the Bible is generally consi dered to be a representation of the Devil . La Inca could repre sent a Chris t figure, or she could symboli ze La Vir gen herself, either way, she repre sents a way to defeat evil. The reader is able to see the religi ous overtones of this particular scene and relate to the text regar dle ss of personal religi ous belief systems or worl dviews . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 27 Blancha rd , Deb Yunior becomes much like the gospel writers who recount Jesus Christ‟s life, experiences and teac hings in the Bible. He expla ins to the reader how Oscar‟s mind worked through the li teratur e he read, his life exper iences growing up on the outside of his own communit y in the U.S., and his reasons for taki ng the actions he takes. Yunior stands out side the sit uati on and relates everybody else‟s feelings, motivations and internal thoughts. He is a scribe, a psychol ogist, a mysti c and – he is haunte d. He is haunted by the dreams of Osca r, who waves around a book, and whose “hands are seamless«and >sometimes@ he has no face” (325). It is thi s image of Oscar that haunts Yunior unt il he give s in and writ es the story in order to escape being haunted. This “haunting” could be interpreted as a form of inspiration or at least the catalyst that inspires his writing Oscar‟s story. Although Oscar is never referre d to specifically as any kind of a Chri st - archetype char acter within the story, he can be seen as the sacri ficia l Chri st lamb that conquer s the fukú curse. T he novel discuss e s the supernatur al fukú or curse at the ver y beginning as a pote ntia l expl anation and answer for why Oscar‟s family ends up kill ed off by the Truj illo regime. Yunior, refers to a zafa as a way to counter act the cur se, and the reader is led to assume that the only way to bring Oscar‟s life, and the greater Dominican American community, back int o a homeost at ic existence is by means of a super natura l solution . In this case, the soluti on or zafa is the actua l wri ting and exist ence of this story as it is told by Yunior ( Díaz 7). A founda ti on in super nat ural caus es and effect s creates the cir cumsta nces for the reader to int era ct with t he text McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 28 Blancha rd , Deb on yet another plane of real ity, except in this case, it is a real ity that many readers find very real – religion and religious experi ence . 1 The novel expla ins the fukú as a curse that goes back to the time of Chris topher Colu mbus and that the arr i val of his entourage to “Hispaniola unleas h e d the fukú on the world” ( Díaz 1). The fukú is used to explain ever ything that goes wrong from smal l things in day to day life to tremendous things like Trujillo‟s oppression and reign of terror. Yunior explain s tha t it doesn‟t matter if an individual is superstitious, “because no matter what you believe, fukú believes in you” (5). Although the narrator in the novel discusses the fukú as a kind of super stition, it could also be said that a belief in the fukú re quir es a certai n leve l of faith beca use it is seen as a curse . 2 1 Other lit erary critics see the usage of these superstitions in a super nat ura l cont ext . Igna ci o Lopez - Calvo discusses these references in the context of magical realism in “A Postmodern Plitano‟s Trujillo Junot Díaz ‟s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, more Macondo than McOndo” where he explains that the usage of certain words or phrases serve as signa ls of magical realism. Lopez - Calvo argues that even bringing up the fukú and defini ng it as “a curse or a doom of some kind” (1), or saying that Trujillo has “almost supernatural powers” (3), and that Trujillo “is«a cosmic force«” (204) sets the novel apart as a novel that is a part of the magical realism genre. If utilizing Grobman‟s theory of multicultural hybridity literature, it would make bett er se nse to interpret these quotes as a “crossing” for the reader to make a leap int o the unknown. 2 There is some ques ti on as to what the origina l curse or fukú reall y symbo li zes. The curse or fukú has been explaine d by differ ent litera ry critics to mean diffe re nt thi ngs. Daynali Flor es - Rodriguez explains in the essay “Addressing the Fukú In Us: Junot Díaz and the New Novel of Dictatorship,” that the fukú is a “metaphor for the historical and cult ura l bind in whic h Carribean writers find themselves” (94). Sandra Cox in her essay “The Trujillato and Test imonia l Fict ion: Colle ctive Memory, Cult ural Trauma and Nati onal Identity in Edwidge Danticat‟s The Farming of Bones and Junot Díaz ‟s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao” bel ie ves that the fukú “stands in for the difficulties of a diasporic existence, and «is a symbol for Trujillo‟s tainting of Dominican national identity” (Cox 108). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 29 Blancha rd , Deb The belie f in a curse that affect s generations of famil ie s resemble s the concept of the fall from grace as told in the Bible. The story of Adam and Eve‟s fall into imperfection and the need for salvation in order to counteract thei r spiritual dist anci ng fro m God is ver y much like the nece ssity of a zafa to counte ract the fukú depicted in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao . In thi s manner , Oscar resembles a Christ - arc hetype character – his sacrificial deat h becomes a propi tiatory exchange for the fukú his famil y has endur ed both as Domini cans under the Trujill o regime and as assimil ated Domini can - Amer ic ans . By becoming the savior for his famil y, Oscar finds a way to zafa the curse. In addit ion, by beco ming a savior for his famil y, Oscar has to be cogni zant of his moti vat ions in wanting to die for his ideal s, and that kind of cognit ion creates a sort of dualistic identity for Oscar to have to live with inter nally. It is that int erna l struggle between person a s – the nerd versus the hero – that Oscar has to balance leads the reader to thi nk differ ent ly about why comic book ch ar acters and super her oes make such an impre ssi on o n Oscar . Amer ic an culture is obsessed wit h heroes, and whet her the hero is a televisi on or movie char acter, a super star sport s player or the next - door - nei ghbor fir eman, Ameri cans look for and encount er hero archetypes in every face t of their lives. Ident ifying wit h the supe rhero comple x is somet hing many Amer ic ans strive for and perhaps mainstr eam Amer ic a can connect with The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao precisely because of Oscar‟s transformation into a hero by sac ri fici ng his life for an ideal . Comic Book Characters & Superheroes Like the Science Ficti on and Fanta sy genr es of liter at ure , comic books and graphic novel s are also, in general, relegated to the “low art” section of literary studies. However, again, by McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 30 Blancha rd , Deb utilizing a famil ia r Amer ic an pop culture icon, such as a superher o from Saturda y morni ng car toons , The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao crosse s the barrier from multi cultural literature into a mainstream understanding of Oscar‟s motivations as a character. There are sever al references to differ ent comic book ser ie s, cartoon super her oes , and graphic novels wit h i n thi s novel . A lo ok at a few of the differ ent series will help explain the rele vance of this kind of literatur e for est abli shing a connec tion with a broader audie nce , but first the ques tion of whet her comic books and graphic novels even qual ify as a for m of literatur e needs to be acknow l edged . There has been much con tr oversy in academic cir cle s about whethe r comic books and graphic novel s ca n even be incl uded in the category of “literature” even though they have made their way into academic theory and criticism. Aaron Meskin discuss es the pros and cons of considering comics as a form of literature in his essay “Comics as Literature"” He expla ins that it is “tempting to think that at least some comics are literature” because they do have text in them and can be studi ed academic al ly as such (219). Meskin goes on in his essay to posit that comic s are “a hybrid art form«>having@ descended from literature«>and@ from non- literary for ms” (237) . Meskin , in describing comic s and graphic novels as a hybri d art form, is remi nisc ent to Grobman‟s hybridity literature theory of “crossing.” They both utilize the concept differently, but recognize that literature takes on differ ent me ani ngs and can be approached in differ ent ways, which makes sense when trying to get mainstr eam reader s to engage with a text. That co mic books and graphi c novels provide a bri dge over which readers can find meani ng in a text is further established when it is rea lized that comic book char acte rs and super her oes serve a du al purpos e in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao . Firs t, they help expl ai n the dual ity of identity that Osca r exper iences as a Domini can - Amer ican, and secondl y, they help explain Oscar‟s moral c ode of ethic s that exempli fy his ideals. In the former , both McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 31 Blancha rd , Deb Yunior and Oscar expr ess angst about livi ng between two different worlds even though both of their indi vidual life experi ences are very differ ent. Lyn Di Iorio disc usses in her chapter entitle d , “The Latino Scapegoat , ” t h a t despite their differ ence s, Oscar and Yunior are, in fact , very simil ar in their interests “in that they both write stories«they both ardently pursue women«and they both fail with women” (28). She likens it to a comparison be tween them – Oscar‟s “obesity, which is an exterior deformit y, and Yunior , because he can‟t be faithful, an interior deformity” (28) . Utili zing comic book char acters, and more particularly, super her oes who dress up to hide their true identi ties in order t o hide their “deformities” – their lesser, more human sides – creates anot her manner thr ough which to under sta nd why these genres of Amer ic an popul ar culture are able to influence both of these young men. The comic book char acters and superher oes influenc e Oscar and provi de the impet us for his ultimat ely sacr ifici ng himsel f on behal f of his love for Yb ón. Simil ar ly, Yunior also relates to characters in comic books. Yunior cal ls himsel f “your Watcher ” several times throughout the novel (92) . The Watcher s are firs t intr oduced in the comic book Fantastic Four #13 through the character Uatu. The Watchers are aliens who “passively observ>e@ the phenomena of the universe,” and are “telepathic, able to scan the mind of virtually every known form of sentient l i fe and to project their thoughts into any brain” (“ Wat cher s ”). Not sur prisingl y, Yunior identifies with this particular character because that is his role in Oscar‟s life. He passively sta nds by and watche s Oscar str uggle to fit in to Amer ic an soci et y. Yunior has spent year s thinking and “getting into” Oscar‟s mind so that he can understand his motivations and thoughts. Like the Watcher Uatu, who is “brought on trial for his numerous violation of his peoples codes of ethics, he «allowed himself to identify with the action and emotion that he observed«>and@ aided his favorite heroes,” Yunior violates the macho Dominican - Amer ic an male per sona by McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 32 Blancha rd , Deb allowing his audie nce to see him as the vulne rable “nerd” that he really is . Yunior regre ts not being a better friend to Osca r and it is through writi ng the st o ry of Oscar‟s life that he shows that he “identifies” with the emotion and motivat ions Oscar emula te d. Oscar‟s character relates to many different superheroes, but seems to reflect the stor yline and moti vat ions of the super her oes in the graphic novel Watchmen, the story of a group of super her oes who batt le cri me fro m th e 1940s through the 1960s. The super her oes are regular men and women who have deci ded to dress up in cost umes to hide t heir ident ities so that they can engage in vigilante activities. There is only one who has “super” hero powers. All the rest are average people who want to bel ong to a group and want a bett er life for Amer ic a. The bulk of the graphic novel takes place duri ng the Cold War in the 1980s when (for the fict ional story) the fear of nucl ear attack is immine nt. The superheroes are forced i nto reti rement duri ng the 1970s by the gover nment and begin to reconnect with one anothe r when one of thei r Minute men group is murde re d in the mid - 1980s . Yunior mentions that this graphic novel is one of Oscar‟s favorit es (Dí az 331). The reader can assume that Oscar may have found the char act ers int riguing and relevant because they wer e, if nothing e lse , resour ceful and moti vat ed to creat e change. Oscar is moti vat ed to creat e change too, as evidenced by his final retur n to the Domin ic an Republi c to clai m Ybón. Oscar has alre ady lived thr ough one brut al beating, but he is unwil li ng to give up on his ideal of f indi ng true lo ve. Yunior quotes Watchmen at the very end of the novel . In an excha nge between Dr. Manha ttan and Adrian Vei dt, one of them a “super” hero and the other a common sup er her o, Dr. Manhattan responds to Adrian 9eidt‟s question of whether he did the right thin g, he repli es: “In the end" Nothing ends, Adrian. Nothing ever ends” ( Díaz 331). This quote can be anal yzed in a few dif ferent ways. It could be a way for Yunior to express his feelings that even with Oscar‟s McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 33 Blancha rd , Deb zafa to the fukú cur se , Trujillo‟s influenc e will conti nue to resonat e thr ough time and space onto succ eeding gener ati ons, or it coul d have a more insi dious meani ng – the oppre ssi on of humans by othe r humans in powe r is a part of the human exper iences and there is no way to stop it no matte r what smal l batt les a single person or even a group of peopl e succeed in winni ng. The reader is able to understand how omi nous and heavy the experie nce of dicta tors hip is through the int era ction with the comic book story, and can then grasp the expe rience of the Domini can Amer ic an. Conclusion Stephe n Greenbl att said in 1982 that , “ t he study of genr e is an exploration of the poet ics of cult ure ” (2254 ) . The purpos e for study ing the literatur e of any group of people is so the reader can interact with that particular “culture” on the reader‟s own terms. If the reader is unabl e to make meani ng and relevance based on personal exper ie nces , it seems purposel e s s to study litera ture as a way to have a cross - cultural exper ience of under sta nding. For the stude nt of literatur e , ther e will be a cont inue d need to find new ways of under sta nding and interact ing with multi cultural literature. The quest io n, however, is whether multi cultural literature will remai n a separate category unto itself, or if at some point it will be seen and read as a valid “American” li teratur e in its own right. It remai ns to be seen how academi a will treat literature outside the ste re otypic al Bri ti sh and Amer ic an canons and whether mult icultural literature and literatur es that contain hybridity withi n thei r texts will gain the same promine nce as the more common Anglo - European canons. As disc ussed, works like The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao open doors to under sta nding othe r subcul ture s within Amer ic a. Of cour se, it is helpful when authors like Díaz McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 34 Blancha rd , Deb are able to create stori es that pull the mainstr eam reader into the fict ional world bei ng created thr ough using othe r doorways to under sta ndi ng – such as genre fiction and Amer ic an popula r culture . Díaz is able to get the reader to rela te to his story whet her they are a part of the Lati no communit y or not becau se he has attempte d to appe al to many differ ent kinds of reader s . Although Díaz utilizes scie nce ficti on, fant asy, and comic boo ks to accompli sh his intention, there are many in the academic community who will see this kind of literature as “low art” and ineffective. This kind of attitude is unfortunate. Genre fiction and popula r cult ure icons can fill in gaps of under sta nding and bri dging between cult ures. All Ame ri cans have this one thi ng in common – our popul ar cult ure that is emitted thr ough the medi a, televisi on and Hollywood. Those are things t hat all of us relate to regardless of our ethnic - Amer ic an backgr ound. Perha ps if more writ ers take a chance on bringing thos e connecti ons to the fore , they will conti nue to r each a broader audience. The purpos e of literary studies is to e ngag e students in new ways of maki ng meani ng and under sta nding. This is the foundati on and purpose of research in literature. It may seem to under mine the cel ebra tion of our multicult ura l Amer ic a if all ethni c - Amer ican literature s are set on the same playi ng fie ld as the Euro-Amer ic an canon . Howe ver , that is not the mess age this research is trying to send. T he sear ch for identity is universal even if the foundati on is based on differ ent reader life experi ence. No matte r the cult ural background of an indi vidual Amer ic an, ever yone has a differ ent life experience and brings somet hing differ ent to the table when trying to understand another person‟s life or way of thinking. It is a valuable tool to be able to find “crossings” into new kinds of literature so that understanding can grow and expand , and finding those crossings does not neces sarily under mine the int ent and for m of the origina l text . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 35 Blancha rd , Deb A continued discussion of how different kinds of readers can interact and “cross” over int o other kinds of writ ing must continue to be a part of literary study and research. It is onl y thr ough new ways of writ ing , and new ways of understanding one another‟s culture s withi n the col lecti ve culture, that America can feel more united. Ultimately, “literature is conceived to mirror the period‟s beliefs” (Gree nblat t 2254). Amer ic an literature is mov ing into a new era where our coll ective consci ousness and awar eness of our popul ar cult ure can be utilized to bri dge gaps between me mbers of differe nt communities and backgr ounds. Inste ad of the differ ence s in our cultural, soci o- economic , and poli tical backgrounds serving as a way to divide the people of Amer ic a, per haps we can learn, through our personal stories, how to find a way to connec t and underst and one anot her. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 36 Blancha rd , Deb Works Cite d Athans, Philip. The Guide to Writing Fantasy and Science Fiction . Massachusetts: Ada ms Medi a, 2010. (iBook for iPad applicat ion) Camine ro - Sant angelo, Mar ta and Roy C. Bola nd Oseguada, eds. Antípodas: Journal of Hispanic and Galician Studies No. XX . “ Truijil lo, Trauma, Test imon y: Mario Vargas Llosa , Julia Alvar ez, Edwidge Danticat , Junot Díaz and other writ ers on Hispani ola. ” Madr id: Editorial Voz, 2009. Cox, Sandra. “The Trujillato and Testimonial Fiction Collective Memory, Cultural Trauma and Nati onal Identit y in Edwidge Danticat‟s The Farming of Bones and Junot Díaz ‟s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao.” Camine ro - Santange lo 107- 126. Díaz, Junot. The Brief W ondrous Life of Oscar Wao. New York: Penguin Group, 2007. Flor es - Rodrtguez, Daynalt. “Addressing the Fukú In Us: Junot Díaz and the New Nove l of Dictatorship.” Caminero - Santangelo 91 -106. Gibbons, Dave, and Alan Moore. Watchmen . New York: DC Comic s Inc , 1987. Print. Greenblatt, Stephen. “Introduction to The Power of Forms.” The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. Vincent B. Leitc h, Gen. Ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001 . 2250 - 2254. Grob man, Laur ie . Multicul tura l Hybri dity: Transfor ming Amer ic an Lit era ry Scholarship & Pedagogy . Illi nois: NCTE, 2007. Herber t, Frank. Dune. New York: Penguin Group, 1965. Ama zon Kindl e for Apple iPad (locati on 1- 10577) . López - Calvo, Igna ci o. “A Postmodern Plitano‟s Trujillo Junot Dtaz‟s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, more Macodo than McOndo.” Caminero - Santa ngel o 75-90. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 37 Blancha rd , Deb “Mongoose.” National Geographic . 2010. National Geographic Society. 19 Dec 2010. . Meskin, Aaron. “Comics as Literature"” British Journal of Aesthetics. 49.3 (July 2009) 219 - 239. Mont ana State Univer sity, Bozeman. 24 Ju ne 2010. . Sandín, Lyn Di Ior io, and Richar d Perez, eds. Contemporary U.S. Latino/a Literary Criticism . New York, NY: Pal gra ve Macmil la n, 2007. Ame ri can Lit era ture Readings in the 21st Centur y. MLA International Bibliography . Web. 14 May 2010. Tolki e n, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings . One- Volu me Ed. New York: Houghton Miffli n Company, 1994. “Watchers.” Marveldirectory.com . 2001. Marvel Char acters , Inc. 2 Aug. 2010. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 38 Introduction Adeno -asso ciated viru ses (AA V) are no n - pathogenic viruses that require a helper virus to compl ete repli cati on in human cell s. Be cause th e y are non -patho genic and each s erot ype has a unique tropism , there is great int erest in their use as a v ector fo r gen e ther ap y. It has alr ead y been sho wn to be eff ecti ve in tre ati ng gen eti c diseas es such as Leber‟s congenital amaurosis, where individuals suffer from reti nal de generati on 2 . Currentl y, the determi nants of the observed tissue specificit y are not well understood. This is preventi ng res ear che rs from creati n g chim eric virions with spe cifica ll y tailored prope rties. Th e go al of m y rese arch is to elucidate the rol e of pho sphol ipase acti vit y in vir al entr y. Parvoviruses are non -env eloped, isos ahed ral virus es with T=1 s ymm etr y. 3 The AAV group is chara cteriz ed int o ei ght serot yp es (AA V 1 -8). 3 The single-str anded genome codes for four no n - structural proteins and three stru ctural protei ns, VP1, VP2, and VP3 whi ch make up the capsid wit h a 1:1: 10 rati o. 1 The vira l capsid is compos ed of 60 subuni ts, made up from three proteins (VP 1 -VP 3) with a majorit y of the capsid bein g compos ed of VP3. 1 VP1 and VP2 are present in fewer copi es, but have addit ional sequ enc es on their ami no -te rmini that have speci fic fun cti o nal dom ains. 4 5 6 AAV-2 infe cts a cell by first bindi ng to hep ar an - sulfate proteo gl yc an an d subsequent entr y to the cell b y endoc ytosi s. 7 8 9 The virus particle ex it s the endo some and enters the c ytopl asm to deposi t its gen eti c material in the nucleus. 1 0 Structural studi es of AAV found th at infe cti vit y was compl etel y l ost in capsids with mut ati ons in the N-termi nus of VP1, which shares sequen ce sim il arit y t o a secr et ed phospho li pase A2 4 . This domain of VP1 is ini ti all y int ernali z ed in the capsid and virions are not infecti ous unti l ex ternali z ed, and studi es have shown VP1 domains being ex ternali z ed b y heat treatm ent 1 1 . However, litt le is known of the mechanism of ex ternali z ati on. Although there is structural information su pporting the phosphol ipa se domain on the VP1 prot ein as the esse nti al domain for virus inf ecti vit y 4 , th ere is litt le known of t he mechanism of how VP1 is ex ternali z ed and aids in the departure of the virus particle from the endosom e. In the int er est of moni tor ing phosphol ipase acti vit y, we have develop ed a fast liquid -chromatogr ap h y mass -spectrometr y (LC MS ) based lipase ass a y with high accur ac y and pre cisi on. From the developm e nt of thi s assa y, the phosp holi pase domain has be en chara cteriz ed to have a clea r calcium -depend e nt. Furthermo re, the AA V lipase domain has shown to have hi gher acti vit y at lower pH, which cou ld att ribu te to the domains abil it y to escap e from t he endosom al pathwa y. Methods Lipase Reaction The phosphol ipi d used for the reacti on is 1,2 - diol eo yl - s n - gl yc ero-3 -ph osphocholi ne (DOPC ). The lipase acti vit y of AAV is induced by heati ng t he virus at 65ÛC for 3-mi nutes [4 ] . The reacti on is th en ini ti ated by addin g 10 µL of 150 nM AAV (hea t - treated) to 50µ L of ph osphol ipi d/buffer (200 nM DOP C , 40mM Tris -HC l (pH 7.5 ), 80mM NaCl, 1.6mM NaN 3 , 5mM CaCl 2 ) for a final reacti on volum e of 60 µ L. Hon e y- B ee P LA 2 is used as a posi ti ve control, because previou s studi es have shown its lipase acti v it y with DOP C . 1 2 Auto hydrol ysis of DOP C is moni tored in a vial without enz yme as the negati ve control. LC-MS The rea cti on of AAV with phosphol ipi d is moni tored with a high pe rforman ce liqu id chromato graph y (HP LC ) coupled to the Bruker MicroTOF mas s spectro meter. The HP LC all o ws Product Substrate Dewey Brooke -Montana State University Figure 1 . Adeno-Associated Virus . Lo cated on the five - fold ax is (Red) i s a channel that is thou gh t to be the pathwa y fo r the VP1up ex ternali z ati on. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 39 for a cl ean sep arati on of the DOP C from the cleaved produ ct all owing us to see the formation of the cleav ed product ove r time. The HP LC is the Agil ent 1100 series co mpos ed of a degasse r, a binar y pump s ystem, an autosampl e r, and a thermost at column compartment. The elut ion used to separat e DOP C from the cleaved product is a grad ient elut ion wit h a binar y solvent s yst e m (A =H 2 O, B =ACN). The re is a 3- mi nute gr adient from 5% B to 95% B to separ ate t he lipid components, foll owed by 2 -mi nutes of 95% B to clean the colum n, and finished with 5% B for 1 - mi nute to equil ibrate the LC. The cleav ed produ ct app ea rs at 2.7 -mi n and DO P C appears at 3.6 -mi n. Th e statio nar y phas e used to separat e the product fro m DOP C is a Jupit er C5 300 Å reve rse-ph ase colum n. The autosampl er monit or s the reaction at 37Û and takes an injection from the reacti ons ev er y 12 minutes. Th e Bruk er MicroT OF is set to moni tor the 0-1 000 m/z range to watch t he consum pti on of DOP C (786.21 m/z ) and the cleaved product (522.36 m/z ). Bioinformatics of the AAV2 VP1up The VP1up of AAV2 was modeled using iter ati ve threadin g ass embl y refi nement (I - TASS ER) from the Center fo r Comput ati on Medicine and Bioi nformatics at the Un iversit y of Michi gan 1 3 . Th e top five models pred icted b y I-TASS ER are reported and the accu ra c y is esti mated usin g TM - score and a C-scor e. The TM-score great er than 0.5 indi cates that the stru ctu re has cor rect topol o g y and a score of less than 0.1 7 indi cates a rando m sim il arit y. 1 3 C-scores ar e report ed in a ran ge of [ -5, 2] which indi cate stru ctures with hi ghe r C -scor es A. B. 0 500000 1000000 1500000 2000000 2500000 3000000 3500000 4000000 4500000 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 C o u n t s o f L y s o D O P C Time (hr:min) bvPLA2 2000ug/mL bvPLA2 20ug/mL bvPLA2 2ug/mL bvPLA2 0.2ug/mL AAV2 200ug/mL 0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 C o u n t s o f L y s o D O P C Time (hr:min) AAV2 200ug/mL Autohydrolysis Figure 2 - A. T he LCMS met ho d allo ws fo r the pro d uct and sub str ate to be sep ar ated eff icien tl y wi th hi gh reso l utio n of the eluted pea ks. B . Alt ho u g h AAV 2‟s lipase activity is much lower than bvPLA2 , AAV 2 PLA2 act ivit y can be mo nito r ed wi th hi gh acc ur ac y and rep r o d ucib ility. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 40 indi cate a great er structure with highe r confidenc e. 1 3 Furthermo re, ligand bi nding sit es are predict ed using the I- TASS ER COFACTOR al gorit hm, and the structures reported wit h a BS -score as well as a TM -score. A BS -scor e gr eat than 1.1 signifies a structure with high confi dence. 1 3 Super Buffer Methodology First, the ran ge the buff er needs to be us ed fo r is determi ned . Ther e is no need to make a mul ti - component buff er for an yt hin g less than ǻpH of 2.5. From he re, pi ck the bu ffer components that wil l buffer th e ed ges of the range. Fo r ex ampl e, the pH ran ge for the lipase assa y used HEPES , Tris, or Tricine for the uppe r pH ran ge, and used NaAc for the lower ran ge. It is also important to consi der if the components bind an y metal ions in solut ion. For inst ance, calcium is nec e ssar y for most lipases, and calcium bindi ng bu ffe rin g agents were avoided for the lipase buffer. Now, it is important to run a quick titrati on to determi ne th e actu al buff erin g ran ge of the bufferin g agent. Although the buffe ring ran ges are prett y establi shed, the publi shed ranges are scaled back from the actual to give a save zone. When combi ning buffer s, these safe zones can be somewhat i gnored. How ever, thi s depends on t he degree of ove rlap betw een the buf ferin g agent s. Therefo re, it is importa nt to titrate the indi vid ual bufferin g agents as well as the combi ned buf feri ng agents. For pickin g int ermediate buff erin g agen ts, the best result s for a smoo th overlap are wh en the two bufferin g agents d iffer b y 1-1.5 pKa uni ts. Once the buff erin g agent s have been chosen for t he appropriate ran ge, titrate the combi ned buf fer to see its capacit y . Results Calcium Dependence Calcium dependen ce was dete rmined b y adding calcium to one reacti on and compl et el y removi ng calcium in another. If acti vit y is stopp ed aft er removi ng calcium, t he domain is calci um dependent . 1 4 Sequence si mi larit y betw een of the N- termi nal VP1 region su ggests that the phospholi p ase most closel y resembl es se cr eted P LA2 (sP LA 2) t ype enz yme. 4 This cla ss of P LA2s has a strict calcium dependen ce. 1 4 The role of calcium in P LA2 cat al ysis is to aid in coordinati on of the phosphol ipi d in the active sit e and stabil iz ati on of the transit ion state compl ex . 15 Testi ng thi s was an important ex periment for supportin g t his hypothesis. Fi gur e 1A demons trates that removi ng calcium from the s yste m effe cti vel y prev ents the hydrol ysis of DOP C , which supports that the AAV P LA2 must use a sim il ar mechanism for the hydrol ysis of the phosph oli pid. Tricine Universal Buffer y = -0.0203x + 7.4593 R 2 = 0.9983 HEPES Universal Buffer y = -0.0126x + 7.2592 R 2 = 0.9954 Tris-Universal Buffer y = -0.0142x + 7.3556 R 2 = 0.9935 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 p H Temperature C 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 0.001 0.0 2 0.003 p H Moles of HCl Tris-Universal Buffer HEPES Universal Buffer Tricine Universal Buffer A. B. Figure 3. Super Buffer. Each super ex ibi ts buffering capabil it ies from pH 8 to pH 3. The HEPES , Bis - Tris, NaAc bu ffe rs from pH8 8 to pH 3. The temper ature depend enc e for each buffer was calculated at pH 7. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 41 pH Dependence S ince AAV uses th e end osom al pathwa y as an en tr y to the cell 1 0 , the nex t important step was to determi ne the effe ct of pH on lipase acti vity. Previous lipase studi es showed that monom eric VP1up had opti mal acti v it y at pH7 and would l ose acti v it y at low pH 1 6 . Although AA V shar es cal cium dependen ce with sP LA2 enz ym es, the lipase domain of AAV operate s withi n the low pH of the endosom e 1 7 . However, s P LA2 enz ym es would ha ve no acti vit y in the pH ran ge of th e endoso me, because low pH dea c ti vates the ami no acids associated with the acti ve sit e 18 . Th e effect of low pH on the capsid‟s lipase activity w as moni tored by adding he at -treat ed virus to a pH 5.0 buffer to see if lipase acti vit y incr eases. Although the capsid has P LA2 acti vit y, fi gure 1B shows that lipase acti vit y in AAV is increas ed with decre asin g pH. Super Buffer For a lipase pH pro file, the pH ran ge needs to ex tend from pH 8 to pH 3. In the lipas e assa y, HEPES , MES , and NaA C were used bec ause th eir pKa ‟s are 1.5 unit s awa y from ea ch. Thus, ther e was a smoo th transit ion from one buffe r to another. Buff er agents tend to have an associated temperatur e dependen ce on their pKa (dpKa/d T), which is unfavor able fo r ex periments that test the effe ct of temper ature. Th is temperature dep enden ce on their pKa is a result of increasin g the solub il it y of the ion as temp era ture incr eased. Thus, the strength the ion is solvated is proportional to the dpKa/dT. For ex ampl e, Tris has twic e the solub il it y of HEPES and ther efor e has twice the dp Ka/d T. Howeve r, thi s is a litt le phenomenon is a litt le more compl icated than just solub il it y, but thi s propert y has a major contribut ion. 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 0:00 0:30 1:00 L y s o D O P C Time (hr:min) pH5 pH7.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Calcium Without Calcium EDTA bvPLA2 AAV2 R e l a t i v e V e l o c i t y Figure 4. AAV2 Lipase Activity . Usi ng the highl y sensit i ve LCMS ass ay, the cal cium (A) and pH (B) was det er mi ned. By addi ng EDT A to the react i on, the lipase act i vi t y was effec ti vel y inhi bit ed. Furt her mor e, the lipas e acti vi t y of AAV 2 was increas es dramat ical l y at lower pH. A. B. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 42 For makin g a generi c solut ion for temperature dependen ce, it is important to note the temperature dependen ce (dpKa/dT ) for a mul ti -compone nt buffer depends on wh ere the pH is set. For ex ampl e, a mul ti -component buff er compos ed of Tris, Bis - Tris, and Acet ate all ha ve diff erin g dpK a/dT. If dpKa/dT wer e to be determi ned at pH 7, pH 5, and pH 4 the valu es would be cal culated to be -0.021 , - 0.015, and -0.010. This is a result of the active bufferin g element at that pH. In the pH 7 ran ge, Tr is is acti vel y ex c han gin g hyd ro gens with the solut ion because it is in the ran ge of its pKa. Thus at pH7, Tris is the most acti ve buff erin g compon e nt. Howeve r, Bis - Tris‟s buffering capacity begins at A. C. B. D. Figure 5. VP1up versus cvPLA2 . The calcium binding sit e of cvP LA2 (A) is coordinated b y D42 and the calcium binding loop. Th e predicted bindi n g sit e for VP1up (B) is coordina ted by a sim il ar D - r esidue and a calcium binding loo p. Bo th cvP LA 2 and VP1up have the hi ghl y conse rved catal yti c triad. Furthermo re, these domains are hi ghl y conse rved amon gst all parvovi rus wit h the calcium bind ing domain hi ghli ghted in gr een, and the P LA2 domai n highli ghted in blue. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 43 about pH7 and will also has a contribut ion on dpKa/dT at thi s ran ge. Bis -T ris has a lo wer dpKa/dT, which low ers t he over all dpKa/dT at pH7, and as the pH decre ases so does the dpKa/dT. Th is is a result of Tris‟s buffering activity decreasing and Bis - Tris‟s activity increasing. As the pH decreases further, Acetate be gins t o becom e more acti ve, and its lower dpKa/dT furt her de cre ases the over all dpKa/dT at that pH. Therefo re, a mul ti -st age buffer‟s dpKadT is dependent on its composition and the pH at which it is set, and the temp erat ure dependen ce fo r the buff er shoul d be moni tore d at each pH or at the ran ge in which it is the weakest. For ex ampl e, when usi ng mul ti -component bu f fer using ac etate, it is important to not to measure the dpKa/dT at the buff erin g ran ge of acetate. The result of the dpKa/dT for the buffe r will be record ed much less than it actuall y is. The best possi ble sol uti on for a tempe ratu re dependent buff er woul d be a combi nati on of succini c acid (pK a 1 =4.2 pKa 2 =5.6) and P IP ES (pKa=6.76 ). The range would be fro m approx im atel y from 7.5 -3.5 and would have the lowest possi ble dpK a/dT, because P IP ES and succini c acid hav e alm ost no dpKa/dT. Howev e r, both components have a relativel y low solub il it y and will not work lower than pH 3.5, becau se P IP ES is ins olubl e at a pH less than 3.2. Because a virus capsid‟s conformation can chang e dramaticall y in diffe rent buffers, ther e was a need to creat e a buff er th at cou ld buffer compl etel y fro m pH8 to pH 3 with the same components. By havi ng the same mol ecules, the effe ct of the buffer on the capsid conform ati on can be igno red. A new methodo log y fo r stud yin g enz ymes in di ffe ring pH ran ges b y usin g mul ti ple components to make a super buff er. Bioinformatics of the AAV2 VP1up Since the AA9‟s 9P1up had significantly higher acti vit y in low pH, models were gen er ated to anal yz e if there were an y possi ble diff eren ces between AA9‟s 9P1up and standard sPLA2 enz ymes. The models were gener ated using iter ati ve threadin g ass embl y refi nement (I - TASS ER) from the Center fo r Comput ati on Medicine and Bioi nformatics at the Un iversit y of Michi gan. 1 3 The fi rst gen er ated model in figu re 5c had si gnifica nt TM -score (0.58±0.14) wit h a C-score of -1.08. This suggests th at thi s model rep resents th e AA V2 VP1up wit h a high level of confiden ce. 1 3 From the model, the Hi s -75 , Asp-87, and T yr- 79 catal y ti c triad is completel y cons erved from t he cr ystal structure of cvP LA2 and the VP1up. Mutati onal studi es have shown that hist idi ne is essential for P LA2 acti v it y, which is the histi dine found in thi s structure. 4 Furthe rmore, the Asp- 76 has also b een shown t o be essential fo r P LA2 acti vit y. 4 In the pr edicte d structure, thi s Asp-76 has been shown to be one of the four calcium bindi ng sit es, previous l y shown to be essential for acti vit y. The other thre e cal cium bindi ng sit es are tow ar ds the N-termi nus and ar e located on a random co al that hovers above the His-75. Other models that modi fied thi s random co al region had a si gnific an tl y small er TM-scor e and C -score, which indi cates thi s particular structur e must be conserved to bind calcium. The Asp-87 has not bee n shown to be essential for acti vit y, bec ause mut ati onal studi es of the P LA2 have not ex tended much past His -75. In oth er sP LA2 studi es, the cata l yti c asparti c acid (cAs p) has shown thi s residu es role on the enz ym es catal ysis . 1 9 In the me ch anism , cAsp has shown to stabil iz e the ami de ion gen erat ed on the hist idi ne during catal ysis . 1 5 Howeve r, sP LA2s wi th mut ati ons on cAsp have been shown to hav e no r mal catal ysis . Howeve r, the pKa of hist idi ne was reduced one half pKa unit . 19 This cAsp is al so hydro gen bonded to a catal yti c t yrosine (cT yr ) , which has also be en shown unne cessa r y for catal ysis . 1 9 Mutati on of cT yr has also sh own to increas e the pKa of hi sti dine by one half a pKa unit . 19 These result s indi cated the role of t he hydro gen bond neter wor k betwe en cHis, cAsp, and cT yr to be mor e e ssential for the protein‟s stability rather than its catal ysis . 2 0 However, the stabil it y gain ed from thi s hyd r ogen bond network goes unnoti ced in sPLA2 enz ym es, becaus e the y are rigidl y stabil iz ed b y an ex tensive degr ee of disul fide bonds. 2 1 In th e case of VP1 up, the h ydro gen bo nd network would have a la rger role for stabil iz ing the P LA2 domain, becaus e AAV lacks disul fide bonds, which is the major difference between AA9‟s VP1up and sP LA2s. The predicted binding sites for AA9‟s 9P1up in figur e 5a,b had a TM -s co re of 0.745 and a BS -sco re of 1.63, which signifi es thi s ligand bindi ng sit e is McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 44 Figure 6 . Electrostatics of AAV2. The electrostatics of AAV2 were calculat ed from th e cr ystal structure. [ red ( - 1 0) to blue (+10] 1 predicted with a hi gh degree of confiden ce. The residues predict ed ar e fro m the hydrox yl off T yr -5 2, the ami de hydro gen fro m the backbone of Gl y- 54, and from the ami de hyd rog en from Arg-58. Fro m the structural predi cti ons, small modi ficati ons in t he regions result s in a rapid de cre ase in the significan ce of th e over al l predicted structur e. The main purpose of the predicted structur e of AAV2 VP1up was to possi ble elucidati n g t he reason for AA9‟s increase in lipase activity. The prediction was useful in showing that there is essentially no major difference between AA9‟s VP1up and sP LA2 enz ym es. The first ma jor differen ce betw een the sP LA2 structure of cvP LA2 and VP1up is the decrea se in the loop between the first and second heli x , which is comm on to see in viruses. When viruses pick up a functi onal domain, the y often de cre ase the dist ances of random coil s for gen e conse rvati on. The second m ajor diff eren ce between sP LA2s and VP 1u p is the lack of disul fide bonds found on VP1u p. Disul fides bonds gi ve sP LA2 enz ym es immense rigidi t y and stabil it y, but the VP1up probabl y la c ks these in ord er to un f old from the int erior of the viral capsid to the ex terior upon where it can fold int o its functi onal conformation. The first assum pti on fo r t he result in g hi gher acti vi t y in low pH could be from the pKa of the His -75. Howeve r, the environm ent around the His -75 is enti rel y sim il ar to all other sP LA2 enz ymes, and t he His-75 is predict ed t o have a low solve nt acc essi bil it y. Furthermo re, monom eric VP1up did not show highe r acti v it y at low pH 1 6 , which indi cates that the capsid has a role for thi s incre a se in acti vit y. For sP LA2 enz ym es, cat al ysis could not be ini ti ated unti l the enz ym e could bind t o the int e rfa ce of t he lipid membrane refe rred to as int erf acial catal ysis . 20 Upon bindi ng to the lipid membrane, the sP LA2 pull s the lipid subst rate from the membrane throu gh a hyd rophobic ch anne l int o the acti ve sit e. 2 0 Modificati ons to the hydrophobi c chann el that decre ase its h yd rophobicit y has shown to have a significant impact on the lipase acti vit y. 20 Removi ng a lipid from the membrane int o the solvent is a hi ghl y ne gentropi c ev ent, and the protein has to simulate the hyd rophob ic environment of the me mbran e. Furthermor e, t he structure of th e protein t hat binds to the membra ne is referr ed to as the I-fa c e and is essential for lipase acti vit y 2 2 . Structural anal ysis of th e I-f ac e has shown th at it contains a high de gre e of polar residues which int eract with th e relativel y ne gati ve li pid membrane. 2 2 Mutati on of these residues to negati ve residues has shown to have dram ati c effe cts on lipase acti vit y, be cause i t is essential for the I-fa ce to att ach to th e me mbrane to establi sh t he hydrophobi c chann el. 2 2 Furthermo re, the I-f ac e has shown to be the ma jor component for subst rate specificit y sP LA2 s. 2 0 Studi es have shown that the head group of t he phosphol ipi d did not alt er the spe cificit y of t he enz yme unl ess it was ste ricall y hinder ed withi n t he acti ve sit e. 2 3 It was fou nd that the charge dist ributi on on the membrane surfa ce had the largest impact on the subst rate specifi cit y for sP LA2. Since the I-f ace of sP LA2 enz ymes has a high incidenc e of posi ti ve residues, liposom es with a highl y ne gati ve memb rane were se en to have t he highest acti vit y. 2 2 The subst rates of mix ed liposom es were proces sed essentiall y the s a me regardl ess of the hea d group, but the cha rge dist ributi on of the lipid membrane would otherw ise increas e or dec reas e the overall lipase acti vit y. 2 3 In terms of AAV, the I- fa ce most likel y has the lar ge st impact on subst rate specificit y as well as the McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 45 ex ternali z ati on of the VP1up from int erior of th e viral capsid. Ho weve r, the locati on of the ex ternali z ati on of VP1up is highl y deb ated. The majorit y of scientis ts agree t hat the likel y sit e of ex ternali z ati on is from the 5 -fold ax is 24 , because a channel from the int eri or of th e capsid has be en located her e and has shown to be dyn ami c up on recepto r bindi ng 1 1 . However, there is some speculation that the VP1up could be ex ternali z ed from the three fold ax is. When looki ng at electrostatic models fro m the cr ystal structure of AAV2 1 , the I- fa ce of the three fold ax is would be a likel y candid ate for me mbrane bind ing becaus e of the abundance of po sit ive residues and the hydrophobi c peaks that could probabl y insert int o the membrane. Ho weve r , the three - fold ax is is the most likel y sit e fo r rec eptor bindi ng. 6 The 5-f old ax is channel has be en s hown to widen after bidi ng to a surfa ce rec eptor, whi ch could en able the VP1up to pass from th e int e rior to the ex terior 9 , but the I- face of thi s region is ab undantl y ne gati ve. This I- face would hav e a signi ficant de gr ee of repulsi on between the lipid membr ane and could not establi sh a stable hydrophobic ch annel. In low pH howev er, the electrostatic repul sion could be miti gated un ti l eventuall y th e I- fac e of the 5-fold was sta ble enough to maintain co ntact for the h ydropho bic channel to be establi sh. However, int erfa ci al kinetics ex periments with differing membr ane compos it ions would have to be tested to compa re thi s effect, and it would have to be tested side by side with monom eric VP1up to discern the effect of the capsid on low pH lipase acti vit y. Discussion The high sensit ivi t y and reproducibi li t y of the LCMS s ystem has all owed for the lipase domain o f AAV to be char acte riz ed in terms of sP LA2 acti vit y with a high de gr ee of confidence. Firstl y, we have establi shed that both sP LA2 and AAV lipa se acti vit y is calcium depe ndent. This suggests the y both use a simil ar mechanism for hyd rol ysi s. Secondl y, I ha ve discovered that AA9‟s optimum pH for lipase acti vit y is lower than sP LA2, which is most likel y a result of their diff er ent oper ati ng environments. Fu rtherm ore, we hav e disc ern ed from bioi nformatics the possi ble reasons for the increas e lipase acti vit y i n low pH. However, t his effe ct will have to be compl etel y anal yz ed by doi ng a pH profile of 9P1up‟s lipase activity. For furth er studi es, we will further char acte riz e the lipase domain b y deter mi ning which ac yl chai n is hydrol yz ed b y usin g a lipid with d ifferent t ail lengths su ch as 1-oleo yl -2-palm it o yl - s n - gl yc ero- 3- phosphocholi ne. B y m easuring the diff eren ce in mass between the subst r ate and th e cl eaved prod uct in mass spectrometer, the ac yl chain that is cleav ed can be determi ned. The assa y can also be tak en a step further to determi ne the pH dependenc e of (k c a t / K m ) by running the reacti on through diff ere nt pHs. In mechanist ic studi es of sPLA2 enz ym es, calculati n g pH depend e nce of (k c a t / K m ) aided in determi ning the ami no acid residues invol ved in the catal ysis of phosphol ipi d hyd rol ysis [7] . This wou ld all ow for the acti ve sit e residues in the AAV lipase domain to be characteri z ed. Furthermore, we wil l test other possi ble substrates to determi ne if AAV has subst rate sp ecificit y. This lipase assa y would b e ideal for testin g subst rate specifit y, bec ause it cou ld track the h yd rol ysis of mul ti ple subst rates in a single reacti on. If subst r ate specificit y can be fou nd and it is differ ent amon gst the AAV se rot yp es, it could be a possi ble ex planati on for each s er otype‟s ti ssue specificit y. Furth ermore, the eff ect of t he int erfaci al kinetics on the lipase acti vit y will be determi ned. Thus, these result s could be used to make more precise vect ors for gen e ther ap y th at could have spe cific tiss ue troposim . References 1. 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McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 48 Guffey, Kelsey FORAGI NG ECOLOGY OF BIS ON IN A MIXED GRAS SLAND –ST EEP ECOS YSTEM Kelsey Guffe y, Neto Garc ia , Clayt on Mar low , Phd. Department of Animal and Range Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA ABSTRAC T Reproduct ive rates of Amer ic an bison cows ( Bison, bison ) at the National Bison Range (NBR) in Moiese , MT have declined in the last deca de. Under sta nding habit at selection by bison coul d provi de tools for distributing bison for effect ive manage ment of herd produc ti vit y and ecological condi tion. Ocular observat ions and veget ati on data indic ate patterns of dispr oportionate habitat sel ection, high sel ection pressure on preferre d forages , and behavioral patter ns subject to tempora l and/ or spatial variation . INTRODU CTION Underst anding habit at sele ction and foragi ng str ategies of herbivore s is essent ial in devel oping predic ti ve model s to meet manage me nt and conservation needs. (Gordon , 1994) This study aim s to advance under sta nding of habi ta t sel ection by bison and eval uate patte rns in landsca pe utilization and behavi or . Desc ri bing interacti ons between herbivore s and veget ation communit ies is an inte gral part of wildl ife and ecosyst em ma nagement . Selection of diet s, patches and habit at plays a funda ment al rol e in these inte ractions. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 49 Guffey, Kelsey Many studies of rumina nt foraging stra te gie s involve cata lo ging forage speci es. These results have limit ed applicat ion outside the circumsta nces and site of the study . (Van Dyne et al., 1980) A chall enge faced by moder n manage rs is inte gra ting animal behavi or i nto pred ic tive ecosystem mode ls (Hobbs 1996) . Glenn (1994) contends that nutr itional depr ivation in bison is influence d by climat ic conditions, habit at quality and other envi ronm ent al stress or s . Underst anding habit at selection by bison can provide tools for assessing habit at quality. Sele ctivity by grazi ng animal s is essenti al because it alt ers ecosyst ems by mult ipl e pathways and affect s plant communit ie s on local and regi onal scal es (Augusti ne and McNaught on 1998, Senf t. e t al. 1987) and it has a fast response to environment a l change s (Brya nt et al. 1991) . Moder n natura l resour ce ma nagement aims to mainta in the int egri ty of all ecos yste m proc ess es . Manage ment of large herbivore s, like bison, offers opport uniti es to control ecos yste m proc ess es by influe nci ng herd abundance and distribut ion. (Hobbs 1996) Bison her d size appears to be related to habita t structure with large r herds occupyi ng more open habi tat (Van Vuren 1983) and flatt er ground (Rutber g 1984). Bison appear to be gener ali st forager s requiring large quant ities of fora ge dail y (Houst on 1982). However , bison may also exhi bit highl y sel ective foraging behavior (Plumb and Dodd 1993). Bison pri mar il y consume grasse s and s edges, while forbs and browse gener ally contribut e <10% of the diet (Coppedge and Shaw 1998, Plumb and Dodd 199 3, Van Vuren 1984). Foragi ng str ategies are influence d b y nutr ient demands, ti me budgets , forage availabilit y and forage qual ity (Fort in 2003, Plumb and Dodd 1993). Bison diets quanti fie d on a landsca pe level are mostl y compri sed McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 50 Guffey, Kelsey of a few spe ci es. (Fortin et al. 2003) Observe d fora ging str ategies show maximiz at ion of a bison‟s short - term rate of ener gy int ake (For tin et al. 2002). Bison density levels are expecte d to affect fora ge sele cti vit y and plant tol era nce. As bison densi ties increas e, select ivit y is expected to decli ne due to lack of pre ferre d fora ge availabi lity. Low densi ties of bison are expected to exhibit high selectivit y but have mini mal affect s on forage due to low absol ute animal numbers. Mediu m herd densi t ies may resul t in selective foraging behavi or and a high degree of defolia ti on , signi ficantl y affect ing the tole ra nce of the plant community. ( Augusti ne and McNaughton, 1998) Ungulate effect s on ecosystems inc lude forage growth rate, nutr ient uptake rate, and litt er qual ity which has subse quent effect s on ecos ystem proc ess es and tr ophic level s (Bryant et al. 1991 ) . Feedbacks from the pla nt communit y will have long -te rm effect s on ungula te popula tions . (McNaught on et al, 1997) . The extent of these effect s is determine d by the degr ee of herbivore sel ectivit y and by the recovery capaci ty of fora ged species. Herbi vore s feed on plant spec ie s that are palata ble to the m and thi s defolia tion reduces the fitnes s of plants in competit ion with un - pal atable speci es. When herbivores avoi d patches wher e unpal atable plants domina te the landsca pe, unpal atable plants can repla ce palatable plants which dimini sh e s the carryi ng capa city of a range. (McNaught on , 1978. Augusti ne and McNaught on , 1998) The semi - free ranging NBR herd has experienced a decline in annual net calf recruitment fro m hist oric levels of 87% , obser ved in 1999 , to a 2008 val ue of 33% calves per reproducti ve age cow (Borgre en et al. 2008). In a revi ew of 4 free ranging bison herds Van Vuren (1986) found production, as measured by pregnancy of cows •2 years old or calving rates of cows • 3 year s old, to be bet ween 52% and 76% wit h a mean of 63%. While several confined herds showed significa ntly greater produc tion between 67% and 86% wit h a mean of 79%. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 51 Guffey, Kelsey Densit y in confined herds is often controlled through culling, or removal of excess animal s result ing in higher possi ble produc tivit y. Wil d popula ti ons are regula te d by migr ation, naturally occurr ing deaths, and lower levels of product ion when they are near carr ying capa city of their habitat. (Meagher, 1989) Popula tion biology of bison is greatly influenced by animal densi ty, forage availability being the greatest limit ing fact or for popul ati on growth (Full er et al., 2007, Van Vure n 1983). Arno ld (1985 ) demonst ra te d that animal dist ri bution acr oss the landscape can be highly disc rimina te on even seemingl y homogenous plots. Annual manage ment plans at the NBR adher e to tradit ional calcula te d stoc king rate s , but if habit at selectivity by bison is highly disc rimina te , dispr oportion at e utilization of the landsca pe could lead to the over use of preferre d areas and under use of less desirabl e areas . Overtime this patt ern cause s decl ines in both ecol ogical c ondit ion and animal produc ti vit y. This pat tern my partially expla in the recent decline in calf recr ui tment at the NBR. Study Area Figure 1. Study area highlighted in the northern portion of the NBR near Moiese, MT. Photo credits: nytimes.com and sangres.com McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 52 Guffey, Kelsey Observa ti ons were collect ed at the NBR in Moie se, Mont ana (Fig. 1). The national wildl ife refuge is 9000 ha (86 km2) of mixe d steep and Palouse prairie topogra phy , at elevations ranging from 820 to 1500 m. The NBR is ho me to a divers ity of wil dli fe in addi ti on to biso n, including whit e- taile d deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), mule deer ( O. hemionus ), elk ( Cervus elaphus ), pronghorn antel ope ( Antilocapra americana ), bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis ) , mountain lion ( Felis concolor ), coyote ( Canis latrans ), and black bear ( Ursus americanus). The herbage is composed of approxi mat el y 70% grass es, 20% forbs, and 10% woody veget ati on by standi ng crop biomass (Bel ovsky& Slade 1986). Domina nt native prairie veget ati on i ncl udes bluebunch wheatgra ss ( Agropyron spicatum) , Idaho fescue ( Festuca idahoensis ), and rough fescue ( F. scabrella) . Subdo mina nt prairie spe cie s include junegr ass ( Koeleria macrantha ), needle- and -th re ad ( Stipa comata ), needle gra ss ( Stipa sp.), sle nder and weste rn wheat grass ( Agropyron trachycaulum, A.smithii ) , Sandber g bluegrass ( Poa secunda ) , and basi n wildr ye ( Elymus cinereus ). Non- nat ive grasse s present at NBR incl ude cheatgra ss ( Bromus tectorum ), Kent ucky and bulbous bluegrass ( Poa pratensis, P. bulbosa ), crest ed and int ermedi at e wheatgr ass ( Agropyron cristatum, A. intermedium ), and wild oat ( Avena fatua ). Domina nt forbs include Saint John‟s wort ( Hypericum perforatum ) , lupi ne ( Lupinus sp.), yarr ow ( Achilliamillefolium ), Dalmat ia n toadflax ( Linariadalmatica), salsi fy (Tragopogon dubius ), and arrowleaf balsamroot ( Balsamorr hizasagittata ). In addition to the grassland communi ties, forest and shr ub communit ie s are found at highe r elevations and along draina ges. Woody spec ie s include frin ged sagebr ush ( Artemisia frigida), west er n snowberr y ( Symphoricarpos occidentalis), prairie rose ( Rosa woodsii ), Douglas fir ( Pseudotsugamen ziesii ), and Ponder osa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) (Moori ng et al. 2005) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 53 Guffey, Kelsey The bison herd obser ved cont ai ned appr oximat el y 250 - 300 bison that were moved into 3 past ures on a 6 week rotati on duri ng the summer of 2010 . No artific ial foods are provided to the herd, nor are any culling or animal removal practices currently in place. Past ures surveyed were the Upper Paul ine (UP), Alexande r Basi n (AB) and Mission Creek (MC) past ures. Pastur es varie d in t opogra phy and conta in e d many het er ogeni c patches of vegeta tion. The Upper Pauline is characterized by steep slope s surr ounding a large drai nage leading to Paul ine Creek which exists as natural “potholes” in the summer. Alexander Basin i s character ized by n ort h and east facing slopes, open plains and 2 smal l draina ges. The Missi on Creek pasture parallels the creek and sur rounding plains and conta ins some nort h faci ng slope s. Project Description Part A: This inve stigation is part of a larger habitat assessme nt aimed at devel oping nutr ient densit y mappi ng unit s that will provide manage rs a tool for effect ively distri bu ti ng and managi ng bison . Part B: Field obser vations and sel ection data will augment the habi tat assess ment by addi ng hab itat avail ability, utilization, and quality data . The foll owing object ives wil l be met with aid of the current study disc ussed here: 1) Meas ure the amount of crude protein and dige stible ener gy available within the preferred sites. 2) Calculate seasonal car rying capaci ty fro m the poole d nutrient avai labilit y for all preferred sites within pastures. Part C: The following objectives are addres sed by thi s manusc ri pt: 1) Identify preferred grazi ng sites withi n pasture s through compar isons of forage/ landfor m sel ect ion to forage/l andform avai la bili ty . 2 ) Develop utilization indi ces by eval uati ng stubble heights of McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 54 Guffey, Kelsey grazed forages, 3) Interpret behavi or patterns as an indi cation of habi ta t qual ity. Hypothesi zed outc omes of thi s investigat ion are as foll ows: H 1 : Sele cti on of landform types will be indepe ndent of their local avail abilit y and selection of some forage will be significa ntly great er than local availa bility. H 2 : Uti lization of prefer re d forages wil l exce ed a utilization index of 0.50. H 3 : The propor ti on of g razing and movin g behaviors will increas e while rumina ti ng type behavi ors wil l decr ease in succ essive past ures. METHODO LOGY Inve stigation took place duri ng 5 obser vation peri ods of 3 days each from June 2 -August 24, 2010 . A mini m u m of 10 obser vations were obta ine d per sampling period, and each past ure was sample d in 2 observati on peri ods . During herd occupa ncy of a past ure , surveys were conduct ed duri ng the foll owing days: UP (n= 18) June 2- 4 & 23- 25 ; AB (n= 18 ) July 12 - 15 & Aug 3 - 4; and MC (n=14 ) Aug 4- 5 & 23 - 25 . Ocular herd obser vations were taken sunri se- 10:00 a. m. and aga in from 2:00 p. m.- sunse t to allow survei llance duri ng the diurnal activity peaks of bison . Although bison activity peaks are bimodal duri ng the day, significant activity may exists duri ng the night. (Plum and Dodd 1993) Herds were locat ed by travel ing all mainte nance , manage me nt , and tour roads and by further encroaching on foot. Topogr aphi cal feature s may occasi onal limit acces ses and/or visi bility of an area tha t bison occupy. Past ure s were exte nsively sur veyed in order to maxi miz e McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 55 Guffey, Kelsey the possi bility of encount ering bison in all areas. When a herd of • 15 bison was encount er ed , obser vation s commence d. By recommenda ti on of Fort in and Andrus kiw (2003) obser vat ions began at distan c e s of appr oximat el y 260 meter s from the herd‟ s sele ct ed site when obser ving on foot. Herd move ment s re sulting in incr eas e d proximit y were not mit iga ted by obser ver retreat. Observa tions were also taken fro m a vehi cle if encounters were at close range. Some studie s suggest that bison permit vehi cle s 6 times close r than hiker s with out response (Mchugh , 1958). Pres ence of an obser ver has been shown to aff ect the behavior of animal s of even tame ani mal s . (Gordon, 1994) there fore m axi mu m obser vable distance and mini mu m level of dist urba nce were mainta ine d to abat e behaviora l changes. Ini tial data incl uded classifi cation of landform ty pe occupi ed. Dist ance s to various landmar ks were estimat ed and manu al sketches or photogr aphs were taken for accur ate re - loc ation of the centra l posit ion. Initiall y , and at 15 minut e inte rvals ther eafter , a total herd count was obtai ned with a id of 10 by 52 binoc ula rs . Also at 15 minut e int ervals a singl e animal was syst emat ic ally select ed and their behavi or was classified and recorded . Obser vation intervals and meth od ology are adapt ed from Plumb and Dodd (1993) . Sele cti on methodology was base d on spat ial posit ion in attempts to mini miz e double sampli ng and to maxi miz e the sampli ng distribution. Ani mal s were selected from the herd perimet er at each cardinal direction , and from the cent er , in a clock-wise rotat ion. Observa ti ons cont inued for up to 2 hour s , or until departure of site . Vali d obser vations required a minimu m 30 minut e herd occupanc y of a singl e site. Gross movement and dist ribut ion of the her d was note d throughout the obser vation. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 56 Guffey, Kelsey Circ umsta nces of two small herds spatially separ ate d but simu lt aneously visi ble permit te d two replic ate exper iment al unit s to be concur re ntl y obser ved whic h diverges fro m Plumb and Dodd‟s methods. Topographical and vegetative f eat ures can prevent count and behavi or sampling of some ani mal s; this is enhanced by large herd size and wide dist ribution.This beha viora l sampli ng method may be influenced by soc ial interactions that dictate spatial position as in other large social herbi vore s (Mlosze wski, 1983). After herd depart ure of the site , reconnai ssa nce locati on of the centra l positi on began. Cases of long term sit e occupa ncy dela yed reconnai ssa nce data collection. Once located, the cent ral position of the herd was mar k ed within 2 meter s by a Garmin han d held GPS. On all herd sel ected sit es, a 100 meter transect line was laid at a 90° or 180° angl e originating at the obser ved centr al positi on mark. The transect dir ect ion was chosen to represent the gross obser ved movement and/ or distributi on of the herd. If move ment and dist ri buti on was neut ral, transect dir ect ion was chosen at rando m. Foll owing point -int erc ept methodology des cr ibed by Cooperider et al. (1986), each meter mark was obser ved and the occur re nce of inte rcept ion by ( ” 1 inch) herbage species , bare ground, rock, or litter ma te rial was ident ified and recor ded. Incidences of grazed and ungra zed plant speci es were classifie d by mor phology to the genus or spec ie s level. At each me te r int erc ept , the hei ght of standing biomas s was measur ed to the nearest inch and recorded. Point - int erc ept transec ts are limit ed in their abili ty to sample scarce vegetati on, but effect ive in quant ifying large landscape patterns . Immat ure and closely grazed forages, seas onall y varie d morphology, and over all diver sit y chal le nge accura te species taxonomy . Unknown speci es were classified by herbage type (gra ss, forb, or woody speci es) . Foraged specie s were assumed to be McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 57 Guffey, Kelsey g razed or browsed by bison duri ng past ure occupancy ; admit tedly other herbivore speci es have cont inuous acce ss . Landform Selection and Availability Landfor m type s sel ect ed by bison were classifie d by dir ect obser vation, as either a slope with a dire ctional aspect , a riparia n area or a flat to undula ting plain. A slope is defined by continual and dramatic increases in elevation for • 100 meters. Riparian areas are define d as ar eas surr ounding a natura l water sourc e or dr ai nage wit h appar ent hyporehic flow; only areas with markedly differ ent vegetation forming a “green line” were classified as riparian. Flat to undula ting planes include rolli ng hills and gradual slope s. Landfor m avai la bilit y was determine d by topogr aphic and satel lite photo mappi ng of past ures and landform ty pes. The pe rcent composi ti on of landfor m type s was deter mine d for each pastur e. Area was calculate d in a linear manner and did not account for slope . Landfor m sel ection fre quency was cal cula t ed as the proportion of bison occup ying a landform in the tota l number of bison obser ved per past ure. Preferre d landforms are defined as landform ty pes selected with • 75% frequency . Sele ction frequenci es of preferre d landfor ms were compar ed to availability frequency of that landfor m type and a Chi- square tests for independe nce were done for the actual data range (sel ection f requency) and expec te d data range (avail abilit y frequenc y) . When the probabi lity ( Į) of seeing at least the meas ure d degree of differ ence from act ual and expecte d ranges by chance ” 0.05 landform sel ection was concl uded to be independe nt of avai labilit y. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 58 Guffey, Kelsey Forage Selection and Availability Forage selecti on frequency was cal cula te d as the ratio of grazed forage specie to the total num ber of graze d forage obser vations per site survey (sample siz e vari able) . Forage avai la bilit y frequency was calculated as the proport ion of a forage species obser ved in the tot al inter cept point s (n=100) . Preferre d fora ges were define d as spec ie s select ed with • 75% frequency. Mean sel ection frequency and mean avai la bil ity frequency were determine d for each preferred fora ge spec ie s per past ure . One- ta iled paire d T-te sts proba bili ties were used to eval uat e if selec tion frequency of preferre d speci es are significa ntly great er than thei r avai lability frequenc y on sel ected sit es . When the probabi lity ( Į) that selection frequency values that high could appear by chance ” 0.05 , forage sele cti on was concl uded to be significant ly greater than availabi lity . Degree of Use Util izat ion was est imat ed by eval uati ng the hei ght of graz ed stubb le in rela tion to adjace nt ungrazed swar ds of identi cal spe cie s . Util ization indices were developed for preferre d spec ie s in ea ch past ure and calcula ted as the mean ratio of stubble height to sward height subt ra cte d fro m 1. This method est imat es the degr ee of defoliation and is adapt ed from the methodology of Johnson et al. (1994) Util ization class es and corre sponding uti lizati on indi ces are as follo ws: unused = 0, sli ght= 0-0.1, mode ra te = 0.2 - 0.4, full 0.4- 0.6, close = 0.6- 0.8, and seve re = 0.8 - 1.0. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 59 Guffey, Kelsey Behavior Patterns Behavior was classified as a grazing , rumina ti ng, suckl ing, moving, or a breedi ng type behavi or. Breedi ng behavior s are those soci al interactions exhibi ted by many large herbivores that are associ ated with the seas on of rut incl uding tending, mounti ng, bellowing and aggre ssi ve territ ory defense (Mloszewski, 1983). Dista nt obser vations of prone rumi nat ing anima ls resemble an ani mal at rest . Significant dayli ght time budget s may be allocat ed to resting (Plumb and Dodd, 1993). For the purpose of this study a rumina ti ng animal is defined as those that are lyi ng down. Frequency of obser ved behavior class es were gro uped by past ure and cal cula ted as the frequency of behavior occur re nce in the total observa tion samples per pasture (sample siz e varia ble ). RESULTS AND DISCUSSI ON Landform Selection and Availability Sele ction frequency of landfor ms, as deter mine d by obser ved herd occupancy, was found to be independent (Į ” 0.05) of landform avai la bili ty in the 3 past ures sampled . Preferr ed landforms (• 75% selection frequency) varied by past ure (Tabl e 1; Graph 1). Flat- undula ting and riparian areas were selected for in all past ures. Landfor m sel ection i n the UP past ure was moder at el y disc rimina te with 94% of sel ections being made for landforms that represent 55% of the availab le area. Variety of McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 60 Guffey, Kelsey preferre d land for ms was highest here. Preferences were shown for 4 landfor m type s, with east slope s , north slope s , flat-undula ting and riparian areas constituti ng 94% of obser ved select ions. Selection for riparian areas was m uc h greater than loc al availabi lity. Select io ns for nort h slopes and flat - undula ting areas are slightly greater than, but compar abl e to their local availability Herd occupancy of AB resul ted in the most di scr imina te landform sel ect ion, with 79% of sel ections made for landforms tha t repre sent 36% of the avai lable area. Variety of select ed landforms was low here. P reference s for only 2 landfor m type s were observed here , with flat - undula ting and riparian are as constituti ng 79% of sel ections . Ripa rian areas were selected wit h much great er freque ncy than their local availa b ility. Although sele cti on frequency of flat - undula ting areas was observed to be high, abundant local availa b il ity exists. Landfor m sel ections in MC were least discrimi nat e wi th 92% of sel ectio n s made for landforms tha t repre sent 81% of the avail able area. Vari et y of sel ected landfor ms was moderat e here. Preferences for 3 landfor m type s were observed here , with nort h slopes, flat - undula ting and riparian area s cons tituted 92% of obser vations. Greater sele ction frequency nort h facing slopes was obser ved her e than in previ ous past ures . Selection for ripar ia n areas was not elevat ed here increased avai la b ilit y. High selection frequency occurred for flat - undulating areas but was still lower than avai la bilit y. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 61 Guffey, Kelsey P a st u re Landform Frequency Available (%) Frequency Selected (%) U P East Slope 20 32 North Slope 17 20 Flat - Undulating 16 21 Ripar ian 1 21 TOTAL 55 94 A B Flat - Undulating 30 40 Ripar ian 6 39 TOTAL 36 79 M C North Slope 4 30 Flat - Undulating 58 40 Ripar ian 19 22 TOTAL 81 92 Table 1.Selection and availability frequencies of preferred landform types. Graph 1.Comparison o f selection and availability frequencies for preferred landform types. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Frequency Selected (%) Frequency Available (%) UP AB MC McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 62 Guffey, Kelsey Forage Selection and Availability Sele ction frequency of fo ra ge species varie d by pastur e (Tabl e 2; Graph 2). Selection and availabili ty frequenc ie s for p referred forage species (• 75% selection frequency) showed mixe d results in a pair ed T-te st . Sele cti on for some species was shown to be signi ficantly greate r than (Į ” 0.05) local availability while selectio n for other preferre d species were not significantly higher than avai la bility . Forage d Agropyron spicatum, Festuca scabrella, and Festuca idohensis pre ferre d in two or more conse cutive past ures. Forage selecti on in the UP past ure was the leas t discri mina te with 85% of sele cti ons made for fora ges available on 42% of sel ect ed site . Vari ety of preferr ed fora ge species was low, with 4 forage spec ies consti tuti ng 85% of sele ctions. Sele cti on s for Agropyron spicatum and Festuca idohensis were found to be signi ficantl y greater than the avail abilit y of those spec ie s on sel ected sit es. Sele cti on s for Festuca scabrella and Bromus tectorum , although high, were not found to be signi ficantl y greater than avai labilit y. Forage selecti on in the AB was the most discri mina te with 78% of sel ections made for forages availabl e on 24% of sel ected site . Variety of preferred forage species was also low here, with 4 forage spec ies consti tuti ng 78% of sele ctions. Sele cti on s for Agropyron spicatum and Festuca scabrella were found to be signi ficantl y greater than the avail abilit y of those spec ie s on sel ected sit es. Sele cti on s for Festuca idohensis and Agropyron trachycaulum, although moder at e, were not significa ntly great er than avai la bilit y. Forage selecti on in MC were also highly discri mina te with 76% of sele ctions made for forages availabl e on 25% of sele cted site. Variety of preferred forage species was high, with 8 forage species constit uting 76% of observed selecti ons. Sele cti on s for Muhlenbergia ssp, McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 63 Guffey, Kelsey Agropyron cristatum, Poa bulbosa, Carex ssp., and Fest uca scabrella, were found to be signi ficantl y greater than the avail abilit y of those spec ie s on selected sites. Sele ction s for Festuca Aristida purpurea, Bromus marginatus and Calamagrostis rubescens were low and not found to be significantl y greater than availabili ty. P a st u re Forage Species Latin Common Available (%) Selected (%) U P Agropyron spicatum blu ebunch wh eatgr ass 7 26 Festuca scabrella rough fescu e 7 25 F. idahoensis Id aho fescu e 14 20 Bromus tectorum cheatgrass 13 14 TOTAL 42 85 A B A. spicatum blu e bunch wh eatgr ass 6 29 F. scabrella rough fescu e 8 28 A. trachycaulum slend er wh eatgr ass 4 10 F. idahoensis Id aho fescu e 6 11 TOTAL 24 78 M C Muhlenbergia ssp. muh ly 5 20 A. cristatum crested wh eatgr ass 6 17 Poa bulbosa bu lbus wh eatgr ass 2 13 Carex ssp. sedge 4 11 F. scabrella rough fescu e 2 5 Aristida purpurea red threeawn 2 4 B. marginatus mou ntain brome 1 4 Calamagrostis rubescens pin egr ass 3 3 TOTAL 25 76 Table 2.Selection and availability frequencies of preferred forage species on selected sites. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 64 Guffey, Kelsey Graph 2. Comparison of seletion and availability frequencies for preferred forages. SignLILFant GLIIHUHnFHs Į ”  denoted with “ ” Forage Utilization Util ization for preferred forage species ranged fro m moder at e (0.27) to sever e (0.81) with a mean of ful l utilizati on (0.60) in all pastur es sample d . Agropyron cristatum, Poa bulbosa, and Calamagrostis rubescens showed moder ate utilizati on . Agropyron trachycaulum and 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% Agropyron spicatum Festuca scabrella F. idahoensis Bromus tectorum A. spicatum F.scabrella A. trachycaulum F. idahoensis Muhlenbergia ssp. A.cristatum Poa bulbosa Carex ssp. F. scabrella Aristida purpurea B. marginatus Calamagrostis rubescens Frequency Selected (%) Frequency Available (%) * * AB * * * * UP MC * * * McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 65 Guffey, Kelsey Muhlenbergia ssp. exhi bit ed full utilizati on . Six differ ent forage species: Agropyron spicatum, Bromus tectorum, Festuca scabrella, Carex ssp., Aristida purpurea, and Bromus marginatus were classified as close uti lizati on in one or more past ure . Festuca idahoensis was the only spec ie s classified as severe util ization. In the UP pastur e, utili zation ranged from moderat e (0.36) to close (0.78) wit h a mean of close uti lization (0.62) . In the AB, u ti lization ranged fro m ful l (0.43) to sever e (0.81) wit h a mean of close utiliz ati on (0.68 ). In MC the range of uti li zat ion was found to be moder at e (0.27) to close (0.78) wit h a mean of full utiliz ati on (0.54). Table 3 . Classification of utilization indices for preferred foraged per pasture. (Unused = 0, Slight= 0-0. 1, Moderate = 0.2-0.4, Full 0.4-0.6, Close = 0.6-0.8, Severe = 0.8-1.0 P a st u re Forage Species Utilization Index Class U P Agropyron spicatum 0.78 Clos e Festuca scabrella 0.58 Full Festuca idahoensis 0.36 Moderate Bromus tectorum 0.78 Clos e A B Agropyron spicatum 0.80 Clos e Festuca scabrella 0.71 Clos e Agropyron trachycaulum 0.43 Full Festuca idahoensis 0.81 Severe M C Muhlenbergia ssp. 0.54 Full Agropyron cristatum 0.35 Moderate Poa bulbosa 0.36 Moderate Carex ssp. 0.67 Clos e Festuca scabrella 0.78 Clos e Aristida purpurea 0.62 Clos e Bromus marginatus 0.73 Clos e Calamagrostis rubescens 0.27 Moderate McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 66 Guffey, Kelsey Behavior Patterns Behavior obser vations (Table 4) varied by pasture and patt erns wit hin a behavi or class were not gener ally linear. Notabl e changes in the proportion of obser ved behav ior s occur red withi n each behavi or class as the herd moved fro m pastur e to past ure thr oughout the summer . Recorde d grazing beha viors ranged fro m 50% to 70% wit h a mean of 58% . Observa tions of rumina ti ng type beha viors ranged from 8% to 42% with a mean of 25%. Suckl ing behavior s occur red between 0% and 10% of obser vations wit h a mean of 4%. The proport ion of moving behavi ors was recorde d fro m 3% to 18% of total pastur e obser vations with a mean of 10%. Breedi ng behavior s occurr ed between 0% and 5% of observati ons with an observed mean of 3%. In the UP pastur e behavior obser vations were nearl y evenl y dist ributed between grazing and rumina ting type behaviors with very little suckling , moving , or breeding type behaviors obser ved . In the AB frequency of observe d suckling , moving, and breeding type behaviors increased whil e obser vati ons of ruminating and grazi ng decrease d from the previous past ure . In MC an incr ease in grazing and mov in g type behaviors was observed , while the lowest frequenc y of ru mina ti on obser vations occur red here. No suckli ng behavior was recorded and bree ding behavi ors decr eased slightl y from the previous past ure sample d. Gr azing (%) Ruminating (%) Suckling (%) Moving (%) Breeding (%) UP 5 3 42 2 3 0 AB 5 0 25 10 10 5 MC 7 0 8 0 18 4 Table 4. Behaviors as a proportion of total behavior observations. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 67 Guffey, Kelsey CONCLUSI ONS Landfor m sel ection was shown to be independe nt of landfor m availability in each pasture which is consis te nt wit h the origina l hypothe sis . Resul ts agree with VanVuren (1993) and Rutber g (19 84) that open and level landscapes are selected by larger herds . Selectivity of landform ty pes was mos t discri mina te whil e the herd occupied AB. Sele ction of seve ral, but not all, preferr ed forages was signi ficant ly greater than their avai labilit y. Hypothesi zing that all preferr ed forages would be sel e ct ed in greater frequenci es than their local avail abilit y was incorr ect; selection pressure was far greate r on some preferr ed spec ie s than on othe rs . Obser ved foraging behavior s compar ed to the studie s of Forti n (2003) . Patt erns indicate selective graz ing of patches where preferre d forages are abundant and succ ule nt. F ora ge sele ctivit y was most discri mina te while the herd occupied AB. Mean utilization indices of preferred forages were • 0.50 in each pasture which suppor ts the original hypothe sis . All preferred fora ges were not used to thi s extent, whil e some were used to a much great er degree. Some high value fora ges expe rience clos e or sever e utilizati on and this coul d affect their abili ty to repr oduce. (August ine and McNaughton 1998) Util ization of preferre d forages was hig hest while the her d occupied AB . Behavior patt erns were supporte d by the original hypothe sis with one slight deviation. Grazi ng and moving behavior s increase d in success ive pastures wit h the exce ption of graz ing in AB where val ues were sli ghtly lower than in the previous pastur e. Rumina ti ng behaviors decr eased in each successive pastur e. These patterns may indic at e a degree of nutri tional stress resulting in incre ased forage search time. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 68 Guffey, Kelsey These results compar e wit h Hobbs (1996 ) in that duri ng the rut time spent grazing decr eases to allow time to be allocat ed to various soci al activities. This decrease in grazing time is mit iga te d by increased habit at selecti vit y in bison. Habit at selection and behavi ors of bison were dynamic in this study and changed with either tempora l or spatial changes. These changes in behavior coul d be a funct ion of fora ge quali ty and abunda nce as well as the ener get ic and time budget demands of the herd. ACKNO WL EDGMENT S This cooperative research was made possible in part by the Montana State University Animal Range Science Department; and by the U.S. Fish Wildlife Service with the Confederated Salish Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation whom manage The NBR as part of the National Wildlife Refuge System. Special thanks to Amy Lisk and all NBR staff. This material is supported by the United States of America Department of Education – TRiO‟s Ronald E. McNair Post - Baccalaureate Achievement Program under Grant No. P217A090198. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 69 Guffey, Kelsey LITERATU RE SITED Arnold, G.W. 1985. Spati al Relati ons Between Sheep, Cat tleand Horse Groups Graz ing Together . Appl. 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Promotion of the cyc ling of diet - enhancing nutrients by Afri can grazers. Scie nce 278: 1798 - 1800. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 71 Guffey, Kelsey Meagher, M.M. 1989. Range Expansion by Bison of Yell owstone National Park. J. Mamm. 70:670 - 675 Mloszewski, M.J. 1983. .The Behavior al Ecol ogy of the Afri can Buffalo. Cambri dge Univer sity Pres s, New York, NY. 75 -78 pp. Mooring, M.S., D. D. Reisig, E.R. Osborn, A.L. Kanallakan, B.M. Hall, E.W. Schaad, D.S. Wiseman, R. R. Huber. 2005. Sexual Segre gation in Bison: a Test of Multi ple Hypothese s. Behavior . 142:897 - 927 Plumb, G.E. and J.L. Dodd. 1993. Foragi ng Ecology of Bison and Catt le on a Mixed Prairie: Impli cat ions for Natura l Area Management . Ecol Appl. 3: 631 - 643. Rutberg, A.T. 1984. Competit ion and Reproduction in Amer ic an Bison Cows. Unpubl. Ph.D. diss ert., Univ. Washi ngton, Seattle, 174 pp. Senft, R. L., M. B. Coughenour, D. W. Bailey, L. R. Rittenhouse, O. E. Sala and D. M. Swift . 1987. Large Herbivore Fora ging and Ecological Hier arc hie s. Bio Sci. 37: 789 -799. V an Dyne, G.M., N.R. Brock ington, Z. Szocs, J.Duek, C.A. Ribic. 1980. Large Herb ivore Subsyst em. In Grasslands, Syst ems Analysi sn and Man. Inter national Biome Pr ogra mme 19 . Breyme yer , A.I. and G.M. Van Dyne eds. Cambri dge Unive rsity Press, Cambri d ge, UK. 276 - 332 pp. Van Vuren, D. 1983: Group Dyna mic s and Summer Home Range of Bison in Souther n Utah. J.Ma mm. 64:329 - 332. Van Vuren, D. 1984 Summer Diet s of Bison and Catt le in Southe rn Utah. J. Range Mana ge. 37: 260 - 261 Van Vuren, D. and M.P. Bray. 1986. Populat ion Dyna mic s of Bison in the Henry Mountai ns, UT. J. Mamm. 67: 503 - 511. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 72 Gu meson, Treacy The holi sti c nature of the Nati ve Amer ic an model of wellness may serve as an example of how to more effect ive ly trea t symptoms of Postt ra umat ic Stress Disorder among co mba t veterans. When we explore treatment model s from West er n medi ci ne and psyc holo gy, we find evidence that professi onal s involved in treatment of PTSD advoca te a combinati on of trea tment s to help manage symptoms. As I researche d the succ ess of Traditi onal Native Amer ic an cultur es in assisti ng veterans in managi ng sympto ms of Postt raumat ic Stress Disorder, I was struc k by the fact that , historically, Nati ve Amer ic ans have served in the mil itary in higher ratios compared to othe r ethnic groups in Amer ic a. Even though a relativel y high percenta ge of these Native Amer ic an soldi ers partici pat e in heavy combat , remar kable succ ess in treati ng symptoms of Postt ra umat ic Str ess Disorde r has been achie ved thr ough holisti c traditional cultural methods. The residents of the stat e of Montana are facing a dist urbi ng dil emma. We are now seei ng and will most likel y conti nue to see an influx of vete rans returni ng from over sea s deployment s. Many of thes e vet era ns are affect ed by sympto ms of Postt ra umat ic Stress Disor der . It is likel y that the existence and frequency of PTSD among Mont a nans will incr ease and have an impact on the live s of every resident in every communit y in the state in one way or anot her . Accor ding to a 2006 report from the U.S. Department of 9eterans affairs, “Montana has the highest rate of mil it ar y vetera ns of any state but its VA ment al heal th facilities rank low in providing veterans benefits” . (U.S. Depart ment of, 200 6 ) The report shows that Mont ana has 106 vete rans for ever y one thousand reside nts. In Mont ana, only six percent of all healt h spending was on spe ci ali zed ment al heal th ser vices at VA medi cal cent ers . In addition, only fifty - six percent of Montana veterans with diagnosed ment al illness received any treatment fro m ment al health specia lists . As Mont anans , we must ask oursel ves: Are we success ful in addre ssi ng the needs of our disabled McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 73 Gu meson, Treacy vet erans by provi ding treat ment options, withi n our commun it ies, especiall y those who are affect ed by sy mpto ms of PTSD? (U.S. Depar tme nt of, 2006) I t is most likely that the disor der of PTSD has affect ed human bei ngs throughout our history . West er n practitioners have only recentl y acknowle dged the serious ness of PTSD. After the Viet Nam War , PTSD was known as combat fati gue. In the year s following WW I and WW II, sympto ms of PTSD were referred to as shell shock. Afte r the Civi l War, soldiers displa ying symptoms of PTSD were said to suffer from soldier‟s heart. There are few more time ly issues than addressing the needs of our warr ior s who suffer the invi sibl e wounds of PTSD. In order to devel op holi stic men ta l healt h care manage me nt progra ms to assist vetera ns with sympto ms of PTSD in Monta na , it is fir st necessar y to initiate a focused conversation among heal th car e provi ders, univer sity scholar s and researchers , and communit y leader s. Much empir ic al evide nce exists on the effic acy of differ ent forms of trea tment . In light of the fact that our countr y is curre ntly at war , and it is undeniable that a great number of our soldier s will be retur ning hom e with sympto ms of PTSD, it is crucia l that even more resea rc h be devoted to the subj ect of effect ive treatment opti ons. It is import ant to unders ta nd that PTSD is a very real psychol ogical disorder , but also one that can be effect ive ly managed. Ronald J. Comer is the director of Cli nic al Psychology Studies at Princeton University‟s Depart ment of Psychol ogy and a respected authori ty in the fiel d of abnormal psychol ogy. Comer states “The subject of abnormal psychology is people - very often people in great pain«” (Co mer , p xx) In regard to holistic mod els of treatment for PTSD, an important facet to Comer‟s pedagogy as it relates to a holi sti c model of treat ment is the fact that he cont inually poses the quest ion of “«whether competing models can work together in a more integrated approach.” (Co mer , p xxi) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 74 Gu meson, Treacy Co mer asserts that experts in the field of West er n psychol ogy mainta in that it is unlikely that one for m of trea tment will be adequat e to relieve or help manage sy mpto ms , and it is evident that a balanced or holistic approach to manage an individual‟s symptoms cont ributes to more effect ive treatment result s . Additionally, “The field of multicultural psychology has begun to have a powerful effect on our understanding and treatment of abnormal behavior.” (Comer, pp xxi, 17) In research ing the subje c t of treatment model s for sympto ms of PTSD, I found evide nce that a key element of effecti ve and sus tainabl e treatment may be miss ing fro m most We ste rn treatment models when compar ed to the holistic manner of trea tment uti lized by traditional Nati ve Ame ri c an Cultures. This omiss ion is the lack of comm unit y involvement in assi sting re - int egra tion of veter ans. Resear ch on tradit ional cultural methods of assis ting warriors to overco me sy mptoms of PTSD shows a belief that a balance must be achieved at an indivi dual level and also that the individual suffering must be regarded as a „whole‟ person in order to achieve a balance between that individual‟s body, spirit, heart and mind. This indivi dual balance or imbal ance in tur n affect s the well being of the com munity. This is the over reaching concept of holi sm as it applie s to managing and individual‟s symptoms of PTSD. It is imp ort ant, of cours e, to first underst and the conc ept of holism, an d how this concept may be appl ied to for mula ti ng treatment model s to effect ive ly manage indi vidual cases of PTSD. In order to gain an understanding of what is meant by the term “holistic” , we may turn to expl anations provi ded by Alla n Savory, who may well be consider ed the moder n guru of holist ic manage ment . Savory note s that it was reknowned South African “statesman - schol ar J an Chris tian Smuts (1870 - 1950) who fir st intr oduced the theoretical worldvi ew known as holism (fro m the Greek - McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 75 Gu meson, Treacy holos ). Smu ts, in Holism and Evolution , publi shed in 1926, foster ed the noti on that “the world is not made up of substance, but of flexibl e, changing patt erns .” From Smuts‟ theoretical concepts, Savory reports “If you take patterns as the ultimate structure of the world, if it is arrangements and not stuff that make up the worl d, th e new concept leads you to the concept of whole s. Whole s have no stuff, they are arrangement s. Science has come round to the vie w that the world consists of patterns, and I construe that to be that the world consists of wholes.” Savory emphasi zes that s ince “I ndividual parts do not exist in nature, only wholes« these form and shape each other” and cites Smut‟s argument that “« all organisms feel the force and molding effect of the envi ronment as a whole are indeed one wit h Nature . Her genet ic fibers run thr ough all our being; our physical orga ns connect us with mil li ons of year s of her hist ory; our minds are full of imme morial paths of pre - human expe rience .” (Savor y, pp 19-20) Savory states, “In our culture it is mainly phi losop her s who concer n th emsel ves wit h thi s larger issue beca use it is hard to see how indivi dual s caught up in daily life can take responsi bility for the long - te rm conse quence s of their actions . ” However , Savory argues that any entity or condition may be managed by “looking inw ar d to the lesser whole s that combine to form it, and outward to the greater wholes of which it is a member.” By understanding this conce pt , we may begi n to see how holi stic manage ment of sympto ms of PSTD wil l not only assist the sufferer but begin to affect the communit y in a positive manner . (Savor y, p 20) Savory proposes that “«no whole, be it a family, a business, a community, or a nation, can be manage d effect ive ly by the isolation of any single „ part ‟ . ” To warra nt thi s claim, Savory use s a wel l known example from the natural sciences. Savory reveals that “ without realizing it, Amer ic an biologis t Robert Paine provide d dramat ic evide nce of the holi stic nature of communit ies in a study he did in a seas hore environment .” (Savory, pp 17, 19) Paine removed a McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 76 Gu meson, Treacy pre dat ory speci es of starfish from a population of fiftee n observable species, and the bala nce of the ecos ystem quic kly deteriorated. Savory surmises , “You do not see yourself, or your parents, or your childre n as c ommuniti es of inte rc onnect ed cel ls, you see them as whole persons .” Removing one ele ment in the whole, as Pai ne did, seve rely disrupt ed the whole marine communit y (Savor y, p 17, 19, 20). If, in our communit ie s, we ignor e the suffer ing and inabilit y of a single me mber to manage the sympto ms of PTSD, it inevi ta bly affect s the well bei ng of the communit y as a whole. Savory admitted that he had “tremendous difficulty” in understanding the true nature of holism. He acknowledged that “until I actually could work it out with my own hand s as a young child might ,” he could not fully fathom this concept. The following excerpt explains how Savory worked out a solution to his inability to understand Smut‟s holistic theory “I took four bal ls of kindergarten -type model ing clay in red, green, yell ow and blue, and began kneadi ng them toge the r until they slowl y blended int o a fifth color , gray. Mentally I let gray represe nt the world we originally set out to unders tand. Close inspec tion of my gray ball reveal ed traces of the four color s I had begun with. So to under sta nd this world of gray I would study the color s I knew to be in some way invol ved in it, i n much the same way our earliest scientists broke our natural world into what they per ceived a par ts for study .” Savory then came to the r eal izat ion that all manage ment deci sions , from the manage ment of an ecosys te m, a busi ness , or even an individual‟s personal life, had to be made fro m the perspective of the “ whole under manage ment .” He asserts tha t i f man agement deci sions are based on any othe r perspective , “ we coul d expect to experience r esults different from those intended because only the whole is reality .” He explains that “ the whole (the gray) had to be defined, bearing in mind that it always influence d, and was influe nced by, bo th greater and lesser wholes ²and we had to know what we McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 77 Gu meson, Treacy wanted to do with it: we needed an all- encompass ing, holistic goal . If we begin to under sta nd that managi ng an individual case of PTSD must be consi dered fro m the perspective of the whole, including the individual‟s family and community, we may begin to achieve more success in ass isting disabled veterans by taki ng meas ure s to help them reint egra te into their civi lian lives. (Savor y, p 26-27) Holis m, in the context of a resultant healthy commu nit y that has acknowledged and int egra te d all of its members in a posit ive manner , can also easily be related to the concept of syst ems the ory, an inte rdisci pli nary theory that seeks to explain how comple x patterns exi st withi n nature as well as society. Deidr e Combs, in The Way of Conflict: Elemental Wisdom for Resolving Disputes and Transcending Differences , explains that in the twent ieth century, “ new sci enti sts ” began to “ focus on the whole ” , or what they called the system. ” Combs po int s out that the se “new scientists described the universe as a living system made up of independent, interrelated systems...” and that “ a ny group of people , be it a marri ed coupl e, a famil y, or a communit y is a syst em. This conc ept illustrates how the actions of every me mber of a communit y syst em affect every other me mber of that system. By stri ving to under sta nd thi s conce pt, we may begi n to acknowledge how crucial it is for us to identi fy and acknowledge ways to assist members of our communit ies who are vetera ns with PT SD in achie ving a sustaine d and balance d heal ing of their invi sible wounds. (Combs, p 49-50) Many indige nous people of Amer ic a have long underst ood thi s principle and pra cti ced ways of reint egra ting their wounded warr iors back into the communit y. Although the diverse clans of Nati ve Ame ri cans hold many dif ferent traditi onal views, the general Native Amer ic an worl dvie w may be said to be holistic in nature , as may be shown by the following repres enta tion of the Anish i naabe Medicine Wheel (Figure 1). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 78 Gu meson, Treacy Figur e 1. If we co mpare the Anishina abe Medic ine Wheel to a represent ation of a West er n Holis tic Model , we see corre lations. (Figur e 2). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 79 Gu meson, Treacy Figur e 2. In the West er n Model, the body is repr esented by physi ologic al aspe cts, includ ing adequa te nutr ition and exer c ise , envir onment al sti muli , possi bly drug ther apy, and the way these fact ors ult imat el y c ontr ibute to heal thy or unheal thy brain functi on. The spirit is repre sent ed by spiritual proc ess es, includi ng guidance and divine connect ion. The heart is represented by emo ti onal proc ess es which include forgi venes s and catharsis. The mind is repre sented by cognitive proc ess es includi ng modification of perspe cti ve, focus, and behavi or. Note that central to the Western model is “Life,” indicating an emphasis on the individual, whereas the Native American Model holds a “Healthy Community” as central to wellbeing. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 80 Gu meson, Treacy Her e we see what may be miss ing in West er n treatment model s for PTSD - - an emphasi s on the communit y as a whole and the indi vidual as an import ant and act ive me mber of that whole. In the Nati ve Amer ic an worl dview, a bal ance between aspects of the body, spirit, hear t, and mind lead to a healthy being and a healthy community. We will look at ways in whic h Tradi tional Nativ e Ame ri can Cultures have achieved succ ess in assisting their veterans with PTSD, but it is at thi s point in our discussi on that we may be best serve d by atte mpti ng to under sta nd the actual sympto ms of Postt raumat ic Stress Disorder. In this way, we may beg in to see the serious affect s that this disorder may have on not only an indi vidual , but also on the famil y and co mm unit y encompass ing the individual . The effect s of sympto ms of PTSD has a dramat ic effect on the ability of an indi vidual to function. Accordi ng to the DSM - IV TR, PTSD is diagnosed when a person is expos ed to an actual or perceived threat that results in a response involving “intense fear, helplessness, or horror” (Criter ia A and B). This event is re-exper ienced in one or more exper ie nc es of recur rent and intrus ive recoll ections, distressing dreams of the event , a sense of relivi ng the exper ie nce, including illusion s, halluci nations, and diss ociative flashba cks, intense psychol ogical dist ress when exposed to cues that symboli ze or rese mb le aspect s of the trauma, and psychological reactivity when exposed to external or inter nal cues. Experiencin g these sympto ms of PTSD may lead an indi vidual to avoid thought s , feel ings, or conver sati ons associate d with the trauma, as well as effort s to avoid act ivities, places , or people that arouse recoll ections of the trauma. An indi vidual affected may show a markedly dimini shed int ere st or participation in significant act ivities, feel ings of detachment or estr angemen t from othe rs , and a sense of a for eshor te ned future, including expectati ons that they will not have a care er , marri age, chil dren or a normal lifespan. The individua l may displa y a restricted range of affe ct , or be unable to have loving McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 81 Gu meson, Treacy feeli ngs. Affected individual s also show persi stent sympto ms of incre ase d arousal , not present before the trauma, incl uding diffic ulty fall ing or sta ying asleep, irritability or outbur sts of anger , diffic ult y concent rating, hyper vigil ance, and exaggerated startle res ponse. In an individual diagnosed wit h PTSD, these distur bances cause cli nically significa nt distress or impairment in soci al, occupat ional, or othe r import ant areas of funct ioni ng. Ther e are sever al additional associ ate d f eat ures and disor ders associ ate d with a diagnos is of PTSD that reveal reasons that it is crucial for communit ies to stri ve to help alleviate sympto ms . Indi viduals wit h Posttraumat ic Stre ss Disorder may descr ibe painful guil t feeli ngs about surviving when othe rs did not survi ve or about the thi ngs they had to do to survive . Ph obic avoidance of situations or activities that resemble or symboli ze the origina l trauma may inte rfere with int erpe rs onal relationships and lead to marit al confli ct , divorce, or loss of employ men t . The foll owing associated conste llat ion of sympto ms may oc cur , more commonly seen in associ ati on with an inte rpersonal stressor (e.g., childhood sexual or physical abuse , domest ic batteri ng, being taken hosta ge, incarc eration as a prisoner of war or in a concent ration camp, tor tur e) : feeli ngs of ineffect ive ness , shame, despair, or hope le ssness ; feeling permanent ly damaged; a loss of previously sustained bel iefs, host ilit y; soci al wit hdra wal; feeling const antl y thr eatened; impai re d relati onshi ps with others ; or a change fro m the indi vidual's previ ous per sonal ity ch aracteristics. There may be incr eased risk of Panic Disor der , Agora phobia , Obsessi ve - Co mpulsi ve Disor der , Soci al Phobia , Speci fic Phobia , Major Depres sive Disor der , Somat iz at ion Disor der , and Substanc e - Related Disorde rs . If we cons ide r veterans, their fami li es, and their communit ie s as an inte gra ted syst em, it is clear that PTSD may affect not onl y an indivi dual veteran, but the entire syste m. (Post traumat ic Stress Disorder, DSM- I V - TR) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 82 Gu meson, Treacy Additi onal ly, in one study, Trait Aggression Among Veterans: An Examination of Personal Trauma Experiences, Combat Exposure, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , Emil y Kay Overbo concludes that “ c ombat -expose d veterans had higher levels of physic al aggre ssi on than did mil it ar y me mbers without combat exposur e and an even g reater difference with civilians«those withi n the combat - exposed group with PTSD had signi ficantly higher level s of anger and host ilit y, whic h is consistent with the diagnos i s of PTSD, and may be indic at ive of the indi vidual reactions to traum a .” Overbo p oints out that “the mental health functioning of veterans has been a source of concern across the world” and that “previous research (conducted by Taft, Pless, et al ., 2005) has examine d adjustment diffic ult ies with veterans, inc luding post traumat i c stress disor der .” Overbo warns that her study “illustrates the continued need to address the psychol ogical conse quences of war. Inde pendent research on the effect s of war - re lated trauma to both servic e me mbers and their famil y is neede d. Resear ch should be lo ngit udinal and addr ess a wide var iety of difficult ies that are faced by veterans and their families.” (Overbo, pp vi - viii) Refle ct ing on the above informa ti on , it leads us to the concl usion that the wellbe ing of communit ies and fa m il ies may be ser iousl y affect ed by the behavi or of a person diagnosed wit h PTSD and that it is imp er ative for indivi duals wit h the disorder to have timel y access to effect ive treatment f or sympto ms. In reservation and rur al non - re servation commun it ies acros s Mont ana, veterans with PTSD str uggle to access appropriate care. Barri ers to accessing care incl ude the lack of faci liti es in proximit y to the communit y and travel compli cations as well as perc ei ved sti gma. Even if a vetera n is able to access health care op ti ons in thei r commu nit y, are we cer tain that the treat ment s provided will be effective? It bri ngs us to the subj ect of commonly used West er n treatment s for PTSD and to the subject of psychology and its practice in gener al. It is helpful to McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 83 Gu meson, Treacy expl ore bri efly the historic al evol ution of the practi ces by which West er n practitione rs have atte mpte d or negl ected to provide manage ment of sympto ms of PTSD and other psychologi cal disor ders . Comer provi des an intere sting chronologic al hist ory of the evol ution of West er n treatment of psychol ogical disorder s , begi nning in the Middle Ages . He report s that the “Middle Ages were a ti me of great str ess and anxie ty - - a time of war , urban uprising, and plagues«abnormal behavior appar entl y i ncr eased greatly during this pe riod.” Traumat ic event s such as the se are known to caus e sympto ms of PTS D. Comer asserts that it is not surprising that “«some of the earlier demonological treatments for psychological abnormality reemerged during the Middle Ages” and that it was “«not u nti l the Middle Ages drew to a close that demonology and its methods began to lose favor«Medical views of abnormality gained favor, and many people with psychological disturbances received treatment in medical hospitals«.” (Comer, p 8) Comer then advances to the Renaissance Period, “a period of flourishing cultural and scientific act ivit y from about 1400 to 1700 [when] de mon ologi cal views of abnormal it y cont inued to decl ine. ” In fact , it was in the mid - fifte en - hundreds that the German doct or, Johann Weyer, became the “first physician to specialize in mental illness«he is now considered the founder of the moder n study of psychopa thol ogy .” (Comer, p 8) According to Comer, “The care of people with mental disorders continued to i mprove in this atmospher e. In England such individual s might be kept at home while thei r famil ie s were aide d financially by the local parish«across Europe, religious shrines were devoted to the humane and lovi ng treatment of people with ment al disor ders.. .Gheel [or Geel ], Belgi um [was] perhaps the best known of these shrines« . ” He explains that people from all over Europe flocked to this site for “psychic healing . ” When we discuss the crucial import of the community in helping to McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 84 Gu meson, Treacy al le via te sympto ms of PT SD, it is import ant to reme mber that Comer obser ves , “Local residents welcomed these pilgrims into their homes, and many stayed on to form the world‟s first “colony” of mental patients.” Comer emphasizes that Gheel is considered “the forerunner of today‟s communit y ment al heal th progr ams, and it continues to demonst rate that people with psychol ogical disorder s can respond to loving care and respectful treat ment .” (Comer , p 8) Comer then reveals that “ u nfort unat el y, these improve ment s in care began to fade by the mid - sixt eent h century . ” This trend continued until about 1800, the advent of “Moral Treatment” in Europe and the Unit ed States . He att ributes these methods to Pinel and Tuke. Their methods were deemed Mor al Tr eat ment , “because they emphasi zed mora l gui da nce and humane and respectful techniques .” Co mer explains that “patients with psychological problems were inc reasingly perceived as potentially produc tive human bei ngs whose mental functioning had broke n down under stress .” It is not unli kely that many of these patients suffered fro m sympto ms of PTSD. (Co mer , pp 8-9) Comer cit es Bockoven, 1963  “By the 1850‟s, a number of mental hospitals throughout Europe and Amer ic a report ed success usi ng mora l appr oaches...by the e nd of that century, however, sever al factors led to a rever sal of the moral treatment move ment .” He s uggest s factors that may have cont ributed to this rever sal , including “ the speed wit h which the movement had spread ; as mental hospitals mult ipl ie d, seve r e money and staffing shor ta ges devel oped and recovery rates declined ; the assumption behind moral treatme nt that all patie nts could be cured if treated with humani ty and digni ty ; the emer gence of a new wave of prej udice agai nst people with ment al disor ders . As incre asing number s of patie nts disappea re d into lar ge, distant ment al hospi tals, the publ ic came to view them as str ange and dangerous. In turn, peopl e were less ope n minded when it came to making donations or allocating government funds.” These obser vations McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 85 Gu meson, Treacy serve as ominous warnings to today‟s society regarding how an influx of soldi ers returning from Iraq and Afghani stan with PTSD ma y be expe cted to be percei ved and treat ed. (Comer , pp 9-1 0) In the 1890‟s 9iennese physicians Josef and Breu er gained recognition for thei r work wit h the newly developed technique, psychoanalysis, “«a form of discussion in which clinicians help tr oubled people gain insight into their unconsci ous psyc hologic al proc esses .” Psychoanalytic tr eatment was off er ed to patie nts who did not requir e hospit alization and is consid ere d the predecessor of today‟s outpatient treatment. (Comer , p 12) In addition to mentioning the relatively positive development of Breuer‟s and Freud‟s psychoa nal yti c work, Comer identi fies two “opposing perspectives” that emerged with the decline of the moral movement in the late 1800‟s and claims that the proponents of these per spectives compet ed rather than coll abora te d in their treatment of psychol ogical disor ders . These opposing ideolog ies were the somat ogeni c per spective and the psychogenic perspect ive. From the so mat ogeni c per spective , physi cal causes were responsi ble for abnormal psychol ogical function. Alternatively, the psychogenic view was tha t psychologi cal disorders caused abno rmal functioni ng .” (Comer, p 10) It is interesti ng to note , at this time, that Comer assert s that although the psyc hogenic perspective had “a long history , ” it “did not gain much of a following until studies of hypnotism demonst ra ted its potential .” It i s not mere coi ncidence that the decline of the Moral Movement and the incepti on of the opposi ng somat ogeni c and psychogenic perspectives coincided with the bleak peri od of human histor y in which the ideology of eugeni cs was in full forc e in West er n soci eti es. To illustrat e some effect s of the euge nic move men t and to move us forward to the sta te of West er n psychiatric treat ment in middl e of the twenti eth cent ury, Comer provides a McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 86 Gu meson, Treacy chi lling timel ine regar ding relatively rece nt West er n trends regar ding treatment of thos e affect ed with psychologi cal disorders: 1896: Connect icut became the first sta te in the United States to prohibit persons wit h ment al disor ders from marryi ng. 1896 - 1933: Ever y state in the Unite d Stat es passed a law prohibi ting marria ge by per sons with ment al disorder s. 1907: Indiana beca me the first state to pas s a bill calling for people with ment al disorder s, as well as criminals and other “defectives” , to undergo steriliz ation. 1927: The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that eugenic ste rilization was consti tuti onal . 1907 - 1945: About 45,000 Amer ic ans were sterilized under eugenic sterilizati on laws; 21,000 of them were pati en ts in ment al hospit als. 1929 - 1932: Den mar k, Norway, Sweden, Finl and, and Iceland pass ed eugenic sterilizati on law s. 1933: Germany passed a eugenic sterilization law, under which 375,000 peopl e were sterilized by 1940. 1940 Nazi Germany began to use “proper gases” to kill people with mental disorders; 70,000 people were kil led in less than two year s. (Comer , pp 11-12) Comer point s out that in the years between 1950 and the present , we have seen “major change s in the ways clin ic ia ns understa nd and treat abnor mal funct ioni ng .” One of the most revoluti onary changes has been in regard to medi cat ions used to treat ment al dysfunction beginning in the 1950‟s. At this time, drug therapy was developed. Psychot ropic drugs that act to reduce dysfuncti onal ment al sy mptoms were devel op e d , incl uding anti- psychoti c drugs to correct confused thinking, antide pre ssant medi cations, and anti- anxie ty drugs. All these medi cat ions enabled relati vely effect ive treatment of some sy mpto ms of PTSD and other ment al McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 87 Gu meson, Treacy dysfuncti on. Comer adds that , addi tionally, there has been a renewed interest in “community car e , ” a community based mental health approach resembling that of the historic Gheel communit y. (Co mer , p 8) Comer asserts “«the field of abnormal psychology has had a dramatic growth spurt over the past several years«” He attributes some of this growth to “«‟new wave‟ cognitive and cogni tive - behavioral theories and therapies that help clients “accept” and objectify maladaptive thoughts that are resistant to change. «mindfulness - based cogniti ve therapy and Accepta nce and Commitment Therapy (ACT)«” and adds that “ c orre spondingl y, biologic al theories and treatment s for abnor mal behavi or have taken unpre cede nte d leaps forward during the past several years«” Curr ent methods of treat ment include medi cat ion, indivi dual psychot herapy, group thera py , desensitization and flooding. (Co mer , pp xvii , xviii) Comer expla ins that there are now more theori es and types of treat ment as well as more informat ion and resear ch studi es regardi ng abnormal psyc hology. Conver sel y, thi s abundance of new infor mat ion has result ed in more disa greemen ts in treatme nt methods. Comer mainta ins that although “ i n some ways the study and treatment of psychologi cal disor der s have come a long way« in other respects clinical scienti sts and pract itioners are still struggling to make a differ ence .” (Comer, pp 13 - 14) Accordi ng to Comer , moder n West er n practitioner s currently utilize a variety of behavi oral techni ques and combina ti ons of techniques . In the cogni tive -behavi oral theor etical perspective , cogni tion (the abilities to think, remember and ant icipat e) is “learned behaviors , ” and being le ar ned, they may be “unlearned” with the assistance of a therapist. The cognitive model “emphasizes the process and content of thi nking as the causes of psychol ogic al probl ems .” Cognitive therapy, developed by Aaron Beck, “helps people identify and change the maladaptive McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 88 Gu meson, Treacy ass umpti ons and ways of thinking that help cause their psychologi cal disorders .” Beck‟s “Cognitive Triad” identifies the three forms of “negative thinking«that lead people to feel depressed. The triad consists of a negative view of one‟s experiences, one‟s self, and the future.” Another theoretical perspect ive in curr ent usage is the psychodynamic model , in which all “human functioning” is seen as being shaped by dynamic (interacting) psychological forces and in whic h behavior is expla ine d in reference to unconsc ious inte rnal conflic ts. The goals of the psychodynamic system of therapy are to “help clients uncover past traumat ic event s and the inne r conflicts that have resulted from the m, set tl e those confli cts, and resu me per sonal development.” (Comer pp G-3, G-11) Some West er n practiti oners util ize hypnosi s in treatment of various disor der s. Comer desc ri be s hypnosis as “a sle epli ke suggest ible state during which a person can be dire cted to act in unus ual ways, to experie nce unusual sensations, to reme mb er seemingly forgot te n events , or to forget reme mbered event s .” Hypnotherapy is a treatment in which “a p er son undergoe s hypnosi s and is then guided to recall forgot te n event s or perform othe r thera peutic activities«while in a “trancelike mental state during which they become extremely suggestible . ” (Comer , pp 11-12) At the same ti me as West er n methods o f trea ting psychological disorder s such as PTSD were evol ving, many cul ture s succ ess fully uti lized tradit ional methods of healing the invisible wounds of warr ior s. Still surviving are many methods used by the indigenous people of Ame ri ca. When we sear ch for correlations between treat m ent of PTSD in Wes te rn practices and Native Amer ic an Cultures, we may begin by looking to Comer‟s definition of “treatment”. His view is that treatment “«typically includes a patient, a therapist, and a series of therapeutic contacts .” In McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 89 Gu meson, Treacy Nati ve Ame ri can cultures, the role of thera pist is played by what we coul d refer to as trained heal ers . (Comer , p 6) Studi es have also shown that the use of ceremony, rit ual and storytelling, combine d in a mann er that may be descr ibed as holi stic, have had dramat ic effect s on the well being of Native Amer ic an veterans suffer ing from PTSD. Hist ory shows a very high proporti on of Nati ve Ame ri cans have seen heavy combat , yet those veterans who have been able to uti lize tribal ritual s and cere monie s have shown remar kable succ ess in managing symptoms of post traumat ic str ess. Present ly, it may be bene ficia l to vetera ns of war for researchers to examine lessons taught by the cult ures of our indigenous peopl e and atte mpt to find corr ela tions amon g treatment methods that have prove n successful. (Gross pp 375- 76) In 2007, Dr. Lawre nce W. Gross, Ph.D., who curr entl y serves as an assist ant professor at Montana State University‟s Native American Studies Department, presented compelling research r e gar ding Nati ve Amer ic an methods of trea ting Postt ra umat ic Str ess Disorde r among vete rans of the Viet Nam era. In his award - winning article, Assisting American Indian Veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan Cope with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Lessons from Vietnam Veterans and the Writings of Jim Northrup, Gross calls for schol ars in Amer ic an India n Studie s and the Hu mani ti es to engage in a sustained, int erdi sciplinar y conversat ion about practical suggest ions for rel ieving the suffer ing of our American Indian Warri ors . ” (Gros s, p 373) In his resea rc h on ground- bre aking studie s and import ant point s regardi ng the extra ordi nar y results obtained by trad itional North Amer ic an India n cultures in hel ping veterans overc ome sympto ms of posttr aumat ic str ess disorde r , Gross uncover s evidence that many of these tradit ional manner s of treat ment are effect ive in managi ng sympto ms of PTSD in Nati ve Amer ic an veterans of war. Gross provides evidence thr oughout the article to warrant the results McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 90 Gu meson, Treacy of tradi tional healing me thods and the holi sti c manner in which these methods are applied . The one most po igna nt state ment in this article that served to moti vat e my resear ch is in regard to a group of non- Indian researchers led by Scurfield. Gross quotes Scurfield “The bittersweet aspe ct was the recognition by non - nat ive veter ans (to incl ude the author ) that we never have had or would have this dept h of mutua l affini ty wit h, let alone such support and recognition fro m, the communit ies in which we had bee n raised .” He adds , “Nothing more needs to be added to demonst ra te the tre mend ous impact Amer ic an India n rituals and ceremonie s can have in conj unction with standard psychological treat ment for our warr iors , both Indian and non - Indi an alike.” (Gross, p 386) Gross reports findings from Tom Holm‟s study, The National Survey of Indian Vietnam Veterans. He asserts that although the study was “demographic in nature and not inferential , ” it was indeed the fir st attempt to resear ch and analyz e data regar ding Amer ic an India n Veter ans, thus resulting in a “landmark investigation” that presents information invaluable to further re search regar ding treatment of PTS D. He also refer s to the Nati onal Cente r for Amer ican Indi an and Alaska Native Mental Healt h Research under the dir ection of Spero Manson, which provided the “first dat a that coul d be used to provide compar at ive anal ysis of Amer ic an India n Viet nam veter ans wit h othe r groups . ” He asserts that due to limited epidemiological data, “our pic ture is some what limit ed and obviously much work remai ns to be done in this area .” However, the dat a collecte d show s how these studies poi nt to the fact that not only do Amer ic an Indi an vete rans experience PTSD at a highe r rate than other ethni c groups, but also these sta tistic s can be directl y attributed to the reality that in the wars o f moder n times , Amer ic an Indi ans have had more exposur e to combat in comparison to othe r ethnic groups . (Gross, pp 376- 77) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 91 Gu meson, Treacy Gross ma int ains that import ant cultural methods used to assist Amer ic an Indi an veterans wit h PTSD include traditional ceremonie s and rituals . He sta te s , “Given the important role they have pla yed in helpi ng vete rans, they deser ve close r examina ti on .” (Gros s, pp 377- 78) He reports Steven Silver and John Wilson conclude that “a key element in the healing of Amer ic an India n vete ra ns fro m war - induced trauma was the involvement of the individual‟s soci al - support system.” LaDue, Marcelley , and Van Brunt emphasi ze methods for treati ng veterans that utilize “medicine people, herbs, rituals, ceremonies, community events, and powwows. ” Gross reports that “some veterans report that going through ceremonies upon their re tur n literally saved their lives .” He also adds that cere monie s exi st for sendi ng soldiers off to battle and also for assisting soldiers‟ reintegration into society whe n they return from battle. Gross claims these ceremonies reduce trauma by deconditioning “intense emotions associated with combat” and that Silver and Wilson, from the perspective of the field of psychology, believe the key is the “holistic nature of ritu als. ” From a cultural viewpoint, Gross cites Holm‟s expl anation of how rit ual s have power ful healing effect s: “«going through ceremonies helped the veterans establish a rapprochement with tribal elders, which, in turn, establi shed the commi tment the vet er ans had to their respective cult ure s. For some Nati ve cult ure s, going through ritual s was a way for veter ans to purge the taint of war and so make pos sibl e their reintegra tion into society. Part icipati ng in rituals was also a way for communit ies to honor veterans for thei r service, thus helping to give meani ng and purpos e to their sacri fices. One of the m ore int riguing aspects of looki ng at healing fro m withi n Amer ic an Indian cultures has to do with a process called „age acceleration‟ . Witness ing the death of peopl e of a simil ar age force s soldi ers to focus on their own mort al ity while still young. This, in effect , accelerates the maturation process« Having gone through combat, the veterans were granted McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 92 Gu meson, Treacy sta tus in the communit y, received presti ge for their warti me servic e, and were recogni zed as mature m en. In effect , the cere monie s transformed the trauma suffer ed by these vete rans and gave them meani ng. No matte r what type of horr ors they may have exper ie nced on the battle field and how me ani ngless the sacrific es seemed to be at the time, the cere monie s enabled the veterans to reformula te their me mories from being a source of anguish to being a well spring of pride. Giving mea ning to thei r time in the mil it ar y helped them smooth the rough e dges of their trauma, which in turn allowed them to bet te r reinte grate into society. Thus, as Holm report ed, many veterans saw their mil itary servic e as a sourc e of pri de .” (Gross, p 378- 79) Additi onal ly, Gros s refer s to investi gati ons by Wil son and Silver that illust rate how the sweat lodge cere mony is used to assi st in the healing of trauma in Amer ic an Indian Vete ra ns. Wilson asserts “the sweat lodge ceremony creates a positive change in the ment al sta te of the indi vidual , leadi ng to a form of natu ra l, organi smic al ly based heal ing . ” Healing dimensions of the cer emony include cult ural practices, psychol ogical processes , and psyc hobiol ogical effects. He also argues , “The sweat lodge res emble s the dynam ic s of grou p thera py in that there are group and individual parts. ” According to Gross, Silver and Wilson conclude that “«during the ritual there is a release of emotions and acceptance of others. This leads to a “sense of release, rebirt h, and a personal renewal of spirit.” Also stated is that “« embedded within the cultural practices of the sweat lodge are activities and customs tha t allow for the dynamic s of group and indivi dual thera py to occur .” Gross emphasizes “ t he psyc hobiol ogi cal aspect s of the ritual only add to its power . ” He also states that Wilson‟s study shows “ t he net effect is that the sweat lodge ceremony can result in neurophysiological changes in the brain.” (Gros s, p 380) Gross report s the views of Hol m and Sil ve r and Wil son regardi ng how cere monia l powwows may have a posi ti ve effect in helping Amer ic an Indian veterans rej oin their communit ie s. Silver McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 93 Gu meson, Treacy and Wilson “focus more on the involvement of families and communities in the events , ” and Holm “adds two additional obser vations. Fir st, he acknowledges the role the powwows play in fulfil li ng tribal obligations to the Creat or. Further, he str esse s the import ance of the powwows in cultura l continui ty . ” (Gross, pp 381-82) Gross warns that it is cruc ial for resea rc hers to be mindful of import ant consi der ations. “First, Wilson, Walker, and Webster hypothesize that having the treatment program be conduct ed in a natural envir onment is import ant in order to remove the stigma of the clinic al set ting. Further, the pro gra m may not be sui table for ever y veteran, and care ful selection of patie nts is of critic a l concern. Finally, and perhaps most imp ort antl y, they wrote that we do not recommend that anyone atte mpt to replic ate our exper ie nce or adapt Native Amer ic an ritua ls without the utmost care, respect, knowledge, consult ati on, and appr oval of experi enced medi ci ne persons. It is also imperati ve to respect the fact that these rituals are emb edded in the cult ure and cannot be extricate d for reasons of expedie ncy or pers onal gain.” (Gros s, pp 384- 85) Gross also reports that Nati ve Amer ic an cultura l and psychol ogical lite rature emp hasi zes the import ance of cerem oni es and rituals, such as the sweat lodge and honorary powwows, as well as the fact that famil y and co mmu nit y are import ant and succe ssful methods of helpi ng Amer ic an Indi an vete rans with PTSD all evi ate sympto ms . He then tur ns to litera ry works in his view of an holistic healing process. He suggests it “would be good for scholars to take up the challenge of publishing more on the existing literature about American Indians and 9ietnam” in order to help vet erans of Iraq and Afghani stan. Here , he anal yzes the impo rt ance of writ ings by Jim Northr up, a veteran who suffers from symptoms of PTSD. In Gross‟ opinion, “The healing power of stor ytelling in rega rd to recove ring fro m post tr aumat ic str ess disor der can be under stood in relation to the larger storytelling tradition of the Anishinaabe” and refers to Northrup‟s Walking McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 94 Gu meson, Treacy the Rez Road and The Rez Road Foll ie s as examp le s of such conte mpora ry stor ytelling. (Gros s, p 388) Gross also addr esses Gerald 9izenor‟s opinions regarding “trickster discourse” in tribal societies. Gross sums up 9izenor‟s observation by stating that “trickster discourse functions as a cul tura l whole , meani ng that the whole of the culture is involved in the process. Wit hout appreciating that wholeness, it is impossible to understand the trickster«By the same token, the dia logic process explains, to some degr ee, how Vizenor can see the tr ic kste r as a libera tor and heal er. Engaging in language games, as trickster discourse does, the „tribal trickster is atavistic, a revena nt holot rope in new and recurr ent narratives « The trickst er does not die; he comes back to life again in new guises, new narrative s. As such, the tri ckster can face the onsl aught of the European invasion, and rather than „vanish,‟ as seems to have been the hope of earlier Euroamer ic ans, the trickste r muta te s into somet hing even greater. Maintaining the rol e of cultur e hero in new stor ies and new roles, the trickster liber ates the Anishi naabe from the oppre ssi on of colonialis m and opens heali ng vistas of the imagi nat ion .” (Gross, pp 393-94) Gross state s , however , that Vizenor does not provi de a great deal of evide nce on how “trickster discourse can aid in recovery” and offers to try to “fill in that gap” himself by considering what he terms “the comic vision of the Anishinaabe . ” He utilizes John Morreall‟s book Comedy, Tragedy, and Religion in this endeavor, citing Morreall as arguing “some re ligions are more tragic in nature and some more comic .” H e provi des an expl anation regar ding comic visi on and its abili ty to enable some grou ps of people to cope with negat ive events. Element s of cogni tive psychology emer ge as recognize d feature s of the concept of comic visi on , including “complex conceptual schemes , a high tol er ance for disor der , seeking out of the unfa mil ia r , a high toler ance for ambig uit y , diver gent thinking (i.e., developin g more than one McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 95 Gu meson, Treacy solut ion to a problem) , critical thi nking , emoti onal disengagement fro m proble ms , will ingnes s to change one‟s mind , pragmat is m, a second chance, an embra ci ng of physi cal existence , and non- ser iousness. ” (Gross, pp 393 - 94) These concept s are import ant in illustrat ing how the comi c vision held by many Native Amer ic an Cult ures rela tes to maintenance of menta l healt h, particularly recovery from sympto ms of PTSD . Gros s argues that the two most import ant feat ures of the comic visi on in th is regar d are the ability to forgive and to allow a second chance. (Gros s, p 394) Gross adds that “ s ince the features of the comic visi on are drawn from cognit ive and social psychol ogy, it may be possibl e to resear ch the strengt hs of these feat ures and how they relate to heal ing and recovery for Amer ic an Indians, incl uding Vietnam veter ans. ” As a starting point , it would be intere sting to see to what degr ee different cultural groups mainta in the attitudes of the comic visi on and its coroll ary, the tragic vision«I would hypothesize American Indian 9ietnam vet erans with higher agreement leve ls wit h the feat ure s of the comic visi on would be more likely to seek and success fully comple te treat ment compared to those individual s with lower agreemen t levels . Also, it could be helpful to examine Amer ic an India n Viet nam veter ans who did not devel op posttraumat ic stress disorder to see to what degree the attit udes engender ed by the comic visi on, if any, helped them avoid fal li ng victim to the dis order. If thi s would be the case, the results might contribute to the lit era ture on positive psychology and point to the ways the comic visi on as expre sse d thr ough storytelling can help prevent postt raumat ic stress disor der fro m devel oping in the fir st place, whic h cer tainly would be a boon for Amer ic an India n veterans of Iraq and Afghani stan. (Gros s, pp 396- 97) Gross points out that Silver observes “there is much resistance on the part of non - Indi an professionals to learn from Native healing practices” and goes on to quote that “i f we can McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 96 Gu meson, Treacy re mai n aware of our tendency to close our ears to the words of Native Amer ican healers , there is much we might learn from them.” He also states that “Wilson, Silver, Scurfield, and the Nati onal Cente r for Amer ican Indian and Alas ka Nati ve Menta l Healt h Resear ch have all expl ore d this topi c from the point of view of men ta l healt h profess iona ls, yet to my knowledge, no work has bee n done to examine how less ons drawn fro m Amer ic an India n experiences can be appl ie d in mains tr eam soci et y beyond the realm of psychol ogic al treat ment , partic ularly in regar d to religion .” (Gros s, pp 400- 01) Gross then raises the quest ion of how religious ins tituti ons are assisting combat veter ans. Acknowledging that “it is not only American Indian soldier s who are making sacrifices for our count ry and suffer ing from the stress of combat ,” he asserts that religious institutions in this count ry outside of Amer ic an Indian soci eties do not have any ritual s or other mecha nisms for sendi ng young people to war, reinte grating them back into soci ety, honoring thei r contributions to our freedom, or making use of their experiences«” He proposes that “ it would be well for Amer ic an Indians to work wit h various non -Indi an religious groups to devel op ritual s and othe r practices appropriate to the non-Indi an traditions to help non - Indi an veterans recover from posttraumatic stress disorder and to honor them for their service« Perhaps , as a simple sta rting point, leader s from non - Indi an religi ous groups could be invit ed to observe events intended to help American Indian veterans, such as the powwows and sweats«” He sugges ts that a better approa ch might be that Amer ican Indians “t ake the lea d on this subject” and emphasizes that “working with non - Indi an religi ous groups in this regard is one of the most import ant tasks faci ng Nati ve peopl es .” (Gros s, p 401) Gross puts fort h a very import ant idea when he asserts that “ Amer ic an Indi an Viet nam veterans have enough histor y with heal ing to help point out, practically speaking, what has McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 97 Gu meson, Treacy helped them recover and what mistakes should be avoided«” This statement may encour age research into the history of humankind‟s ancient cultures and how warri ors were assisted, perceived and either reintegrated or excl uded from their communiti es and soci eti es. Once agai n, the import ant conc ept of soci al integrati on emer ges when analyzi ng Traditional Nati ve Amer ic an belie fs and practices in regar d to assisting warriors wounded both phys ically and p sychol ogical ly . (Gros s, p 373) Gross also opines that in order to change the per vasive negati ve attit ude that Amer ic an Indian Cultures “«are nothing and so nothing can come from them«it would be good for Nat ive people to make clear to non -Indians the truly sophisticated nature of Amer ic an India n culture s and how much the y still have to offer to the world. Starting with helping vetera ns would be par ticularly beneficial. The task is before us and the time is n ow”. (Gros s, p 401) If we attempt to assess the affect of cult ural norms on treat ment of PTSD, we may be well advised to acknowledge Comer‟s statement , “A society that values competition and assertiveness may accept aggr essive behavi or, wher eas one that emphasi zes cooperation and gent leness may consi der aggre ssi ve behavior unaccepta ble and even abnor mal. ” This statement cla ri fies one of the very imp ort ant cultural differ ences between how warri ors, veterans, and suffer er s of PTS D are percei ved by tod ay‟s modern American society and how they are perceived by Native Amer ic an cultures in general . (Comer, p 2) Not only is it import ant to realize that many Nort h Amer ic an India n cult ures have mainta ine d their traditional healing strate gies after cent uries of Europea n colonial attempts to eradic ate them, but it is also crucial to acknowledge that this fact strengthens the imp ort ance of these cultura l healing methods and how they cont inue to evolve in respect to moder n day warfare. With a sense of grat it ude, we must real ize our great advanta ge in that we have effect ive living McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 98 Gu meson, Treacy example s of anci ent treatment model s at work in Amer ic a and atte mpt to find corr ela tions between these ancient methods and curr ent Western methods of trea ting PTSD , as well as what component s of treat ment may be miss ing, so that rese archers , cli nici ans , and schol ars may parta ke in a n int erdi scipli nary endeavor to create an effect ive holis tic treatment model . Schola rs fro m ever y perspective may be able to addre ss and identi fy issues regar ding PTSD by looki ng back into the hist ory of manki nd and civilization. By embra cing a chronologica l syst em of anal yses , we can obse rve how the field of psychol ogy has evolved over time and even identify periods of star k dysfuncti on cont ra s te d wit h peri ods of illumina ti on in the practi ce of treating anxiety disorders. Comer asserts that “ ever y society, past and present , has witness ed psychol ogical abnor mal ity .” We may safely assume that every soci ety has experienced warfare, and by looking to historical recor ds, literatur e, and oral histories, we may be abl e to glean informat ion on how our anc ie nt civiliza tions treate d warriors returning home, with differ ing degr ees of succe ss. Comer points out , “Unfortunately, throughout history each period of enlighte ned thi nking about psychol ogic al functioning has been foll owed by a period of backwar d thinking«It would hardly be accurate to say that we now live in a period of great enlightenment about or dependabl e treatment of menta l disor ders. In fact , surve ys have found that 43 percent of respondents belie v e that people bring ment al disorder s on themsel ves and that 35 percent consi der such disor ders to be caused by sinful behavior .” At this poi nt in hist ory, it is necessa ry to addre ss a general ignora nce of the int ricacies of the disor der of PTSD and to explore ways, not only to effect ively mana ge the sympto ms, but also to alleviate stigma associ ated with it. (Comer , pp 6, 13) In examini ng Nati ve Amer ic an tradit i onal heal ing methods, anci ent literature, and cultura l accounts , w e may find example s of how commu nit ies in the past engaged in assisting their McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 99 Gu meson, Treacy warr iors reinte grate into the group afte r trauma induci ng battle. We can also find instance s in which society ignore d and even sanctione d those who displ ayed sympto ms of PTSD. Poet Robert Bly tells us that anci ent literature and oral hist ory of the Nordi c and Celti c Culture s reveal that these soci eties provided partic ular indivi duals who assisted warr iors returnin g from war in processes of “cooling down” from the state of “berserk” , thus enabli ng reinte gration to the communit y . Our soci et y toda y , in general , is lacking in suffic ient and integra te d treatment models that ser ve the hear t, mind, body , and spi rit of soldi ers with PTSD and othe r anxie ty disor ders . Bly st arkl y obser ves that in the Unite d Stat es today , “ we let our warri ors go berser k, and then simply di schar ge them out into the str eets. ” Montanans, it is up to us to determine the import ance of assis ti n g our veterans affect ed by Post tr aumat ic Str ess Disorde r in a timel y manner . (Bly, p 154) Refer ence s: B l y , R . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . I r o n j o h n : a b o o k a b o u t m e n . C a m b r i d g e , M A : A d d i s o n - W e s l e y P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , I n c . C o m b s , D . ( 2 0 0 4 ) . T h e w a y o f c o n f l i c t : e l e m e n t a l w i s d o m f o r r e s o l v i n g d i s p u t e s a n d t r a n s c e n d i n g d i f f e r e n c e s . N o v a t o , C A : N e w W o r l d L i b r a r y . C o m e r , R . J . ( 2 0 1 0 ) . F u n d a m e n t a l s o f a b n o r m a l p s y c h o l o g y : s i x t h e d i t i o n . N e w Y o r k , N . Y . : W o r t h . G r o s s , L . W . ( 2 0 0 7 ) . A s s i s t i n g A m e r i c a n I n d i a n v e t e r a n s o f I r a q a n d A f g h a n i s t a n c o p e w i t h p o s t t r a u m a t i c s t r e s s d i s o r d e r : l e s s o n s f r o m V i e t n a m v e t e r a n s a n d t h e w r i t i n g s o f J i m N o r t h r u p . A m e r i c a n I n d i a n Q u a r t e r l y , 3 1 ( 3 ) , I n c l u s i v e : 3 7 3 - 4 0 9 . O v e r b o , E . K . ( 2 0 0 8 ) . T r a i t a g g r e s s i o n a m o n g v e t e r a n s : a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l t r a u m a e x p e r i e n c e s , c o m b a t e x p o s u r e , a n d p o s t t r a u m a t i c s t r e s s d i s o r d e r . D i s s e r t a t i o n f r o m t h e C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o l o f P r o f e s s i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , F r e s n o C a m p u s , I n c l u s i v e : v i - v i i i . P o s t t r a u m a t i c S t r e s s D i s o r d e r . ( 2 0 0 0 ) . D S M - I V - t r . R e t r i e v e d N o v e m b e r 0 2 , 2 0 1 0 , f r o m h t t p : / / w w w . m e n t a l - h e a l t h - t o d a y . c o m / p t s d / d s m . h t m S a v o r y , A . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . H o l i s t i c m a n a g e m e n t : a n e w f r a m e w o r k f o r d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : I s l a n d P r e s s . U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f V e t e r a n s A f f a i r s , N a t i o n a l M e n t a l H e a l t h P r o g r a m P e r f o r m a n c e M o n i t o r i n g S y s t e m . ( 2 0 0 6 ) . 2 0 0 6 r e p o r t R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / m e d i a . m c c l a t c h y d c . c o m / s m e d i a / 2 0 0 7 / 1 2 / 2 8 / 1 6 / 4 4 4 - 2 0 0 7 1 2 2 8 - V E T E R A N S - M O N T A N A McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 100 Analysis of Non -Motorized Use In Grand Teton National Park 2010 by Eric Hansen Student West er n Transpor tation Insti tute College of Enginee ring Mont ana State Univer sity A repor t prepar ed for the McNai r Schola rs Program And Fulfill ment of CE470 Requi re ment s Facul ty Advisor Patrick McGowen March 24, 2011 ABSTRACT An analysis of user survey, user count, and automated counter data collected in Grand Teton National Park in summer 2010 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 101 Hansen, Eric DISCLAIMER The findings, opini ons, and concl usions in this report are those of the author and n ot nece ssarily those of the McN ai r Schola rs program, Mont ana State Univer sity, the West er n Transpor tation Institute, or Grand Teton Nationa l Park. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 102 Hansen, Eric ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to Patrick McGowen for gui dance on this report and espec ially for the one cell table trick. Thanks also to Rebecc a Gleason and to Tiffany Allen for the picture s. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 103 Hansen, Eric TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Int roducti on ................................................................ ..............................................................1 2. Met hodology ................................................................ ............................................................1 2.1. Road Tube Data ................................ ................................ ................................................ 1 2.2. Non- Mot orized U ser Count ................................ .............................................................. 1 2.3. Non- Mot orized User Surve y ................................ ............................................................ 1 3. Lite rature Revi ew ................................................................ .....................................................3 3.1. Faci lities ................................ ................................ ........................................................... 3 3.1.1. Share d road way. ................................ ................................ ........................................ 3 3.1.2. Signed shared roadway. ................................ ............................................................ 3 3.1.3. Bike lane. ................................ ................................ .................................................. 4 3.1.4. Share d use pat h. ................................ ................................ ........................................ 4 3.1.5. Trai ls ................................ ................................ ......................................................... 5 3.2. Bicycl e Facilities in National Parks ................................ ................................................. 5 3.3. Bicycl e Counti ng Methods ................................ ............................................................... 7 3.3.1. Tradi tional met hods ................................ .................................................................. 7 3.3.2. Other m ethods ................................ ................................ ........................................... 8 3.4. Bicycl e Surveys ................................ ................................ ................................................ 9 4. Road Tube Data ................................................................ .....................................................10 5. Su mmar y of Non - Mot orized Travele r Count Data ................................................................23 5.1. Non- motor ized Count and Dir ection ................................ .............................................. 24 5.2. Mode of Travel ................................ ................................ ............................................... 26 6. Su mmar y of Non - Mot orized User Surve y Data ....................................................................28 6.1. Origi ns and Desti nati ons of Non - Mot ori zed Travele rs .................................................. 29 6.2. Non- motor ized travel primar y facil ity and distance ...................................................... 36 6.3. Purpose of Tri p and Effect on Wil dli fe Viewing ........................................................... 42 6.4. Perc eption of Safety, User Satisfact ion, and Suggest ed Improve ment s. ....................... 44 6.5. Informat ion Sour ces ................................ ................................ ....................................... 49 6.6. User Demog ra phic s ................................ ................................ ........................................ 52 7. Conclusi ons ................................................................ ............................................................55 8. Appendix ................................................................ ................................................................57 8.1. Non- Mot orized User Count Form ................................ .................................................. 57 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 104 Hansen, Eric 8.2. Non- Mot orized User Surve y Form. ................................ ............................................... 57 9. Refer ence s ................................................................ ..............................................................63 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 105 Hansen, Eric LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Weekl y Road Tube Bicycl e Count at Stati on TPR - 1 Below Windy Hil l ....................... 11 Table 2: Weekl y Road Tube B icycl e Count at Stati on TPR - 2 Taggar t Lake Trailhead ............... 13 Table 3: Weekl y Road Tube B icycl e Count at Stati on TPR - 3 South of Highl ands ..................... 15 Table 4: Weekl y Road Tube B icycl e Count at Stati on TPR - 4 N. Timber ed Isla nds .................... 17 Table 5: Weekl y Road Tube Bicycl e Count at Stati on TPR - 5 S. Jenny Lake Jct. ....................... 19 Table 6: Weekl y Road Tube B icycl e Count at Stati on Tpr - 7 N. South Jenny Lake Jct . .............. 21 Table 7: Moose Post Offi ce Count ................................ ................................................................ 25 Table 8: Taggar t Lake Count ................................................................ ........................................ 25 Table 9: Jenny Lake Count ................................................................ ........................................... 25 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 106 Hansen, Eric LIST OF FIGURES Figur e 1: Moose Post Office Surve y Site ................................ ....................................................... 2 Figur e 2: Sp eed Distributi on at Sta tion TPR - 1 Below Windy Hill .............................................. 12 Figur e 3: W eekl y Count at Station TPR - 1 Below Windy Hil l ..................................................... 12 Figur e 4: Sp eed Distributi on at Sta tion TPR - 2 Taggar t Lake Trai lhead ...................................... 14 Figur e 5: W eekl y Count at Station TPR - 2 Taggar t Lake Trai lhead ............................................. 14 Figur e 6: Sp eed Distributi on at Sta tion TPR - 3 South of Highlands ............................................. 16 Figure 7: W eekl y Count at Station TPR- 3 South of Highl ands .................................................... 16 Figur e 8: Sp eed Distributi on at Sta tion Tpr - 4 N. Timber ed Islands ............................................. 18 Figure 9: W eekl y Count at Station TPR- 4 N. Timbere d Islands ................................................... 18 Figur e 10: S peed Dist ributi on at Sta tion TPR - 5 S. Jenny Lake Jct . ............................................. 20 Figure 11: W eekl y Speed Count at Stat ion TPR- 5 S. Jenny Lake Jct . .......................................... 20 Figure 12: Speed Dist ributi on at station TPR- 7 N. South Jenny Lake Jct . ................................... 22 Figure 13: W eekl y Count at Stati on Tpr - 7 N. South Jenny Lake Jct. ........................................... 22 Figur e 14: L ocat ions of Count Stat ions Wit h Pathway Counts .................................................... 23 Figur e 15: Mode Choice From User Count ................................ .................................................. 26 Figur e 16: Mode Choice From User Survey Responce ................................................................ 27 Figur e 17: Many Travelers Ente re d the Park by Bicycl e .............................................................. 29 Figur e 18: Mode of Entra nce Int o the Park ................................ .................................................. 30 Fig ure 19: P arking Location ................................................................ ......................................... 31 Figur e 20: P arking Satisfact ion ................................................................ ..................................... 32 Figur e 21: B icyclist Entrance ................................................................ ........................................ 33 Figur e 22: B icyclist Residency ................................................................ ..................................... 34 Figur e 23: T he Climber s Ranch Loan A Bike Flee t ................................ ..................................... 35 Figur e 24: Choic e of Facil ity ................................................................ ........................................ 36 Figur e 25: P ri mar y Facilit y of Non - Mot orized Use ................................ ..................................... 37 Figur e 26: D ist ance Ridden by Bicycle ................................ ........................................................ 38 Figur e 27: D ist ance Ridden by Local s ................................ .......................................................... 39 Figur e 28: D ist ance Ridden by Non - Local s ................................ .................................................. 40 Figur e 29: R oad Use in Previ ous 12 Mont hs ................................ ................................................ 41 Figur e 30: E xer ci se in Grand Teton Nati onal Park ................................ ....................................... 42 Figur e 31: E ffect on Wil dli fe Viewing ................................ ......................................................... 43 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 107 Hansen, Eric Figur e 32: Percepti on of Safety is Reflect ed in Who is Riding the Pathway ............................... 44 Figur e 33: Per cepti on of Safety ................................................................ .................................... 45 Figur e 34: V isi tor Satisfact ion ................................................................ ...................................... 46 Figur e 35: L ocal Non - Motor ized User Diss atisfacti on ................................................................. 47 Figur e 36: Non - Local Non- Mot oriz ed User Dissatisfacti on ........................................................ 48 Figur e 37: P athway Informat ion Sour ces ................................ ..................................................... 49 Figur e 38: P ark Informat ion Sour ce ................................ ............................................................. 50 Figur e 39: F utur e Informat ion Sources ................................ ......................................................... 51 Figur e 40: R esponde nt Age ................................................................ .......................................... 52 Figur e 41: R esponde nt Gender ................................................................ ..................................... 53 Figur e 42: R esponde nt Resi dency ................................ ................................................................ 54 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 108 Hansen, Eric 1. INTRODUCTION In 2008, work was co mplete d on t he Grand Teton Nati onal Park Share d Use Pathwa y. 2009 was the first year the shared use pathway was open duri ng an entire season. Non - motor iz ed user data was collected from August 20 to 22, 2010 in Grand Teton Nati onal Park, t he weekend that was chose n to refle ct an August weekend data gathering period in 2007. The weathe r was fair with cool morni ngs and warm after noons. Worki ng in two person teams, resea rc her s coll ected two days of data at each of thre e sites along the shared use pathway. These data were in the form of user surveys and hand counts of user number s. In 2007, researchers conducted a user surve y and conduct ed hand count s of non - motor iz ed traffic in seve ral locat ions along Teton Park Road. A serie s of automat ed pneu mat ic tube count er s has also been in place on Teton Park Road fro m 2007 to prese nt. This report will summa ri ze the road tube data, disc uss data manual ly collected in 2010, and compar e that data with 2007 . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 109 Hansen, Eric 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1. Road Tube Data Auto mat ed count er s (road tube s) are located at seve n locations on Teton Park Road between the Moose Visitor Center and North Jenney Lake Junct ion. The road tube count er s were made by Met roCount and installed in a classifie r configuration (two tubes) which allows them to record spee d, directi on of travel , and vehicle class. A test of the performanc e of these count er s in compar ison to human obser vation con duct ed in 2008 show ed that the road tube will routinel y under count the bicycl e traffic on the road . A classic case of preci sion versus accuracy, the count er cannot be relied upon to give an acc urat e cyclist head count but may be relie d upon to predictabl y under - record spee d and dir ection of slowe r short wheelba se vehic les. If enough hand count observati ons were taken at each inst allation a correcti on factor could be determine d for each unit allowing for a greater degre e of count accuracy. This, however , is not nece ssary as there is enough automat ed dat a recorded to be of use for part of thi s anal ysis . 2.2. Non-Motori zed User Count A resea rc her at the same l ocation as the user surve y statio n conduct ed a hand count of the non - motori zed travel ers in the Park. Two of the locat ions (Moose and Taggar t) allowed for easy obser vation of both the road and th e shar ed use pathway. This count recorde d the mode (bi ke or foot) , facility (road or path), and direct ion (north or sout h) of travel as well as observation time, and whether the user was adul t or chil d. There were 1 ,404 non- motor iz ed user s counted in tot al, 98.4% of them were bicycli sts and 1.6% were on foot. One pe rs on on skates entere d the pathway fro m Jenny Lake and skat ed out 30 minut es later. There were no observa tions of scoot ers or skat e boarders duri ng the research period. 2.3. Non-Motorized User Survey A volunta ry user sur vey was used to collect data fro m person s on the shared use path. The survey sta tion consiste d of a folding table and chai rs set up in a well seen wide secti on of pathway with an informat ive sign mounted on a port able A -frame traffic sign located an appr opriate dista nce up the path so as to allo w for safe stopp ing distance . Volunte er s were offered a snac k as an enticement (Figu re 1) . A tot al of 180 surveys were comple te d duri ng this period. This figure is 15.23% of the obser ved non - motor iz ed travel ers recor ded duri ng this time. 70 surveys were co mple te d at the Jenny Lake Visitor Center, 61 were comple te d at the Taggar t Lake Trailhead parking lot, and 49 were comple te d at the Moose Post Office parking lot . These figures are 38.88%, 33.88%, and 27.22% of th e tot al respect ivel y. The survey quest ions asked pathway user s about the ori gins and dest ination of the non - motor iz ed port ion of their trips, as well as trip mil eage , parking locati on, mode of Park entry, and purpos e of trip (see Appendix A for example of for m). Visi tors were also aske d to convey their opinions about wildlife viewing exper ience, non - motor iz ed facil ity condit ions, safety, and ideas for impro vement . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 110 Hansen, Eric Figure 1: Moose Post Office Survey Site McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 111 Hansen, Eric 3. LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1. Facilities Bicycl e Facilities can be divi ded into five cat egories:  Trai l. Shared roadway.  Signed shared roadway.  Bike lane.  Share d use path (AASHTO 1999) 3.1 .1. Sh ared road way. Share d roadway is simply “the road”, a ny street or highway without bikeway desi gnat ion and signa ge where bicycling is allowed is co nsidered a shared roadway. A majori ty of the bicycle travel in the United States takes place on thi s type of facil ity and unle ss speci al consi der ation has been given to bicyclists‟ needs by local authority, it can be expected that no bicycle friendly impro ve men ts have been made. 3.1 .2. Sig ned shared roadway. Signed shared roadways are marked with bike route signs that include dest inat ion. This simple dist inction impli es advantage as a preferre d bike rout e. The road is usual ly a common thr ough rout e for bicycle use that connec ts to othe r bicycle facil ities and has been improve d with respect to lane width, draina ge grate type , rumble strip placement , and pave men t sur face mainte nance. A signed shared roadway will usually:  Have a smo oth surface,  Have uti lity cover s that are installed flush,  Be free of debri s ,  Be equipped wit h bic ycle safe drai nage inl et grates,  Have, at mini mu m, a 4 foot wide paved road sho ulde r,  Have rumbl e strips that do not exte nd to the edge of the road shoul der . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 112 Hansen, Eric 3.1 .3. Bike lan e. This is a lane dedi cated to bicycle use that shoul d have the following charact eri sti cs:  One way and wit h the direction of traffic .  S mooth, free fro m pothol es, large cracks, or abrupt edges .  Regular ly swept.  Free from dr ai nage inl ets and utilit y cover s if possibl e.  Graded to avoid wate r puddli ng.  Deli neate d from the mot or vehicle lane by a 6 inch wide sol id white line .  Marked with the words “bike lane” or by the bicycle symbol.  A mini mu m of 5 feet wide. 3.1 .4. Sh ared use path. A shar ed use or mult i use path is a multi ple purpose righ t of way buil t to accommoda te a variety of non - motor iz ed user s. Used for both recreation and transportation, these pat hs can be located in many dif ferent sett ings including, but not limit ed to, abandoned rail lines (rail s to trai ls), util ity rights- of- wa y (unde r the power lines) , or in parks. A shar ed use path is gener ally sepa rated fro m a roadway to avoid the safety iss ues that arise from having some one riding a bike on the wrong side of the road int o oncomin g traffic . This type of path is meant to aug me nt, not replace, existing roadway bicycle facilities. A shar ed use path is engine ered and built based upon certain criteria such as:  Using a des ign spee d that acco mmod at es faster bicyclists .  Wher e able, the radius of curvat ure of a hori zonta l curve is cal c ula ted so that it will enabl e a rider traveling at a higher speed to negoti ate the turn while leaning at an angl e between 15 and 20 degrees.  Horiz ontal curve lateral clearances shoul d be determine d base d on the sum of the stopp ing sight distances of opposi ng riders.  Vert ical curve crests are chose n to all ow maxi mum stopp ing sight dista nce for a bicycle rider of an aver age height.  It is desirable that grades be less than 5 percent to prevent exce ssi ve downhill rates of spee d for all wheele d user s and to min imiz e the effort required to cli mb on a bicycl e or in a wheelc hair.  The pathway shoul d be cross slope d and include featur es such as dit ches and catch basins to ensur e proper drainage and landscaped to control erosion. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 113 Hansen, Eric In situati ons where the opti mu m desi gn criteria cannot be met sta ndard warni ng signs and pavement markings should be install ed. In gener al , signs and paveme nt markings shoul d be inst all ed according to the guidelines presented in the Manual on Uniform T raffic Control Device s (AASHTO 199 9) . 3.1 .5. Trai l s It is import ant to make a dist inction between a trail and a shared use path. A shar ed use path is a desi gnate d non - motor iz ed use facil ity that has been built to meet cer tain requir ed sta ndar ds. A trail is a mostly unimpr oved recreati onal facility. Trail improve ment s are usually limit ed to erosion control meas ures such as water bars or crude ste ps and trail clearing effort s like the removal of downed trees and the trimming of encr oaching brus h. A tria l that has been purpos efully buil t to provide access to some pla ce will usually be mainta ine d by a cont rolling authority. A non - purpose buil t trail is kept passable by its use and will quic kly deteri orat e and disa ppear if not traveled. There are many shar ed use pathways that are referre d to local ly as a “trail” and are named accordingly as the “such and such trail”. In cases like this it must be noted that the “trail” is actually a shared use path. Multi ple studie s have concl uded that the single largest contributi ng factor to the level of use of a bicycle facil it y is connect ivit y. The most heavi ly used pathways are those that connect to where people want to go. There must also be mult ipl e connecti ons between pathways, bike lanes, transit syst ems, neighborhoods, shoppi ng areas, and recreat ional facilities if the pathway is to be used as a conve nie nt alternative to dri ving. 3.2. Bicycle Facilities in National Parks The Nati onal Park System cover s more than 84 mil li on acres and is compri sed of 392 areas called “units.” The units include 122 historical parks or sites, 7 4 monu me nts, 58 national parks, 24 battl efields or mil it ary parks, 18 preser ves, 18 recr eation areas , 10 seashor es, four parkways, four lakeshore s, and two reserve s. The NPS also helps admini ster dozens of affil ia ted sites, the Nati onal Regist er of Hist ori c Plac es, Nati onal Heritage Areas, Nati onal Wil d and Sceni c Rivers , Nati onal Histor ic Landmar ks, and Nati onal Trai ls. Each of these units has its own distinct topogr aphy and char act er . The settings of these units range from urba n to mountainous wilder ness. The most co mmon bicycl e facil ity avai la ble in the Nati onal Park Syste m unit s is the shar ed use roadway. With few exceptions , wherever a car can be drive n, a bike can be ridden. Because of concerns for visitors‟ safety, riding a bike on the road is discou ra ged in most of th e Nati onal Parks beca use the roads are narrow, lack shoul ders , and have high traffic volume. NP S u nit s loc ated near popula tion centers seem more likel y to have shar ed use paths and/ or bike lanes. Bicycl es are not allowed on hiki ng trail s in Nati onal Parks however, many Nati onal Parks have bicycl e trails. These improve d dir t trails are designa te d for bicycl e use and range in length fro m .5 mil es to over 20 mil es. There are also old roads that are closed to motor vehicle use where bicycli n g is all owed as well as lesser used sections of open roads where bicycling is encour aged (NPS 2010). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 114 Hansen, Eric Accordi ng to the Nati onal Park Servi ce official websit e, the following Nati onal Parks have a shar ed use pathway and/or a bicycl e trail :  Acadia : Has 45 mil es of paved carriage roads that are close d to motor vehic les but open to non- motor iz e use.  Canyonlands: Is world famous for its hundre ds of mil es of four wheel dri ve dirt roads that are open to mountai n biki ng.  Cuyahoga Vall ey: The Ohio and Erie Canal T owpat h Trai l is a hard packed gravel shar ed use pathway that follows the Ohio and Erie Canal.  Death Vall ey: Has a short bicycle trial at the visit or center as well as over 700 mil es of backc ountry roads that are open to bicycles .  Evergl ades: Permit s bicyc li ng on sever al trails as well as on two old roads that are closed to motor vehi cl es.  Grand Canyon: Has complete d the first 2.8 mil e section of the Hermit Road Greenway Trai l which is part of a proposed 70 mil e share d use pathway syst em.  Great Smok ey Mo unta ins: Has two shor t bicycl e trails but also closes the 11 mil e long Cades Cove loop road to motor iz ed traffic two days a week in orde r to provi de a safe alternative to the parks othe r roads for bicycle rider s.  Hawai‟i 9olcanoes The biggest biking attr act ion in this park is the 20 mil e su mmit to sea downhill ride on the Chain of Crat er s road. There are also some very chal le nging single track mountai n bike trails of varying lengths to be ridden.  Mammoth Caves: A 9 mile long gravel bike trail on the bed of the former Mammoth Cave Railr oad was complete d in 2007. This trail has many entry point s to allow users to sel ect a preferr ed ride length.  Oly mpic : Has an 8.2 mi le single track bike trail on the now abandone d Spruce Railroad rail line which follows the shor eline around the west side of Cresc ent Lake.  Redwood: has many, longer , singl e track bike trail s that connect to dirt roads to form seve ral loops.  Grand Teton: A newly comple te d shar ed use pathway para llels Tet on park road for over 8 mil es.  Yell owston e: Has many shor ter bike trails locate d around the park as well as ser vic e roads that are closed to motor vehi cles but open to bicycles. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 115 Hansen, Eric  Yose mit e: Is consi dered to have the best shared use pathway syst em of any Nationa l Park. 12 mil es of paved path are loc at ed on the valle y floor and provi de access to all the famous Yos emit e Vall ey sights.  Zion: Because the Zion Canyon Sceni c Drive is close d to auto mobil e traffic fro m Apr il to October (they have bus ser vice) biki ng the road has become popular during thi s ti me. The Pa‟rus trail is a paved shared use pathway that starts at the end of the =ion Canyon Scenic Drive and conti nues to the Zion Canyon Junct ion with a round trip distance of 3.5 miles . It has been proposed that the Pa‟rus trail be extended alongside th e road to provide safe access year round for non - motor iz ed user s. Many NPS unit s have one medi um length trail and/or sever al shor t trails, in sever al other locations the only bicycle trail is a shor t section of shar ed use trail that was buil t pri mar il y to allow access for people using wheelc hairs in accordance with the Amer ic ans with Disabi lities Act. 3.3. Bicycle Counting Methods The data that is used to effect ive ly plan for the future needs of motor iz ed traffic is also used to plan for the future needs of non - motori zed traffic . And while automat ed detection technology is succ ess fully being used to gather motori zed traffic infor mation in real time such as volume, spee d, and user classifica ti on; att empts to gather the same infor ma ti on about bicycle and pedes tria n traffic have brought to light the short comings of existing technologi es. A basi c count of user s of a particular non - motor iz ed use facility is useful informat ion and is curr entl y being provi ded in most sit uations by the tradi tional methods of hand count i ng, pneumat ic tube count er, or inductive loop counter. Other automat ed count ing devic es that have been used to count motori zed traffic have not been effe ct ively app lied to non - motorized traffic ( Dharma ra ju 2002 ). There are many differ ent ways to count the number of bicycl es passing a posi ti on over a period of time. Eac h method has advant ages and disadvantages for any given locat ion. 3.3 .1. Traditi on al metho ds The foll owing methods of counti ng bicycles are the most common.  Hand count : Although labor inte nsive, a ha nd count is the most accura te method. The accuracy of all othe r methods of count ing bicycles and pedes trians is determine d by compar ison to the hand count . A hand count can also capture informat ion that is of a more compl ex nature than can any othe r method . No automat ic sens or can determine the age, gender , or behavioral characte risti cs of an indivi dual. A traine d obser ver can recor d thi s type of infor mat ion at a glance.  Pneu mat ic tube: A pneumat ic tube count er works by recor ding pressur e pulse s that are th e result of the tube being run over by a wheel ed vehicle. This devic e cannot count pedes trians but can be used for count ing bicycl es in mixe d traffic . Bicycl e count accuracy is questionable in mixe d traffic sit uat ions. Pneumat ic tube count er s are not accur ate but can be useful in est imat ing bicycle use (Schni eder 2005) . Rando m error can be reduced McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 116 Hansen, Eric by tallying count s in time int er val s of no less than 24 hours . Syste mat ic error can be corrected by mult ipl ying the count tot al by an exper iment ally determine d ad just ment factor . A tube count er is able to achie ve a higher degr ee of accura cy if the manu factur er recommend ed softer rubber tubes are used and the tube length is kept under 10 meter s. Dire ction, speed, and time of travel can be recorde d. It is import ant t hat the counter not be placed on a grade as bicycle s moving at a spee d less than 10 km/hr may not be count ed. A pneumat ic tube count er may not be the best choic e for data collecti on effort s on a shar ed use trail as the tube s are a trip haza rd to walker s, r oller skaters , and skat eboarders (MacBet h 2002 ) .  Induc tive loop: In an induct ive loop traffic sensor , a magnet ic field is gener ated by pass ing an electric current thr ough a loop of wire bui lt int o the road surface. A conduct i ve (met al ) obje ct enteri ng this magnet ic field caus es a change in the effect ive induct ance of the ground loop that is sens ed by the contr ol electronics of the unit. This type of sensor has been prove n reliabl e in demand actuated traffic signals and can, if prope rl y configur ed and calibr ate d, be relied upon to count bicycl es provi ded they are made of met al . A disadvant age of this syst em is its lack of porta bil ity (G oodri dge 2010 ) . 3.3 .2. Other meth od s The foll owing bicycle counti ng methods are in differ ent stages of use and devel opment .  Passi ve infrar ed: A passive infrared sens or meas ure s the changes in radiation emit ted in a field of view. This type of devic e can be smal l in size and easi ly hidden. Passi ve infrar ed cannot distinguis h between pedestrians and bicycli sts, cannot distinguish close g roups fro m indi vidual s, and will ofte n fail to count bicycle s t raveli ng faster than 15 mph (T urne r 2007 ) .  Acti ve infrared: An act ive infrar ed detection syste m emit s low and hig h level radiat ion fro m 2 sepa ra te sourc es and meas ure s the amou nt of light refle ct ed back to an optical detector. This type of syst em is capa ble of record ing spee d, and can differ entiate between pedes trians and bicycli sts. This technology was devel oped for automo bil e traffic and when used for bike /pe d can have trouble recording so me d ata dependi ng on dir ect ion of travel (Tur ner 2007) .  Infrar ed laser: This technology uses an invi sibl e infrar ed laser beamed across a trail and reflected to a light sensor to meas ure the passage of a pedes trian or bicycl e. When the beam of light is broke n by a bicycl e rider or a pedes trian the int erruption is read by the sens or and recor ded. This devic e cannot distinguis h between user types and cannot dist inguish between indivi duals and people who are traveling side by side (Schnieder 2005 ) .  Video Imagi ng: Vide o image proc ess ing has been used in automobil e detecti on and can be used for bicyc le and pedes trian detection. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 117 Hansen, Eric 3.4. Bicycle Surveys A volunta ry survey is the most dire ct way to gat her informat ion about bicyle use. There has been an ongoi ng effort to gather data on shar ed use pathways in metropolitan areas of the United Stat es for many years . Some munic ipa liti es have funded studi es in an effort to provi de bet ter infras tr uct u re for bicycles and pedestri ans. In other areas where local gover nment has been relucta nt to get involved, grassr oots organizati ons have been taking advanta ge of standar dized survey forms and training avai lable for free on the internet in orde r to conduct trailside sur veys. Many orga niz ations have proved successful in securing funding for bicycle faci lities base d on their data gathe ring efforts. The more common scenar io is a combina ti on of local gover nment effort augmented by grassr oots involvement . The tea m effort has result ed in the construct ion of shar ed use pathways or rail s to trails conver sions in many cities. Worki ng toge ther, local gover nment s an d pri vate groups have converted 13,150 mil es of abandone d rail li nes to long- dist ance trails and have const ructed thous ands of mil es of trails thr ough parks and along water fronts ( STPP 2006) . A perspec tive on the various uses of bicycle and pedes trian data is helpful in assessi ng needs and opport uniti es (USDOT 2000). However, d ata for nati onwide bicycle use on NPS and USFS land unit s is not readil y available . Some unit s have bicycl e informat i on based on permit s or entra nce fees but in gener al t here is no data avai la ble (Gleason 2008) . There have been no bicycle sur veys conduct ed in a Nati onal Park other than Grand Tet on Nati onal Park. The US Dep ar tment of Transportation stated that data about usage , trip, and user charact eristics are of most importanc e for analysis of non- motor ized travel whil e at the same ti me bei ng most unavai lable. There exists a need for the standardized col lection of, as well as a national data base for bicyc le and pedest r ian data (USDOT 2000) . Non- motor ized use data is analyzed to estimat e futur e demand in the same way as motor ized data. A mod e choi ce analysis would be per forme d in whic h inte r -zonal volumes mea sur ed in person -tr ips would be distri bute d among differ ent mod es of transpor tation. In an urba n set ting there are many modes: dri ve, carpool, bus, rail, bike, etc. In a Nati onal Park the available modes are limit ed. Choice of mode is i nfluenced by man y factor s such as pers onal cha racteristics , purpos e of journe y, tra vel time, and comfort of mode type. The most us ed mode cho ic e analysis tool is called mult inomia l logit. This is a proba bilit y model used to estimat e indivi dual choice of mode . In this model a uti lity function is compu te d for each avai lable choice of tra nsport ati on based on favorabl e aspect s such as conveni ence , cost, reliabili ty, or c omfort. The utili ty funct ion (U) is a meas ure of attr activeness that describes the likeli hood of an indivi dual choosing one par ticular mode over another. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 118 Hansen, Eric 4. ROAD TUBE DATA Three year s of automat ed count er data was anal yzed in order to develop a clear er pictur e of bicycle use on Teton Park Road. The road tube s were inst alled in pairs, this configuration all ows the counter to classify the type , speed, and dir ection of vehic l es that cross the tube s. The software has built in algori thms that can distinguish vehic le type by the distance between axles. Motorc ycle s are class F1 base d on an axle (wheel) spaci ng of less than 140 cm . The count ers are not accur ate with bicycle tra ffi c . Each road tube unit will undercount bicycle s by a factor spec ific to the unit and the install ati on location. One can assume thi s error is some what consi ste nt per unit such that road tube data can provi de an indic ation of the level of bicycle use on Teto n Park Road. Motorc ycle s ride faster than bicyclists and the distr ibuti on of each type i s bell shape d. The class F1 count s duri ng the summer of 2008 were graphed by speed for counte r statio n s desi gnate d TPR (Tet on Park Road) unit s 1-7 and a distinct two humped curve is the result. Counte r statio n TPR - 6 was omit te d because it was in a 15 mph zone. The low spot between the two spee d dist ributions has been used as the divi ding line to distinguish bicycle s from motor cycl es. The ideal bicycle cutoff spe ed was found to be 25 mph at all locat ions. Furt her obser vation and sta tistical anal ysis coul d provi de a more accurate estimat ion of bicycle and motor cycl e speed . For this analysis the me thod desc ribed above is adequa te for the purpos e of provi ding gener al trends in bicycl e use . The count er data for 2007, 2008, and 2009 from count er stations TPR - 1 thr oug h TPR- 7 was anal yzed using 25 mph as a sepa ra tor between bicycles and motorcycles and the results are clear. Bicycl e use on Teton Park Road has droppe d dramat ic a ll y sinc e the constr uc ti on of the shared use pathway (See figures 2-13 and Table s 1-6) . Pres umabl y, this drop in bicycle traffic on the road is actuall y a shift to the pathway. The bicycle traffic recorde d by counte r unit TPR - 7 which is locat ed above the norther n terminus of the pathway did not show a reduction in traffic . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 119 Hansen, Eric Table 1 : Weekly Road Tube Bicycle Count at Station TPR-1 Below Windy Hill STATION : TPR - 1 Below Windy Hi ll BEGINNING THIRD WEEKEND IN MAY ENDING S ECOND WEEKEND IN SEPTEMBE R WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEK # 2007 2008 2009 1 70 30 18 2 69 54 5 3 33 46 6 4 112 34 9 5 131 100 7 6 147 123 13 7 156 96 10 8 164 81 8 9 118 87 8 10 109 82 5 11 70 96 13 12 78 98 5 13 113 62 6 14 78 72 10 15 66 58 7 16 84 27 5 17 52 38 2 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 120 Hansen, Eric Figure 2 : Speed Distribution at Station TPR-1 Below Windy Hill Figure 3 : Weekly Count at Station TPR -1 Below Windy Hill McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 121 Hansen, Eric Table 2 : Weekly Road Tube Bicycle Count at Station TPR-2 Taggart Lake Trailhead STATION : TPR - 2 Taggar t Lake Trai lhead BEGINNING THIRD WEEKEND IN MAY ENDING LAST WEEKEND IN SEPTEMBE R WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEK # 2007 2008 2009 1 60 27 14 2 77 34 4 3 44 19 11 4 81 28 16 5 117 92 15 6 118 115 23 7 140 102 22 8 121 96 22 9 65 65 22 10 83 59 14 11 96 76 37 12 81 74 24 13 78 65 17 14 62 65 25 15 70 57 12 16 85 37 16 17 40 33 10 18 21 44 5 19 35 24 9 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 122 Hansen, Eric -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 v e h i c l e s mph TPR-2 Taggart Lake Traihead Class F1 19may-16oct 2008 Figure 4 : Speed Distribution at Station TPR-2 Taggart Lake Trailhead Figure 5 : Weekly Count at Station TPR -2 Taggart Lake Trailhead McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 123 Hansen, Eric Table 3 : Weekly Road Tube Bicycle Count at Station TPR-3 South of Highlands STATION : TPR - 3 South of Highl ands BEGINNING THIRD WEEKEND IN MAY ENDING LAST WEEKEND IN SEPTEMBE R WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEK # 2007 2008 2009 1 56 17 7 2 78 31 6 3 48 54 5 4 86 30 4 5 135 85 14 6 127 93 6 7 167 92 9 8 126 84 5 9 83 74 5 10 81 65 8 11 89 75 12 12 65 73 10 13 71 66 10 14 51 72 13 15 79 56 13 16 80 35 8 17 44 35 2 18 21 5 8 2 19 34 31 5 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 124 Hansen, Eric -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 v e h i c l e s mph TPR-3 South of Highlands Class F1 06june-16oct Figure 6 : Speed Distribution at Station TPR-3 South of Highlands Figure 7: Weekly Count at Station TPR -3 South of Hig hlands McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 125 Hansen, Eric Table 4 : Weekly Road Tube Bicycle Count at Station TPR-4 N. Timbered Islands STATION : TPR - 4 N. Timbered Islands BEGINNING THIRD WEEKEND IN MAY ENDING LAST WEEKEND IN SEPTEMBE R WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEK # 2007 2008 2009 1 41 12 8 2 57 16 13 3 62 2 5 4 89 29 2 5 140 65 7 6 114 73 10 7 161 69 10 8 126 112 4 9 70 107 4 10 74 49 4 11 63 77 8 12 132 57 12 13 110 75 7 14 81 68 10 15 118 60 10 16 114 27 10 17 79 37 9 18 44 57 4 19 49 26 4 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 126 Hansen, Eric -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 v e h i c l e s mph TPR-4 N. Timbered Island Class F1 06june-17oct 2008 Figure 8 : Speed Distribution at Station Tpr-4 N. Timbered Islands Figure 9: Weekly Count at Station TPR -4 N. Tim bered Islands McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 127 Hansen, Eric Table 5 : Weekly Road Tube Bicycle Count at Station TPR-5 S. Jenny Lake Jct. STATION : TPR - 5 S. Jenny Lake Jct. BEGINNING THIRD WEEKEND IN MAY ENDING LAST WEEKEND IN SEPTEMBE R WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WEEK # 2007 2008 2009 1 33 12 9 2 54 29 15 3 60 45 13 4 73 29 11 5 111 65 16 6 93 73 32 7 135 27 22 8 94 91 20 9 57 107 20 10 63 57 22 11 75 77 32 12 54 57 35 13 61 75 7 14 44 68 0 15 58 48 7 16 72 28 22 17 37 37 9 18 35 57 19 19 25 26 17 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 128 Hansen, Eric -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 v e h i c l e s mph TPR-5 S. of Jenny Lake jct. class F1 06june-25sep 2008 Figure 10 : Speed Distribution at Station TPR-5 S. Jenny Lake Jct. Figure 11: Weekly Speed Count at Station TPR -5 S. Jenny Lak e Jct. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 129 Hansen, Eric Table 6 : Weekly Road Tube Bicycle Count at Station Tpr-7 N. South Jenny Lake Jct. STATION TPR - 7 : N. South Jenny Lake Jct . BEGINNING THIRD WEEKEND IN MAY ENDING LAST WEEKEND IN SEPTEMBE R WEEKLY COUNT WEEKLY COUNT WE E KLY COUNT WEEK # 2007 2008 2009 1 27 49 12 2 41 13 51 3 35 41 44 4 60 11 41 5 105 52 31 6 95 32 65 7 114 38 69 8 65 71 73 9 70 54 73 10 105 49 60 11 87 64 93 12 84 46 57 13 62 49 58 14 51 56 55 15 68 40 46 16 86 23 38 17 58 30 42 18 43 40 43 19 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 130 Hansen, Eric -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 v e h i c l e s mph TPR-7 N. South Jenny LakeJjct. Class F1 14sep-11sep 2008 Figure 12: Speed Distribution at station TPR-7 N. South Jenny Lake Jct. Figure 13: Weekly Count at Station Tpr -7 N. South Jenny Lake Jct. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 131 Hansen, Eric 5. SUMMARY OF NON-MOTORIZED TRAVELER COUNT DATA This section is a summar y and compa ri son of the non - motor iz ed used count data collect ed at the Moose Post Office, the Taggar t Lake Trailhead parking lot, and the Jenny lake visit or Cen te r in on the 20 t h , 21 s t , and 22 nd of August 2010 (Figure 1 4 ). Figur e 14 : Locat ions of Count Stat ions Wit h Pathway Counts McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 132 Hansen, Eric 5.1. Non-motorized Count and Direction Data was not gathere d at the Moose Post Offic e par king lot in 20 07, however, it may be useful in the futur e to note that obser ved non -motori zed traffic at Moose was 28.31% les s than at Jenny Lake on Saturday and 24% less than at Taggart Lake on Sunday (Tabl e 7). Non- moto ri zed use was higher in 2010 at both Taggart Lake park ing lot and Jenny Lake Visi tor Cent er . Taggar t Lake par king lot saw an over all increase of 91.99% in non - motor ized traffic while Jenny Lake traffic was up by 83.54% (Table s 8 and 9). Many riders made a round t ri p from one pat hway terminus t o the oth er and back so the number of indi vidual user s will be lower than the values presented in this part of the report as some indi vidual s were c ounted a second time on the return trip . An educat ed guess base d on researcher obser vation would put the real numb er s at some wher e near 75% of the tota l count. It is of interest that ther e were more bike s going sout h than nort h on the roadway. These were road bikers who had come in on Moose - Wil son road. Conversa tions with survey participant s indi cated that a number of rider s will enter the area on Moose - Wil son Road fro m Teton Vil la ge, take advantage of the amenities at t he Moose Visitor Cent er or at Dorna ns, and then conti nue nort h on the shar ed use pathway as part of a long loop ride that retur ns on highway 89 to Jack son . Ther e is a differ ence between the riding habits and att itudes of seri ous road bike riders and those of mountai n biker s or occasional pleasure cruise biker s. These differ ence s become clearer as this anal ysis unfolds. The riders hip of the path include d adult s and childre n (no kids on the road) wit h many of the childre n in traile rs or on ta gal ong peddle rs . Severa l couples where on tandem road bike s outfitt ed for a long haul. This is why ridershi p count exceeds bicycle count in tables 1-3. In all, children made up 18. 78% of total ridershi p. Many of thes e famil ie s took the survey and in conver sation it was lea rned by the researcher s that it was commo n to, after seei ng the pathway fro m the car, stop at Dornans and rent bikes (and trailers and tagalongs) for the whole famil y and ride the pat hway. The user count col le ction for m can be seen in appendix 8.1. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 133 Hansen, Eric Moose Post Office Frida y 08/20/2010 Satur day 08/21/2010 Sunday 08/22/ 2010 North on Pathway N/A 77 126 South on Pathway N/A 80 102 North on Roadway N/A 0 3 South on Roadway N/A 0 10 (adult) Table 7: Moose Post Office Count Taggar t Lake Parking Lot Frida y 08/20/2010 Satur day 08/21/2010 Sunday 08/22/ 2010 North on Pathway 140 N/A 157 South on Pathway 147 N/A 143 North on Roadway 1 N/A 0 South on Roadway 0 N/A 0 2007 Frida y 08/24/2007 Satur day 08/25/2007 Sunday 08/26/ 2007 North on Roadway 8 15 17 South on Roadway 6 19 16 Table 8: Taggart Lake Count Jenny Lake Visi tor Center Frida y 08 /20/2010 Satur day 08/21/2010 Sunday 08/22/ 2010 North on Pathway 80 112 N/A South on Pathway 96 107 N/A North on Roadway 0 0 N/A South on Roadway 0 0 N/A 2007 Frida y 08/24/2007 Satur day 08/25/2007 Sunday 08/26/ 2007 North on Roadway 12 22 14 South on Roadway 13 18 20 Table 9: Jenny Lake Count McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 134 Hansen, Eric 5.2. Mode of Travel Bicycl ing was the predo mina nt mode of trave l duri ng the survey period. 98 % of shar ed use pathway user s were bicycl ists, 1% were on foot, and 0.07% was one lone inli ne skat er (see Figur e 15). These figures are compar abl e to August 2007 where bicyclists accounted for 99% of non - motor iz ed traffic . The results fro m quest ion one of the survey (mode) showed that 93% of group respondent s were riding bicycl es. This figure is representative of 416 people maki ng the bic ycle the mode of cho ic e by 96% (Figur e 16). Figure 15 : Mode Choice From User Count McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 135 Hansen, Eric Figure 16 : Mode Choice From User Survey Responce McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 136 Hansen, Eric 6. SUMMARY OF NON-MOTORIZED TRAVELER SURVEY DATA This sect ion is a summar y of the sur vey dat a col lect ed on the 20 t h , 21 s t , and 22 n d of August , 2010. As sta te d in the 2007 Evaluation of Non-Motorized Use in Grand Teton National Park Phase I: Pre-Pathway , the goals of the non- motori zed user sur vey are the foll owing: Goal 1 ² Origins/ desti nations of current non - motor iz ed user s Goal 2 ² Primar y purpos e of tri p (exer ci se, commute , wildl ife viewing, etc.) Goal 3 ² Wher e non- motor ized users are curr ently parking (if they have a vehic le) Goal 4 ² Percepti ons and attit udes about current non - motor iz ed facil ities/condit ions in the park Goal 5 ² What types of improve men ts non - motor iz ed visitors would like to see in the park Survey partici pants were limit ed to those over 18 year s of age. Groups were aske d to have the person with the next upco ming bir thday co mple te the survey as group repre sentative. A tot a l of 180 surveys were comp le te d. These 180 survey participants ‟ are represent ativ e of 443 adult riders as indic ated by the response values given for survey quest ion n umber 15, group siz e. As indi cated in figure 14 ther e were 1182 adul t rider s recorded in the hand count resulti ng in a response rate; 36% of pathway riders who stopped to be involve d in the survey. T his rate will be highe r still if 25% of the pathway rider s were counte d twice as they rode round trip. In this case the representa tive response rate would rise to 48.84%. The non- motor iz ed user survey form can be seen in appendi x 8.2. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 137 Hansen, Eric 6.1. Or igins and Destinations of Non-Motorized Travelers Informat ion regar ding entra nce to and non - motori zed travel patt erns withi n Grand Teton Nati onal Park are summa ri zed in this section. This dat a is fro m the foll owing questions: Q 2.1. What for m of Transpo rt ati on did you use to enter Grand Teton National Park? Q2.2. On thi s visit, which entra nce did you and your group first use to enter the park? Q2.3. Wher e did you park your vehicle today? Q2.4. What is the starting point , route, and destinat ion for the non- motor iz ed part of your trip toda y? Q4. Were you sati sfied with your parki ng location toda y? Figure 17 : Many Travelers Entered the Park by Bicycle McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 138 Hansen, Eric The majori ty of those surveyed ente re d the Park by automobile (Figure18). Of the 63% of respondents that came by car , 55.56% first ente red the park at the southern entrance and 51.35% of those also parked at the sout her n entr ance. In 2007 63% entered by car 60% of whom ca me in thr ough Moose. Figure 18 : Mode of Entrance Into the Park McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 139 Hansen, Eric 61% of pathway rider s are parking at the sout her n end of the pathway to begin their trip. A further 10.14% are parking at the Windy Poin t Turnout . Windy Poin t is the first parking area above the hill at the sout her n end of the park and it is possible that those wanti ng to avoi d the climb but sti ll wanti ng to ride the full length of the pathway are parking there . Smal le r number s of cycl ists parked in various pull outs along Teton Park Road from Jackson Lake Overloo k to the Taggar t Lake parking lot (Figur e 19). A majori ty of people were satisfied with their parking location (Figure 20). Figure 19 : Parking Location McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 140 Hansen, Eric Figure 20 : Parking Satisfaction McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 141 Hansen, Eric Figure 21 : Bicyclist Entrance Sixty- four respondents repre sent ative of 104 people ente red the park by bicycle (Figur e 21). This number is 32.2% of the tot al and is the same as in 2007. Of the peo ple enteri ng the park on a bicycle , 94.74 % came thr ough the Moose entrance . A maj ori ty of those bicycli ng into the park are non-loc als riding in via Moose - Wil son road (Figur e 22) . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 142 Hansen, Eric Figure 22 : Bicyclist Residency McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 143 Hansen, Eric Figure 23 : The Climbers Ranch Loan A Bike Fleet The stated dest inat ion of 39.05% of respondents was the Jenny Lake vicinity, 27.81% were bound for Moose , and 33.14% were riding to one of over 20 various other locati ons both inside and outsi de the park. The round trip fro m one en d of the pathway to the other and back was ridden by 48 respondents. In addition 41 rode one way from Moose to Jenny Lake, 6 rode one way fro m Jenny Lake to Moose . Some rider s indic ated that they were lodgi ng at the Climber s Ranch and taking advantage of the loaner bike coll ection to ride to Dornans for suppli es (Figu re 23 ). The responses given for rout e infor mat ion are vari ed and diffic ult to quanti fy. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 144 Hansen, Eric 6.2. Non-motorized travel primary facility and distance This section summar iz es the results of the foll o wing quest ions: Q2.5. Whic h facil ity are you primar il y using for your non - motorized travel toda y? Q2.6. How far did you (or will you) travel toda y by non - motor iz ed mode (bi cycl e, walk/ run, roll er blade, etc.) in and around Grand Teton National Park? Q3. How many times in the last 12 months have you traveled by non - mo tor ized mod es on any portion of the road from Dornan‟s to South Jenny Lake" Figure 24 : Choice of Facility McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 145 Hansen, Eric The shar ed use pathway was the primar y facil ity of choi ce for 83.8% of no n- motor ized travelers (Figu re 25 ). The response “other” was chosen by mountain bikers who were riding Bar BC road. Of the respondent s that liste d roadway shoul der as pri mar y facil ity, 100% also stated that they planned to or had alre ady travel ed greater than 15 mil es in and around the park. Also, 100% of people riding less than 15 mil es listed the shared use pathway as their primar y facil ity of choi ce. It is 7.7 mil es one way fro m one pathway terminus to the other , 15.4 mil es round trip. The road is still being ridden by some road bike rs on longer trips. Those who are riding a shorter distance some where bet ween Moose and Jenny Lake prefer the pathway. Figure 25 : Primary Facility of Non -Motorized Use McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 146 Hansen, Eric Those cycl ists who plan to ride to some dest ination ser vic ed by the shar ed use pathway are all using the pathway as primar y facil ity. There is further evidence to back thi s claim. No bicycl ists were obser ved on the road by the Taggar t Lake survey team. So me ro ad bike rs were seen at Moose . It is plausible that the more ser ious road bike r will cli mb the grade at Windy Hill on the road to avoid slower rider s on the pathway but are exiting the road at the Windy Hill Turnout or at the crossing before the Taggar t Lake Trailhead and cont inuing nort h on the pathway all the way to Jenny Lake. 51% of cyclists‟ are riding farther than 15 miles (Figure 26). Figure 26 : Distance Ridden by Bicycle McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 147 Hansen, Eric A majori ty of both local and non -loc al cyclists rode more than 15 mil es (Figu re 27 -28). A popula r route for the more seri ous road biker is to start at Moose or Taggar t Lake and ride to Signal Mounta in and back. A great er percenta ge of non - loc al riders rode one way fro m Moose to Jenny or vice versa while equa l number s of locals rode one way and round trip on the pathway. Figure 27 : Distance Ridden by Locals McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 148 Hansen, Eric There were a greater percent age of non - loc als riding between 6 to 15 mil es (Figur e 28). This may refle ct a highe r number of people choosing to tour the Moose to Jenny Lake sect ion of the Park by bicycl e. Figure 28 : Distance Ridden by Non -Locals McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 149 Hansen, Eric Even though no cycl ists were seen on the road above Moose duri ng this obs er vation period, 60.01% of those surveyed said that they had ridden on the road between Dornan‟s and Jenny Lake at least once in the previous 12 months (Figu re 29). This may indi cat e that some rider s will chose the road over the pathway on weekdays or shou lde r season weekends when motor iz ed traffic is lower in the park. It may also indicate that some rider s wil l choose the road if the pathway is busy on high use weekends. Furt her obser vati ons would be neede d to est ablish a connec tion between road use and tr affic pressure. Of those who sai d they had never ridden on the road 7.46% were local. Of those who sta ted that they had ridden on the road more than 10 times 70.37% were local. It may be the case that local riders who cycl e the park regula rly will ride on the road midweek when aut omobil e traffic is lower . Figure 29 : Road Use in Previous 12 Months McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 150 Hansen, Eric 6.3. Purpose of Trip and Effect on Wildlife Viewing This section summar iz es the responses to the following survey quest ions: Q5. What is the purpos e of your tri p to Grand Teton Nationa l Park today? Q6. Descr ibe what effect , if any, the mult i use pathway had on your wildl ife viewing exper ience in Grand Teton Nati onal Park. The purpose of trip is diffic ult to quantify beca use of the po ssi bility of mult ipl e response, 65.78% of the su rve ys had mult iple response s. The most common re sponse s were exer cise , spend time with famil y and friends, and view scener y. A majority of people indi cated that they were in the park to do anythi ng but work. Summing all the responses shows that exer ci se was sel ected more than any oth er choic e (Figur e 30). Figure 30 : Exercise in Grand Teton National Park McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 151 Hansen, Eric The effect the pathway had on wildlife viewing was a question that was also diffic ult to quantify. The responses were varied as it was a write in. The responses were paraphr ased int o four cat egori es: 1. Improve d the experience. 2. Little effect . 3. No effect. Most people felt that their wildlife viewing was improve d as a result of the shar ed use pathway (Figu re 31). Figure 31 : Effect on Wildlife Viewing McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 152 Hansen, Eric 6.4. Perception of Safety, User Satisfaction, and Suggested Improvements. This section summar iz es the following quest ions: Q7. How safe did you feel traveling b y non - motori zed mode toda y in Grand Teton Nati onal Park? Q8. Are you sat isfie d with current non - motor iz ed transport ati on condit ions in Grand Teton Nati onal Park? Q9. What non - motor iz ed facil it y improve ment s would you like to see in Grand Teton Nati onal Park in the future? People felt very safe on the pathway (Figu re 32, 33) . The percenta ge of those who felt very safe rose from 22% in 2007 to 81.46% in 2010. The percentage of those who felt unsafe at all fell fro m 21% in 2007 to 1.69% in 2010. No one resp onded very unsafe in 2010 where as 9% of travelers felt very unsafe in 2007. The respondents who indicat ed they felt somewhat unsafe (3 of the m) were road bikers who had ridden greater than 15 mil es and spent a port ion of their trip riding on Teton Par k Roa d. Figure 32 : Perception of Safety is Reflected in Who is Riding the Pathway McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 153 Hansen, Eric There were 2 reasons given for feeling unsafe: 1. The road (2 response s). 2. Childr en on the pathway (1 response). Famil ie s and childr en who ride in both la nes were a safety conce rn for many rid er s. Sever al people indi cat ed that they felt somewhat safe and used the comment spac e to explain why they felt less than very safe. Ther e were thre e reasons given: 1. The road. 2. Childr en on the pathway. 3. The boll ards at roa d crossing Near miss es while riding on the road, childr en zig- zaging in both lanes of the pathway, and the large wooden boll ards were of concern to many (Figur e 32, 35) Figure 33 : Perception of Safety McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 154 Hansen, Eric When aske d if sat isfied wit h current condi tions for non - mot ori zed user s 61.24% answere d yes (Figu re 34). This is an incr ease from the 35% affirmat ive response in 2007. Figure 34 : Visitor Satisfaction McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 155 Hansen, Eric Whet her answeri ng yes or no, man y used the “If no, describe why” comment space to express the ir concerns. The write in responses have been paraphrased but the meani ng is clear . The number one reason for user dissa tisfact ion is the desi re for more shar ed use pathway. Even when answer ing yes, peo ple wrote in “extend the pathway”. Other comments addressed the bollards, the non- all owance of dogs, and the lack of potable water sourc es (Figur e 35, 36). Figure 35 : Local Non -Motorized User Dissatisfaction McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 156 Hansen, Eric There wer e many sugges ti ons for improvement . The most sugges te d improve ment was to extend the pathway. 74.65% of the responses were to buil d more shared use path, 7.75% said no improve men t was nece ssar y, and 3.52% wanted bike lanes on the road. Extendi ng the pathwa y was the primar y sugges ti on for both local and non - loc al park visitors. The boll ards were again ment ione d as being a safety haza rd. People also sugges te d that a cente r str ipe be added to the entire length of the pathway, that mil e marker s be added, that b enches be added along the pathway, and that more toil et faci lities be installed along the pathway. The mess ag e is clear, people want the pathway exte nded. Some want it exte nded to Colter Bay, others to Yellowstone Park, but “build more pathway” was the m ai n opini on expre sse d in the user survey. Figure 36 : Non -Local Non -Motorized User Dissatisfaction McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 157 Hansen, Eric 6.5. Information Sources This section summar iz es the following quest ions: Q10. How did you obtain informa ti on about non - motor iz ed travel opti ons for Grand Teton Nati onal Park? Q11. On a future visit, what type of infor mat ion would you like to improve your non - motori zed experi ence in Grand Teton Nati onal park? Most people indi cated that they found out about the shar ed use pathway in some way othe r than the list ed informat ion sourc es. These othe r sources were given as: 1. Being a local resident. 2. Read about in newspaper. 3. Saw fro m ro ad whil e driving. 4. Saw constr uct ion during previous visit. 5. Was infor med at place of lodging. In the future, visi tors would like more infor mat ion fro m the Int er net and fro m signs to improv e their non- motorized exper ie nce (Figure 37-39) . Figure 37 : Pathway Information Sources McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 158 Hansen, Eric Figure 38 : Park Information Source McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 159 Hansen, Eric Figure 39 : Future Information Sources McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 160 Hansen, Eric 6.6. User Demographics This section is a summar y of the foll owing questions: Q12. Do you live in the United States? Q13. What is your age? Q14 What is your gende r? Q15. How many peopl e are in your group today, including yoursel f? A majori ty of survey respondents were of retirement age. This may be a reflect ion of who is summer ing in Jackson Hole (Figure 40). Figur e 40 : Responde nt Age McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 161 Hansen, Eric Males outnumbered females, but not by muc h (Figure 41). Figure 41 : Respondent Gender McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 162 Hansen, Eric A large majori ty (98.32%) of non - motori zed user s were citize ns of the United States. Three non - ci tizens took the surve y: An Austr al ian, an Austrian, and a citiz en of the United Kingdo m. There were more non - loc als than local s riding on the pathway (Figure 42). The aver age group siz e was 3 although groups as large 24 were seen. There were several large groups of road bike rs . These groups were cycling clubs on tour from Jackson to Red Lodge via Yell owstone and the Beart ooth pass. Figure 42 : Respondent Residency McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 163 Hansen, Eric 7. CONCLUSIONS The const ruction of the shar ed use pathway has brought changes to the way vis it ors exper ie nce Grand Teton Nati onal Park. The main contributi on of the pathway is choic e. It is now possi ble for the average visitor to chose to see the park on a non - motorized vehic le . The data has shown that people are choosi ng to bicycle rathe r than drive at an increasing rate. People have been cycling in the Park for years. Road bikers will ride on any highway, that‟s what they do. The road tube data indic ates that there are sti ll seve ral bikes on the road per day. But ever yone who is not a serious road bike r knows that riding a bicycle on a busy, narrow, two lane highway is a danger ous idea at best . This danger is compounded by the fact that the drive rs may be unfa mil ia r with the road and distrac ted by the scenery. The consequences may be dire . Wit hout the pat hway, bicycling is simply out of the ques tion for the aver age per son. Most non-motori zed visi tors are ente ring the Park from the sout h, with a numb er of rider s coming in on Moose - Wil son road. Traffic on Moose - Wil son road is lower than that on Teton Park road and it may be seen as safe to ride by many. It may not be neces sar y to buil d a shared use pathway along this route if a shoulder widening is done. More people are choosing not to enter the Park in a car at all. The pathway has changed the way parking location is chosen. The sout hern end of the Park is the location of choic e for most who wish to ride the pathway. The Moose Visitor Center, Moose Post Office, and Dornan‟s are logical places to begin a ride. This area offers food, bathrooms, amp le parking, and is free. What‟s not to like" A large majority of people were satisfied with their par king locati on. The most common bicycl e trip is Moose to Jenny Lake and back. The one way trip is the second favorit e. As visitor s conti nue to ride the pat hway and discover how short 8 mil es reall y is on a bicycle it can be expec ted that the number of rou nd trip riders will continue to grow. Those that rode to any place between Moos e and Jenny Lake rode on the Shar ed Use Pathway. If pathway traffic increas es, road biker s will return to riding on Teton Park Road. Road bike rs aren‟t out for a leisurely pedal, these people are covering many miles and ride fast. They per ceive leisure riders as a danger and wrecki ng an expens ive bike by ru nning over someone‟s c h il dre n would be bad for ever ybody invol ved. A shift in user conflict, fro m car s vs. bike s to bike s vs. bikes may result .However , bike s vs. bike s can be solve d with some trail etiquette , educa tional signa ge, an increased level of volunt eer patr ol communic a tion, and a cent er str ipe painte d the full lengt h of the path. People indicated that they came to Grand Teton Nati onal Park to exer ci se, spend time with famil y, and view the scener y and wildl ife. Most felt that the wildl ife viewing exper ie nce was improve d by their ride on the pathway. People felt safe riding on the pathway. Many riders had seen the pathway on a previous visit and brought a bike on a subse quent visit. Many had seen riders on the path on thi s visit and stopped to rent a bike and take a spin. Many hear d of the path by word of mouth or read about it in a newspaper . These rider s were not on a bicycle when there McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 164 Hansen, Eric was a perceived danger to riding a bike. The safety of the pathway is getting people out of their car s and onto a bike . This trend can be expe cted to cont inue . The main safety conce rn expr ess ed was the siz e and locat ion of the boll ar ds. People found the m to be too big. At each boll ard locati on ther e is also a sign on the edge of the path and even though there is an 8 ft. spac e between them it was felt as a squeez e. Some boll ar ds are around a bend and seem to appea r quic kly while riding. Hooking a pedal on on e of these log bollards coul d caus e a nast y crash. Hitting one dir ectly has the pote ntia l for ser ious injur y. The indi vidual s conce rne d with the boll ards all offer ed the same solut ion: Replace them with somet hing skinny and flexi ble . This sugges ted improve ment is dwa rfed by the one major sugges ti on given by alm o st ever yone riding the pathway; Extend the shared use pathway. People love th e pathway and want it to go farthe r. People want to get out of the car . People want to feel Grand Teton Nati onal Park. On a bicycle it blows in your face, it can be smel le d, it is seen unobst ructed, and the slower pace allows time for it all to soak in. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 165 Hansen, Eric 8. APPENDIX 8.1. Non-Motorized User Count Form Atta ched is a copy of the user count for m. 8.2. Non-Motorized User Survey Form. Atta ched is a copy of the user survey for m. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 166 Hansen, Eric 9. REFERENCES Amer ic an Associ ati on of Stat e Highway and Transportation Officia ls (1999), Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities. Dharmar aj u, R., Noyce, D. A., & Lehman, J. D. (2002) . An Evaluation of Technologies for Automated Detection and Classification of Pedestrians and Bicycles. Univer sity of Massac husset s Transportation Cent er. Gleas on, R. (2008) . Guide to Promoting Bicycling on Public Lands. Lakewood, CO: Feder al Highway Ad mini strati on, Centr al Feder al Lands Highway Divisi on. Goodridge, S. G. (2010, jul y 7). Detection of Bicycles by Quadrupole Loops at Demand- Actuated Traffic Signals. Retrieved july 7, 2010 , from Huma ntr ansport: htt p:// www.hu mant ra nsport .org/bicycledriving/libr ar y/signals/detection.htm MacBeth, A. G. (2002) . Automatic Bicycle Counting. Christchurch, New Zeal and: MWH New Zeal and Ltd. Nati onal Park Servic e (2009) [web cont ent ], www.nps.gov accessed in July 2010 Schneide r, R., Patt on, R., Toole, J., & Rab orn, C. (2005) . Pedestrian and Bicycle Data Collection in United States Communities: Quantifying Use, Surveying Users, and Documenting Facility Extent. University of North Carol ina at Chapel Hill, Pedestri an and Bicycle Informat ion Center . Surface Transpor tation Poli cy Partner ship. (2006). From the Margins to the Mainstream.A guide to Transportation Opportunities in Your Community. Turner , Shawn et al (2007), Testing and Evaluation of Pedestrian Sensors, Texas Transpor tation Institute, Texas A&M Univer sit y Syste m, College Station, TX United Stat es Depart me nt of Trans por tation, Bureau of Trans port ati on Statistics , (2000). Bicycle and Pedestrian Data: Sources, Needs, and Gaps. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 167 Hunter , Jacob Jacob J. Hunter Prof. Chri s Livi ngst on, ment or Moment s in Time Terr or is somet hing none of us ever want to have to deal with, yet our world has repeate dly seen apocalypti c terror and chaos ; terror that chills our spines and challenges our spir its. In fact , history has been shaped by terrify ing events that have led us to this moment . And though we hate to think of these episodes, it‟s our duty to re me mber . To reme mber those we‟ve lost, those who‟ve done great things, and those who we‟ll never be able to help. Monument s are one way we try to comme mora te and int erna lize events like 9/11, Vietnam, and Pear l Harbor. Monume nts are appearing in this count ry today at a rate faste r tha n they appea re d after the Civil War. The Civil War near ly destroyed thi s countr y, and it‟s no surprise a boom of me morial s followed to help heal domest ic wounds . So the curr ent monument move ment spea ks to a new matu rit y evol ving withi n Amer ic a. Wher e most feel that although our country‟s short history isn‟t all that flowery, it is cle arl y worth preservi ng. And now wit h the world moving faster than ever before, we ‟re creating an abunda nce of mon u ment s as anchor s to mark time as we once knew it (Dupre ). How ever , the most profound monu ment s har moniously balance event, scale , and e motion . A monument is “a fixed obje ct in the ground as to mark a posi ti on ”, says Th e Amer ic an Heri ta ge Dict ionary. Also, the dictionary gave a tombston e as an example , cont inuing that endur ing achie vement s and legal document s are monument s . However , from an archi te ct ura l McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 168 Hunter , Jacob point of view, the most str aight forward monu ment definit ion the dictionar y offer s is “a structure erected as a memorial”. And what is a memorial? Whil e effo rt s have been made to differ ent ia te the two terms; essentially, they‟re the same thing. Monuments are linked with triumph, yet me morial s speak more to loss and deat h. However , since both denote resolut ion over time , their meani ng to me is the same. Ulti mat el y , monu ments encompass ending s and beginnings; they are not solely about death, nor life. And it could be said they‟re not entirely about remembering, ra ther allowing us to forget. The entire idea of devel oping a monument allows reconcil iation with an event to take place, thus permit ti ng history to move forwar d. Monu ment s are about our perseverance; they phy sicall y show us that an event is finaliz ed (Dupre ) . Additi o nall y, Judi th Dupre in her book Monumen ts explains, “monuments ar e histor y made visibl e. They are shrine s that celebrate the ideals, achievement s, and heroe s that exis ted in one moment in time. They comme mor at e singular indivi duals, heroic acco mpli shmen ts, or the mil li ons swept away by war or dis aster ” (12). Monu ment s are to this countr y what a heads to ne or an urn is to most of us, somet hing t o mark our legac y and ensur e a livi ng me mory. Sadl y though, mon u ment s often fade int o the urban landsca pe, and event uall y they dis appea r in that no one takes noti ce, even more so when monument s doubl e as bridges, hospital s , or libra ries. Now that monu ments are competing with a visual jungle that includes traffic signal s, billboar ds, cars, and store windows, they si mply cannot handl e the addi tional strain of fun c ti on. Monu ment s seem to wan t to be usele ss. In fact, Edwin Heat hcote makes reference to Loos, saying, “the prot otypic al ear ly functional ist, asserted that only the monu me nt can be true art as onl y the monument is released from the burden of function” (22) . So, the only fundament al task of a monument is to bear witness . However , contempora ry mon u ment s ask us to do somethi ng rather than feel something. Their goal isn‟t to quench our curiosity, but rather to humble us through McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 169 Hunter , Jacob knowledge. In this sense of educat ion, monu me nt design is ofte n pushed towards repre sent ational clarity in order to chal le nge us to rethink versions of Ame ri can history. Throughout the country, monument s such as the Little Bighorn Battlefield are being buil t and amended to reflect differ in g politi cal perspectives. Poli tics are very much a par t of monu ment buil ding; in fact, m onu me nts only get built if the publi c opinion place s import ance on a given occur rence. Again, only the majori ty gets to decide what is to be symboli zed. However, sinc e a univer sal set of values s eems to no longe r exist, reaching such a mass co nsens us is becoming near impossible. Ofte n it is histor y itsel f that gets debat ed, and the finished monu ment merel y repre sent s the majori ty opini on of how an event should be reme mbered. Bureauc racy and criticism continue when selecting designers, architects, and artists to realize a monument‟s desi gn. Nonetheless, after much pub li c proddi ng and disse cting, professional reconfiguri ng and adjusting, mir aculous ly, monument s get built . Thei r designs are never perfect, but that is the nature of humani ty and of art. Making thought physi cal or bringing abstract vision into being requires humil it y and courage (Dupre ). And though imper fe ct ions exist in all thi ngs we desi gn , there are speci fic elemen ts of monu ment design that make these testament s speci al to us. For a monument desi gn to have any level of success or influe nce, it must fir st deeply consider these thr ee thi ngs: event , scale, and emoti on. These three aspects can work i ndepende ntly, but all are nece ssary for a monu me nt to effect ivel y evoke revel ation within us. Event, scale , and emoti on; wit h these themes in mind I set worth on a personal expl oration. I travel ed to the Crow Agency, nea r Bil li ngs, Montana to exper ie nce the Little Bighorn Battle field. A monument with s uch a deep, yet sided history reveale d the clash of culture s we so often see in this country. Ever y event has two sides, but usual ly only one side is viewed as just. The mass acr e that occur re d June 25- 26, 1876, shook this countr y the same way McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 170 Hunter , Jacob 9/11 shoo k it. On the cusp of her centenni al celebrations, America wasn‟t braced for the carnage Mani fest Desti ny would bri ng worth. A huge village of Indi ans, 7 to 8 thousand, wit h 2,000 warr iors settle d near t he Little Bighorn River . They were perha ps the freest people this country has ever known, nomadi cal ly following buffalo fr o m Mexi co all the way to Canada. Led by medicine man Sitting Bull, these Native Americans weren‟t about to give up their ways and settle on a reservation, especially when they‟d previous ly been promise d their land. But progr ess , in the form of gol d in the Black Hil ls provoke d Presi dent Grant to shun the natives as outl aws. As a result, what is now a quie t set of roaming hil ls was once a night mar e caused by America‟s indisc retion (Adloso n ) . So, when I look at this battle as an event, I too must look at the event s that led to it, as well as those that occurred after it. For the Battle of Little Bighorn didn‟t end on June 26 , 1876 , it waged on for anothe r hundre d years in the form of a fight for equal recognit ion. The facts of the actua l battle were misc onst rued by the medi a time and time agai n in the directi on of glor ifying Lt. Colonel G eor ge Armstr ong Custer . Only unti l recentl y, the monu ment was named after him, but as the tru e facts of the event has been amend ed over the year s, so too has the monument . Now white and red headstone s mark the site, and a new memorial themed, “Peace Through Unity” commemorates the Plains Indian wom en, chil dren, and men who took part in the battle and whose spirit and culture still survi ve (Adloso n ) . Scal e is something we always conce rn ours el ves with in architect ure . It is based off the dimensi ons of a human being. For monument s, scal e is usual ly thought to be large. “Too enormous to be overlooked”, is how Chris Scarre describes the way monuments snare our at te nti on. However, scale can be portra yed in many ways. At Little Bighorn the scale of the battle is best ill ustrate d not by the truncat ed granite obelisk erected over the 7 t h Cavalry‟s mass McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 171 Hunter , Jacob grave, but by the scale of the site itself. Stret ching near ly six mil es in radius, the calm, beaut iful landsca pe is riddled with white and red marble ma rke rs that represe nt final resting places of those who fought. Seeing horses calming grazi ng on the hills, yet having the advantage of quic kly trav el ing the site by car , you get a sense of the commu nic ation chaos the vast area caused. Having no way of knowing each other‟s hardships, Custer‟s divided forc e s stood no chanc e against the overwhel ming stre ngth of the Amer ic an Indian Forc es. Ultimat ely, Custe r fatal ly underest imat ed the scale of the village and the spirit of the warriors withi n it. And seei ng the tombston es spre ad over mil es, but then the clu ster at Custe r Hill bring forth the reality of a mass acr e. The Indi an warri ors swept through Custe r and his men like water over a stone and Custer‟s Last Stand really only lasted as long as it take s a hungry man to eat a meal . And wit h so much death swir le d int o one smal l area of such an immense battlefield, the dens e scale of the hopel ess horror those me n must have felt confronts us, emot iona ll y cri ppling our spi rits (Adloson) . However , though t he events of that day can never be changed, our attit udes ca n remai n positive. Monuments aren‟t about dwelling on tragedy, rather moving forward from it. Emotion sti ll runs very high at the Lit tle Bighorn Battle field, a feeling of “sacred ground” whispers thr ough the wind and an unne rvi ng sensa tion of gri evance mutt ers up from the ear th. Yet, the Spirit Warrior scul pture inspi res us with a romant ic image of how life once was for Plains Indi ans. Addit ional ly, the Peac e Through Unity me morial teaches us to come toget her. It is sit ed on axis with the earlier 7 t h Calvar y Monument, which is fra med by an aper ture cut into the memorial. This window that looks to the early monument is known a “spirit gate” which allows for peac e amidst the soul s of the falle n combat ant s. By labors of compro mise and mutua l respect McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 172 Hunter , Jacob simil ar to those seen at the Little Bighorn Battle fiel d, monu ments persist to stre ngthe n our spirits and mind s (Dupre ) . Furt he r more , event , scale, and emoti on are i llustrated brilliantly in two of our country‟s finest me mo ri als, the Viet nam Veter ans Memori al by Maya Ying Lin and the New Engla nd Holocaust Memori al by Stanl ey Sait owitz. Both works have been done by compass iona te and cont empora ry archite cts that use simil ar techniques in the success of their me morial s. The event s respect ed in these me mori al s are more common than thos e of the Lit tle Bighorn Battl efield. The Viet nam War rip ped thr ough this country physi cally and politically, and the genoci de of the Holocaust i s somet hing manki nd can ne ver let happen again. The effect any event has on the world is arguable, b ut all events that shape o ur country‟s existence are worth recogniz ing. Scal e is small when conside ring one, but when consi dering many, scal e can take on an immense life whic h can baffle us. For example , it may not take much “space” to write down the name of a fall en so lider or Holocaust victim. Perhaps just as much “space” as it takes to writ e an addre ss on an envel ope . But when you take the 58,267 names memori al iz ed by the Viet nam Vete ra ns Memori al and stret ch them ac ros s a soli d engr aved wall that conti nues out of sight or the number s one through six mil li on represe nting those murde re d in the Holoc aust; etched them on seve ral tall glass towers , the n the magni tude of the loss confront s you head on. And seei ng this scale clearl y helps us to inter nali ze the immen se chaos and gri ef (Heat hcot e) . Final ly, em o ti on i s the most difficult element to rationalize. Since everyone‟s emotions are so different, “touching a nerve or striking a chord” is often easier said than done. It must be always suggest ive, and never literal , and Swaitowit z and Lin are experts . First, L in simply uses reflection. The poli shed black granit e walls have a mir ror like surface that physically reflect not only the surrounding greens and other monu ment s, but the visitor s. And in seeing themsel ves in McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 173 Hunter , Jacob those lost, visit ors are inspired to live on for those who cannot. Swaitowit z is blunt , his six chimney shaped gla ss towers represent ing the Nazi inte rnment camps, glow at night as a vibr ant beac on against bigot ry. Each chamb er wall is inscr ibe d with the name of one of six primar y deat h camps. At the botto m of the glas s chamber tower s, submer g ed into the earth, are pits with smolde ri ng coal s which illumina te the names of the camps. The heat and smel l rise up and the n arouse me mory and horror. Memori al s stir and str etc h our emoti ons in a meani ngful, somet i mes uncomfort abl e, but necessary manner ; never to brea k us, but always to uplift us (Heat hcot e) . In concl usion, as t ime cont inue s to superimpose itself, recognizing the moment s mark ed by monu me nts and me morials is imp ort ant . A s we are all but dust in the wind , mon u ment s and me morial s are ceaseless. They spea k to the events that shape us, the scale that sustains us, and the emotion that drives us. Our country‟s past is animated all around us, and creating a vision for the futur e starts by correct ly recognizing the past. Memori al s and monuments don‟t alleviate pai n, rather they em bra ce it, so we may cont inue on, wiser and str ongly. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 174 Hunter , Jacob Works Cite d Adloson, Steve. Personal interview. 23 June. 2010. The Amer ic an Heri tage Dict ionary of The Engli sh Language . 3 rd ed. New York: Houghton Muffli n Company, 1996. Dupre, Judi th. Monumen ts. New York: Random House, 2007. Heathc ote , Edwin. Monu ment Builder s. New York: Academy Edit ions, 1999. Scar re , Chris, ed. Th e Sevent y Won der s of the Ancient Worl d . Hong Kong: Thame s & Hudson,1999. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 175 Kennedy, Jorda n Abstract Xanthan gum and locust bean gum are of int er est in industr ial concerns and are ofte n expl oite d in food, biomedic al and cosmet ic industr ies. Xantha n gum and locust bean gum, like many othe r polys accarides, are characteristic in their ability to modif y the prope rties of aqueous envir onment s. When mixe d, the two bio - polymer s inte ract to form a firm thermall y revers ible gel. The mecha nis ms responsible for the rheologic al behavior of the xantha n gum/ locust bean gum gelli ng network under str esses a nd str ai ns is under debat e. Flow and osci llatory testin g was performed on xantha n gum, locust bean gum and the xantha n gum/l ocust bean gum gelli ng system in a 1:1 ratio. Under const ant shear xantha n and the gelli ng syst em di spla y shea r thi nning behavi o r. Locust bean gum displ ays shear thi nning behavi or at higher shears with a Newtonia n region at lower shear rate s. Oscillat ory meas ure ment s at a constant strain over a range of frequenci es result in a domina ntly elastic response for the xantha n and xanth an/ loc ust bean gum gelli ng network whil e a greater visc ous response is obser ved of the locust bean gum syst em . There fore, the meas ure d rheological para met er s indic ate that xant han gum act s as a “weak gel”. The measured response of the locust bean gum is c haract eristic of hyper - ent angled polymer ic solutions and the xanthan/locust bean gum gelli ng network results in a great er elasti c response, a syner gistic gelation, than either of the xantha n gum or lo cust bean gum sy ste ms alone. When subj ect to a range o f te mp er at ure s the xantha n and xantha n/locust bean gum gelling network under go change s in their visc oelastic response. Most nota bly are the gel to solution transition temper at ures of the xanthan and xanthan/loc ust bean gum ge ll ing network. Xanthan gum di spla ys a one - ste p gel to solution transition point and the xantha n/locust bean gum gelli ng network displays a two - step gel to solut ion transition point . Introduction Xanthan gum (XG) and locust bean gum (LBG) are of int er est in indus trial conce rns and are ofte n expl oite d in food, biomedi cal , and cosmet ic indus tr ies. XG and LBG , like many oth er polys accha rides, are char acteristic in their abil ity to modify the properties of aqueous envi ronment s. When mix ed, the two biopol y mer s int era ct to for m a fir m the rmal ly rever sible gel. Biopoly mer ic gels are curre ntl y of int ere st as tissue scaffolds or in drug deliver y(refs), appli cations that require fine control of mat er ial prope rties . Rheologi cal char acterizat ion is a standard technique in defining the visc oela s tic prope rties of comple x fluids such as polymer soluti ons and gels. The purpos e of this experi ment was to det ermine the rheologi cal behavi or of xantha n gum soluti on (XG), locust bean gum soluti on (LBG) and xantha n gum/ locust bean gum syner gistic gelling solution (LX) when subj ected to shear stre ss, smal l defor mat ion osci llatory experi ment s and temper at ure change . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 176 Kennedy, Jorda n As shown in Figur e 1, both XG and LBG are composed of a linear backbone of hexapyr anose sugar s lined thr ough equa torial bonds at positions 1 and 4[1]. In suffic ie nt conc ent rations (> 0.3 % w/v), high temp er at ure and low ioni c strength, the XG molecule exists in solut ion as a disor dered coil [1]. At cool er temper at ures, the structur e becomes more order ed, transitioning to a helical str uctur e characteri zed by higher moduli as shown in Figur e 2. XG does not under go any therma l hyste rsis when subj ected to heating or cooling. This indi cates that the helix to random coil transition is thermal ly rever sible. The orde r – disor der confor mational transition of XG result s in a wide range of rheologi cal behavi or [2]. In a high enough concent ration, XG act s as a “weak gel” when mixed in solution. This is, in part, due to the sel f - ass oci ati on behavi or of XG[3]. LBG mole c ule s exist in water solut ion as random coil s and sh ows rheologic al behavi or typic al of hyper - ent angled macr o mole cul ar solutions [4] , with litt le dependenc e upon temper at ure . When the two poly mer s are combine d int o solution, the gel- like properties of XG are enhanc ed. This res ult ing mixture forms a “true gel” [1] due to physi cal cro ss - linking between the two polys acc har ide chai ns that is char acterized by a higher elastic response [4]. When thi s gel is heat ed fro m roo m temper at ure , it under goes a gel - sol transit ion, or phase change, char acterized by chan ges to the rheologic al prope rties of the solution [4]. The precise nature of the inte ractions between XG and LBG is an object of debat e. There are many propos ed mecha nis ms for syner gistic gel for mat ion. For example , dif ferent segment s of the two polymer chai ns may associ ate , or aggre gate, through int ermole cul ar int era ctions such as hydroge n bonds or van der Waal s forces, for ming mix ed junc ti on zones that make up the three dimensi onal gel network [5]. Figure 1 : a) Structure of xanthan (XG) shown with a polymer backbone. b) Structure of locust bean gum (LBG) shown with a polymer backbone. Figure 2 : Proposed structure of XG polymers when mixed into solution. The disordered coil exists at high temperatures, low ionic strength and low concentrations. The helical structure exists at lower temperatures, high enough concentrations and sufficient enough ionic strength. The formation of the disordered coil to the 5 -fold helix is thermally reversible. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 177 Kennedy, Jorda n The rest of the polymer chai n retains its str uctur e enough to maint ain solubility in water (to keep polymer fro m preci pit ati ng out of solut ion). One propos al for the format ion of the XG/LBG gel network is the attachment of unsubst it ute d regions of the glact omannan (LBG) backbone to (?) the surface of the XG 5-fold heli x (the reference I attached to the emai l is fro m 2005 and concl udes the association is mainly between the backbone s of both polys acc har ides. Richter) Previous studi es [4] indi cated that to maximiz e the syner gistic effect s of the XG/ LBG gelling system the XG and LBG were mixe d toge ther in a 1:1 ratio. For larger conce ntra tions of XG, it is thought that sel f- ass ociation of the XG int er feres with association with the LBG chai ns and therefore results in a less rigi d gel. Rheology Rheology by definition is the sci ence of the def ormat ion of mater ials under stresses and str ains. Rheology is a broa d field of study including mater ials which display both elasti c and viscous behavi or. Viscos it y is the mater ia l resistance to defor mat ion. Viscos it y is subj ect to imposed sh ear rate upo n the mat er ial, temper at ure , pressur e and time of shea ri ng [6 ]. Ideal viscous behavi or, as devel oped by Newton, defines viscosit y Ș as the proportionality constant of appl ie d str ess and str ain rate . Shear stress ı is related to the velocity gra die nt, or shear rate J through Equati on 1. Eq uation 1 JKV  Polymer solut ions show a depar ture from Newt onia n behavior . These non- Newtonian fluids, when subj ected to shea ring forces, displa y shea r thi nning or shear thi ckeni ng behavi or. Shear thin ning is a phenomena where a reduction in the fluid visc osit y is obser ved with an increasing rate of shear, as shown in Figur e 3. The shea r thinning region can be model ed using the power - la w relati on of Equati on 2. At very low shea rs and at very high shea rs , however, a shea r thi nning material will ofte n displa y “Newtonian regions” characterized by a const ant viscosi ty. Equation 2 nkJV  Converse ly, shea r thic kening is defined by an increase in visc osity at incr easi ng shea r rates. A sta ndar d rheomet er can appl y a rate of strain, meas ure the mater ia l response, or stress , and there fore cal cula te the const ant of propor tionality or viscosit y. Any devia tion fro m a const ant visc osity, such as shea r thinning, is due to the nature of the mater ial. Figure 3 : Shear thinning behavior of a polymeric fluid with "upper" and "lower" Newtonian plateaus. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 178 Kennedy, Jorda n Rheologi cal meas ure ments can also characte rize viscoel astic mater ial prope rties . Many complex mater ials exhi bit a coexis tence of visc ous and elastic behavior , or liquid - like and soli d - l i ke characteri sti cs, and are defined as visc oela stic. A mecha nical model for ideal soli d, or pure ly elastic, behavi or can be repre sent ed most gener all y by a spring, as shown in Figur e 4a, where the force is propor tional to extension . This relations hip is demo nstr ate d through Equation 3, where ı is the stress, ȕ0 is the elastic modulus and Ȗ is the strain. Equation 3 JEV 0 For a pure ly elastic spring where ener gy is not dissi pated, the spri ng displ ace s by an amou nt relative to the appl ie d force and the elastic modulus corre sponds to the amount of ener gy stor ed in the system. Ideal liquid behavi or can be modeled by a Newtonian dashpot as shown in Figure 4b. In the dashpot model , after the force is appli ed, frict ional forc es damp the displ acemen t with time as energy is diss ipated into the system. Oscil latory shea r, as opposed to the constant shea r imposed on the sample when meas uri ng visc osity, is useful for testi ng the linear visc oelastic behavi or of mater ia ls. Linear visc oela sticity impli es that the response at any time is proport ional the value of the stimulus imposed upon the mater ia l [6]. In an osci llatory shear meas ure men t, the stimul us is applied in the form of a sinus oidally varying strain. The meas ured str ess response will also be periodic at the sa me frequency, but out of phase with the appl ie d str ain by some phase angle, į. The phase angle is the meas ure d shift between the input wave and the output wave and describe s the visc oelastic behavior of the mat er ial. In the linear visc oelastic regime, it can be assumed that the elasti c response and the visc ous response are inde pendent of each othe r. This allows the complex modulus, the material‟s overall re sistance to defor mat ion (G*), to be represented by Equation 4, where G‟ and G‟‟ are referred to as the st ora ge and loss modulus respec tively. The elastic stor age modulus is the meas ure of elasticit y of a mater ial or the ability of a mater ia l to stor e energy. The visc ous loss modulu s is the ability of a mat er ial to diss ipate ener gy such as ener gy lost as heat. Viscoe la stic prope rties in a polymer ic liquid are a result of int ramole cul ar forces that arise from the ori enta tions of vect or chemic al bonds in polymer chai ns and changes in the ori enta tion caus ed by the imposed defor mat ion upon the syst em [6]. The visc oelastic response of a mater ia l is dependent upon the para met er s (ie. perc ent str ain, time scale , or temper at ure ) imposed upon the mater ia l. Figure 4 : "Mechanical representation" of (a) an ideal elastic response through a Hookean spring and (b) ideal liquid behavior through a Newtonian dashpot. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 179 Kennedy, Jorda n Equation 4 GiGG cc * In polymer ic liquids a mole cul e posse sse s a mini mu m ener gy state. The elastic response is essenti all y the return of the polymer to thi s mini mu m ener gy sta te [6]. The basi c physi cs associa ted with the response of a polymer ic fluid there fore can be dir ectly compar ed to the mecha nic al behavi or of rubbe r elasticity. Figur e 5 is a mecha nic al model using an elastic ball to represent a syst em with a visc oela stic response. When an elastic ball is droppe d fro m a spec ified height and bounces back upwards, the height that the ball reaches after the first bounce is termed as its elastic response or storage modulus (G‟). The greater the elastic response the more effect ive the syst em is at retaining, or stor ing, energy. The differ ence between the origi nal drop height and the greate st height in which the ball reaches after the first bounce is the viscous response of the ball or the loss modulus (G‟‟). The G‟ is a measure of the diss ipation of ener gy away fro m the syst em. The moduli are related to the appli ed sti muli and meas ure d response by Equati ons 5 and 6. Equation 5 GJV cos0 0 ¹¸ · ©¨ § cG Equation 6 GJV si n0 0 ¹¸ · ©¨ § cG Whi le G‟, G‟‟ and tan į are re lated through Equati on 7. Equation 7 GG cc /t an G A gel by definit ion is a cross - li nked solution [7]. Whi le polymer gels consi st mostl y of fluid, the thre e - dimensi onal cross - linked network for med by the polymer molecule s cause s the gel to have elasti c properti es. There fore, gels displa y a wide range of rheologic al prope rties , such as a great er storage modulus G‟ than loss modulus G‟‟. The G‟ also undergoes relatively smal l variation over a broa d range of frequenci es. The rheologic a l properti es of a polymer gel are, in part, a result of the extent of physi cal or chemic al cross - li nking between the polymer chains or molecule s [6]. In poly mer solutions, the length of the chai n is a large factor deter mini ng the rheology. If the polymer chai n is long enough or the conce ntra tion of polymer mixe d i nto solut ion high enough, entanglement occur s. A higher degree of entangl ed Figure 5 : Mechanical representation of material response relating the storage (G') and loss (G'') moduli. The G' is characteristic of the elastic response of a material while the G'' characterizes the viscous response. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 180 Kennedy, Jorda n polymer s in solut ion results in higher elasticit y. High densitie s of entangle ment s that result fro m polymer to poly mer int era ctions char acterize the behavi or of hyper - enta ngle d polymer ic solutions. Entangl ement s in polymer solutions result in strong coupl ings which act in a localized manner like chemic al cross - li nking between mole cul es [6]. Hyper - ent angled polymer ic solut ions, when under shea r, displa y a Newtonia n plat eau at low shear rates. At higher shear rates, the polymer s become enga ged and the solut ion begins to display shea r -thi nning behavi or. Self- ass ociating polymer s, notably xanthan gum, display “gel - like” behavi or. Self - ass ocia ting polymer ic solut ions are free - flowing and are capa ble of holdi ng smal l parti cles in suspens ion ove r long peri ods of time [1]. The elastic response (G‟) o f a sel f - ass oci ati ng polymer ic solut ion is greater than that of its viscous response (G‟‟). Such a solution will flow at higher defor mat ions. Materials and Methods Xan than gum powder and locust bean gu m powd er wer e received as commercial produ cts from MP Bio medical and Sigma, resp ectively. Deionized water was used throughout. XG and LBG powders, which are highly impu re, were separately mixed into solution. A series of steps wer e undergone to purify these solution s. They wer e first separately centrifug ed at 14,500 RPM for 1 hour. The LBG solution was filtered through an 8 micro n filter and then a 3 micro n filter, resp ectively. These solutions wer e then fro zen with liqu id nitrogen and then placed in a vacuu m for 5 days to dry. The resu lting purified substances could be reh ydr ated to any desired concen tration, in this case into a 1% by weight solution. These solutions were then combin ed to form a purified XG/LBG gel in a 1:1 ratio. The XG/LBG gels wer e mixed at room temper atur e and allowed to sit for approxi mately ten minu tes befor e they wer e subj ected to testing. All rheology meas ure ments were taken with an AR G2 rot ati onal rheomet er . A cone - and - plate geomet ry (Figu re 6) was used to conduct smal l - defor mat ion osci llatory meas ure ments and visc osity meas ure ment s upon the sample s. The dimensi ons of the cone - pla te- geomet ry are the following: 60 mm diamet er and 2 ° cone angl e. To avoi d having the sta tionary lower plate and rot ati ng upper cone touch, the upper cone was truncat ed by a distance of 54 microns and consi der ed to have negli gibl e effect s on the visc osity and osci llatory meas ure men ts. The sample liquid was placed in the gap between the rot ati ng cone and stationar y plat e. For a suffic ie ntl y smal l cone angl e, the velocity field Iv can be represe nted by Equati on 8. Equation 8 »¼ º «¬ ª )(1 rh zv ZI The gap distance between the plate and the cone is h( r ) and z is the mea sur ed dist ance from the plate . The cone - and - pla te geomet ry in particul ar was used beca use it provi des ho mogeneous shea r str ess and str ain throughout the liquid spec imen, which is advanta geous when int erpr eti ng exper iment al results for non - Newtonian fluids. The const ant str ain is shown in Equation 9, where Ȧ is the oscillation frequency and Į is the small con e angle in radia ns, represented in Equati on 10 as the rati o of the gap hei ght H to cone radius R. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 181 Kennedy, Jorda n Equation 9 DZJ / Equation 10 RH / D Stea dy shear flow beha vior was obta ine d by imposi ng a seque nce of shea r rates upon the samples at 25 °C. Singl e visc osit y data point readi ngs were obta ine d when the ma te rial reached a ste ady state flow withi n a 5 percent tol era nce at the specified shear rate. Shear rate was incr eased loga rithmic al ly over a range of 0.1000 to 100.0 (1/ s), which yiel ded a viscosity flow curve. A mult ipl e -ste p procedure was done in orde r to obta in the osci llatory flow behavi or of the sample s. To calcula te visc oela stic paramet er s fro m osci llato ry meas ure men ts, the rheo met er assu mes linear behavior under all conditions [8]. In order to mini miz e inertial effect s and assume linear ity, the pseudo linear visc oela stic region (LVR) was deter mine d by doing a prelimina ry osci llatory strain sweep procedure. Within the LVR the mater ia l moduli remai n const ant with incr easing st ra in ampli tude at a fixed frequenc y, in thi s case 6.283 rad/s. At a high enough str ain the mater ia l will undergo defor mat ion resulting in a change in the mat er ial moduli. All subse quent oscillatory meas ure men ts were performed at st ra in ampli tude s withi n this linear viscoela stic region. A time sweep procedure at a const ant percent strain (2.835%) , frequency (6.283 rad/s) and temper at ure (25 °C) was performed on all samples for a mini mum dura ti on of ten min ute s, in order to make sure that the mater ial prope rties were not changi ng during a give n meas ure ment time. For the LX sample s, the time sweep proc edur e was also run for a duration of 1 hour at the temper at ures 50 °C and 65 °C, agai n to chec k for time dependenc e of mat er ial proper ties and also the possi ble impact of sampl e evaporati on on the meas ure men t. The spec ifie d temper at ures for thi s exper iment were chose n due to the apparent gell ing point behavi or of LX withi n these regions as demonst ra ted by previ ous expe ri ment s. Frequency sweeps at a fixed percent str ain (2.835%) and consta nt temper at ure (25 °C) where conduct ed on all sample s over a range of 0.1 - 1000 (rad/s). Temper at ure sweeps in the range 25 o C to 85 o C and 15 o C to 45 o C were performed at a const ant strain (2.835 % ) and constant frequency (6.283 rad/s) , Figure 6 : a) Drawing of cone -and-plate geometry and b) close up of truncation gap betwee n the bottom of the cone and the top of the stationary plate. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 182 Kennedy, Jorda n and at a heati ng/cool ing rate of 1 o C/min on all sampl es. Liqui d evaporation and outsi de air disturbance was mini miz ed by cover ing the cone and plate geomet ry with a ceramic cover . Liqui d evapor ati on was mini mi ze d further by using a sol vent trap, where water was placed in the top of the cone geomet ry. Results and Data Analysis Steady Shear Flow Behavior The flow behavi or of the LBG syst em, shown in Figur e 7, shows a Newtonian plateau at lower shea r rate s. At higher shear rates the LBG displays shea r -thi nning behavi or. The behavi or displ ayed by the LBG solut ion is typic al of macr o mo le cular solutions. XG also demonst ra tes shear - thi nning behavior , but over the entire range of shea r rates teste d. Such behavi or is typical of “weak gels”. The dat a in this case can be fitte d by the power - la w model of Equat ion 2. For the XG syst em the shea r thi nning consta nt k = 13.119 and Ș = - 0.877. A Newtonian plateau, which is expec te d in the rheologic al behavior of macr o mole cul ar solutions, is not present at the lower or higher shear rates imposed upon the XG syst em. XG, instead, shows behavior typical of “weak gels”. At very low shea r rates the molecula r struct ure of the XG syst em is easily broken down. LX, like the XG syst em, shows shea r -thi nning behavior without the presence of Newtonian plateaus. The syner gistic inte racti on between the XG and LBG solut ions results in a gel displ a ying a higher visc osity over a XG syst em the LX gel undergoe s defor mat ion even at very low shear rate s. For the LX syst em the shear thi nning consta nt k = 27.489 and Ș - 0.877. Small-Deformation Oscillatory Flow Behavior The linear visc oel astic regime (LVR) was deter mine d by syst emat icall y imposi ng incre asing str ains upon the XG, LBG and LX samples . Generally, the longer the LVR the more visc ous the mater ia l [5]. LBG resulted in having the longes t LVR with no obser ved devia tion fro m linear ity as shown in Figur e 8. As is expected for gelling syst ems, the change from linear behavior to nonlinear behavi or happens at lower strains. For XG the devia tion from linearit y occur s appr oximat el y at 10 % str ain. LX has a smal l region in which the behavi or of the syst em can be assumed linear. The elastic and visc ous response of XG, LBG and LX when subj ect ed to a range of frequenc ies can be seen in Figur es 9, 10 and 11. XG (Fig ure 9) shows a great er elastic response than visc ous 0.01 0.1 1 10 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0.1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1000 Viscosity (Pa.s) Sh ea r ra t e (1 /s ) Figure 7  )OoZ FuUYH GLsSOa\LnJ /%* Ƒ  X G (   /; ¨  McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 183 Kennedy, Jorda n response when subject to smal l deformation. This “weak gel” behavior shows little dependenc e on the impo sed frequency of osci ll ation. Converse ly, LBG shows a great er visc ous response than elastic response when subj ected to smal l defor mat ion frequenci es. This response also appears to be great ly dependent upon the degr ee of impo sed frequency as seen by the shar p increase in the overall viscoelasti c response in Figur e 10. Like XG, LX (Figu re 11) demonst ra tes behavior typic al of that of gels by demonstrating a higher G‟ than G‟‟ over the imposed frequency of osci llation. Compar at ively, the LX syst em shows a greater increas e in the elastic response than the XG and LBG syst ems as displ ayed in Figur e 12. The int roduction of LBG int o the XG syste m give s rise to an increase in the elastic behavi or syste m. This is indi cative of the extent physical crossli nking of the XG and LBG polymer s. Thermal Behavior Thermal Behavior The mecha nic al response of the LX syst em is dependent upon degr ee in which the XG and LBG syst ems are mixe d toge ther . The time dura ti on and temper at ure at which the XG and LBG syst ems were mixe d imp act ed the degre e in which the st ructure XG double helix coul d dise ntangle to form rando m coil s. Figure 8 : Strain sweep of XG (   /%* Ƒ anG /; ¨ s\stHPs Figure 9 : 6tUaLn sZHHS oI ;* GLsSOa\LnJ *’ (  anG *’’ Ƒ  Figure 10 : Frequency sweep of LBG GLsSOa\LnJ *’  anG *’’ Ƒ  Figure 11 : Frequency sweep of LX displaying *’  anG *’’ Ƒ). Figure 12 : Frequency sweep displaying tKH *’ of /%* Ƒ  ;*   /; ¨  McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 184 Kennedy, Jorda n The comple te unwinding the XG double helix can only take place at high enough temper at ures over a prolonged period of time [2]. A te mper at ure sweep was performed an all samples over the temper at ure range 25 °C to 8 5 °C. The LX syst e m under went a more int ensi ve ser ies of temper at ure testi ng. Temper at ure sweeps were also conduct ed over the temper at ure range 15 °C to 45 °C. The LX sample under went both heat ing and cool ing in order to confirm thermal ly revers ible beh avior . Before the LX sample s were subj ected to testing all were mixe d at 55 °C for a dura tion of one hour with the exce pti on of one sa mp le (I*). The XG syst em is char acterized by one - ste p gel to solution transition point . In the G* verses temper at ure graph (Figure 13), the decr ease in G* is gradual until appr oximate ly 70 °C at which point the decr ease in G* become s more rapid. This change characteriz es the gel to solut ion transit ion inflection point for the XG syst em. The str uct ure of XG at lower tempe ra tur es is an orde re d helical format ion. At hi gher temper at ures the order helical str uctur e give s way int o random coils. This new ener gy state allows ener gy imp osed upon the syste m to be more readil y diss ipated. The LBG syst em shows very little change in moduli over an increase in temper at ure . LBG, unli ke the XG and LX syst ems, is not a cross - linked polymer network. There fore, it cannot physi cally break down with an increas e in temper at ure . The sli ght increase in modulus at the highe st temper at ures is indi cative of evapor ati on fro m the plat e. At high temper at ures and for extended periods of time the LBG syst em appea rs to “cook”. A thin film of polymer forms al ong the cone and the plate of the geomet ry. The LX syst em is cha racterize d by a two- step gel to solut ion transit ion point . Initiall y, as displa yed in Figur e 13, G* decrease s rapidly unti l the first gel to solution transition point at ~ 57 °C. Up to this point, the bi -polymer gel is “melting”. As energy is introduced into the syste m, the physi cally cross - li nked bonds between the XG and LBG polymer s in the LX system are breaking. This permit s the polymers to move past each other more readily. Afte r the first transition step, the mecha nic al behavior , or the rate in whic h the G* decreases with temper at ure, of the LX sys te m becomes simil ar to that of a dilute d XG solut ion. The second transition point for the data presente d in Figure 13 occur s at 75 °C as summar iz ed in Table s 1 and 2. For all repeate d temper atur e sweeps upon LX the second gel to Figure 13 : Temperature sweep ranging from 25 °C ±  ƒ& GLsSOa\LnJ /%* Ƒ  ;*  ); LX ¨  McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 185 Kennedy, Jorda n solut ion transit ion point fell within 75 °C to 80 °C. At a fixed str ai n and fixed angul ar frequency, time sweeps of thre e LX sa mple s of LX, as (summar iz ed in Table 3 below) were run for a duration of one hour at 65 °C, 85 °C, and 50 °C respectively. The temp er at ure s chosen were within the second phase of the two - ste p melti ng proc ess of the LX syst em over the range of 25 °C to 85 °C. LX sample s E,H and J were mixe d at 55 °C for one hour before subject ed to testing. All sample s show an incr ease in the G* with time. This increase in the moduli of the LX sa mples is likely due to the evaporation of water from the spec imens at these higher temper atures. This effect is easily obser ved in Figure 14 , where Sample H was run at 85 °C. For Sample s E and J this effect is less obvious but still obser ved. When Sample H was re moved fro m the rheometer, it appeared to be “cooked”. It was a light brown brit tle solid that was easily flaked away. Whil e the behavi or of the LX gel is observe d to be thermall y rever sible over the temper at ure range of 25 °C to 85 °C, at high enough temper at ures over a long enough period of time the sample will show signs of degr adat ion. There fore, car e was taken in the temper at ure range and dura ti on of exper iment duri ng temper at ure sweeps to make sure evaporati on was not a factor . Conclusion These experiment s indic ate that upon mixi ng, the biopol ymer s XG and LBG int era ct to for m a fir m thermal ly rever sible gel. LX is char acterized by having the highest moduli for all rheologic al meas ure ments taken upon XG, LBG and LX syst ems. Evid ence sugges ts that the physi cal cros s -li nking Figure 14 : Time sweep of three separate LX samples at 50 °C ( ), 65 °C ( - - anG  ƒ& « Table 3 : Summary of time sweep run on three separate samples of LX. Time Sweeps Temper at ure Durat ion Sample E 65 o C 1 hr Sample H 85 o C 1 hr Sample J 50 o C 1 hr Table 1 : Samples of LX heated from 25 to 85. Sample I* was mixed at room temperature. Sample A 51 57 75 Sample B 48 57 79 Sample C − − − Sample D − − − Sample I* 47 56 75 Heating Inflection Point Temperatu es ⁰C Table 2 : Samples of LX cooled from 85 to 25. Sample I* was not mixed at room temperature. Sample A − Sample B 57 Sample C 64 Sample D − Sample I* − Cooling Inflection Pt. Temp ratures ⁰C McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 186 Kennedy, Jorda n between the XG and LBG polymer s results in the for mat ion of a “firmer” str uctur e. The mecha nic al behavior of the LX system rese mble s that of strong gels. The shea r flow behavi or of the LX syst em exhi bit s behavi or resembli ng that of the XG syst em at room temper at ure . At high enough temper at ures, the behavi or the LX syst em devia te s fro m “gel - like” behavior and resembles a dil uted XG syst em. The heat ing and cool ing of the LX syst em result s in a two- ste p transit ion indicati ve of gel to solut ion phase changes withi n the syst em as well as the presence of physi cal inter actions between the XG and LBG polymer s. The temper at ure and dura tion at which the XG and LBG syst ems wer e mixe d to for m the LX gel impact ed the thermal behavi or of the syst em. Future Work Furt her rheologic al char acterizati on of LX gelli ng syst ems wil l take place with the addi tion of nanopar ticles to the syst em. This will be in the effort to model pharmace uti cal drug dispersions thr oughout the gels. In addit ion, Magne tic Resonance Imagi ng (MRI) meas ure men ts will be performed on the XG, LBG and LX solutions. Magnet ic Resonance is capable of dir ectly meas uri ng the veloci ty field via veloci ty imagi ng, lending insight int o the physi cal me chani sms cont ri buti ng to the bulk rheology meas urement s, and also may be abl e to provi de informat ion on nanopar ticle locati on within the gel via image contr ast . Acknowledgements Thank you to my proj ect resear ch advi sor , Dr. Jenni fer Brown for con sta nt feedback and disc ussi on. Thank you to the Magnetic Resonance Microscopy Lab me mbe rs . Also, thank you to both the Mont ana State Unive rsity McNai r Schola rs Progra m and Mont ana Stat e Univer sity Amer ic an Indian Resear ch Opportuni ties (AIRO) Progr am for funding. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 187 Kennedy, Jorda n References 1. Goycoolea, F.M., et al., Stoichiometry and Conformation of Xanthan in Synergistic Gelation with Locust Bean Gum or Konjac Glucomannan - Evidence for Heterotypic Binding. Macromolecules, 1995. 28(24): p. 8308- 8320. 2. Pelletier, E., et al., A rheological study of the order-disorder conformational transition of xanthan gum. Biopolymers, 2001. 59(5): p. 339-346. 3. Mao, C.F., Self- and cross-associations in two-component mixed polymer gels. Journal of Polymer Science Part B-Polymer Physics, 2008. 46(1): p. 80-91. 4. Copetti, G., et al., Synergistic gelation of xanthan gum with locust bean gum: a rheological inve stigation. Glycoconjugate Journal, 1997. 14(8): p. 951-961. 5. Richter, S., T. Brand, and S. Berger, Comparative monitoring of the gelation process of a thermoreversible gelling system made of xanthan gum and locust bean gum by dynamic light scattering and H-1 NMR spectroscopy. Macromolecular Rapid Communications, 2005. 26(7): p. 548-553. 6. Barnes, H.A., An Introduction to Rheology . 1989, New York : Elsevier Science Publishers. 7. Ferry, J., Viscoelastic Properti es of Polymers . 3rd ed. 1980, New York. 8. Kok, S., Rheological study of galactomannan depolymerisation at elevated temperatures: effect of varyi ng ph and addition of antioxidants. Carbohydrate Polymers. Carbohydrate Polymers, 2010. 8(3). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 188 Kuiper s, Dusti n Cos mol ogy of Incarceration : A loo k at the Overrepr es entatio n of American Ind ians in Mont ana Pris on s Dust in Kuip ers Mentor ed by Dr. Walter C. Flemin g McNair‟s Scholars Summer 201 0 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 189 Kuiper s, Dusti n Int roduction The foll owing research was co ll ect ed fro m May 17 th , 2010 - August 18 t h , 2010. Simp ly sai d, this essay look s at the state demographi c of Nati ve Ame ri cans (NA) and their dispr oportional num ber s ins ide instituti ons of coer ci on. 1 Along with that a number of other iss ues aro se while conducting this scholar‟s endeavor . The topic s that will be addressed: (1) a Nati ve Ame ri can hist orical timel ine fro m Trade and Intercours e Act (1790) to the present in orde r to better inte rpret the unique legal and political status of feder al ly recogni zed tribes , (2) the legislation a nd cour t cases that define jurisdi cti on on tribal land, (3) the dist inct over re pre senta tion of Nati ve Amer ic ans in Monta na State Prison (MSP) in Deer Lodge, Mont ana , (4) the qua litative research as tak en from two will ing previous inmat es of MSP and a previous em ployee th at were interviewed and (5) the anal ysis and concl usion s to the evidence found to better un der sta nd thi s unique relati onship between Nati ve Amer ic ans and We ste rn for ms of inst it utions . Prior to European invasion, the diversit y of peoples and cultures in Nort h Amer ic a had existed for thousands of years . All flour ished in their environment s, whether sedentary or nomadi c, and all ha d advance forms of societ ies, gover nment s and economie s whic h greatly cont ra ste d w it h European syst ems. Nati ve Nort h Amer ic ans also culti vated, br ed, and genet ically altered a mou nta in grass that eventua lly produced corn, or maize. The exact origi n of maize is unknown because “no known wild ancestor” has been found and “that maize was not do mest ic ated, but created - - -almost from scratch.” 2 This sole event changed the world forever for corn is used in a lot of modern foods in the United State s. Post contact , the nar rative drastically 1 Native Americans and American Ind ians include the 569 federally recognized tribes and will be u sed broadly and interchangeably unless otherwise spec ified. 2 Charles C. Mann , 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (N ew York: Vintag e B ooks, 2005), 217. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 190 Kuiper s, Dusti n change s for Nati ve North Amer ic ans. Many European diseases that did not exist in the Amer ic as and ext ensivel y wiped out Nati ve popula tions and thos e that survive partly accultur ate to the Europea n presence. European warfare wages over who poss ess the newly disc overed conti nent and Amer ican Indi ans are cast into the middl e , mostl y by choic e and survi val. A shor t time later all Native Amer ic ans were marched west of the Mississi ppi and the popula tions sustai n e d more casualties, incl uding women and chil dre n. As the acts of warfar e subs ided, those indigenous people s left were forced to preserve the little culture they had left whil st their chil dre n were being ripped away to boarding schoo ls. These schools intended to systematicall y erase the tradit ional way of life for Native Nor th Ameri cans. Subseque ntl y, they evolve d and adapted into a society, into a gover nment , and into a legal system that is alien to the teachings of thei r ance stors. Here is the postul ati ng quest ion for my resea rc h: Why is there a disproportional representation of Native Americans in Montana given their state population (6.4%) and their incarcerated populations (16% for males and 30% for females)? And here is my thesis : The overpopulation of American Indians inside Montana prisons is directly attributed to social, political, economic, and historical factors that facilitate their existence in Euro- American politics and society. Historical Timel ine The hist ori cal narrative for Nati ve Amer ic ans , fro m Europea n perspective, usually start s in 1492 as Europe an contact comme nced and leads on a long, rocky road (+500 years worth) up to the present time. For the purpose of simpli ci ty, thi s essay will focus more on the 1790 - McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 191 Kuiper s, Dusti n pre sent period. In 1790, the first congre ssi onal defin it ion was passed in the Trade and Int ercourse act s that regula te d trade and commer ce between and with Nati ve Amer ic an tribes . Or, as Wil li am Canby expla ins, an act of “separating Indians and non - Indians and subje cting near ly all inters ection between the two groups to federal control.” 3 Europea n desc endants were for ming a new ly independent country with which they used the philosop hies of Europea n exce ptiona lism and raci al superiority to construct a hierarchical relationship wit h the Nati ve people s of Amer ic a. Moving down the hist ori cal timel ine the Cherokee C ases start ing in the 1830s was the dark time of Indi an remo val . Somet imes refer r ed to as the Mars hal trilogy, these thr ee Supre me Court case s legally defin e what Indian nations are, and the se case s are still used in Feder al Indi an Law today . Johnson v. McIntosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat .) 543 (1823) included a land transac tion between the Cherokee and a private individual before the gover nment said Native s cannot grant land to “anyone other than the federal government.”4 A few year s later, Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet .) 1 (1831) and defined the Cheroke e, and all Amer ic an Indi an nations, as “domestic dependent nations.” The last case is Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet .) 515 (1832) , where Chief Justice John Marshal defined Cherokee land as a place in which Georgia‟s la ws do not exist. Durin g the presidency of the most famous anti -Indi an, Andrew Jacks on, Congress enact ed the India n Remov al Act of 1830 wher eby thous ands of east coast Amer ic an Indi ans were f or ce d out of their ancestr al lands west of the Missi ssippi river and sent to pres ent day Oklahoma , or at that time deemed “Indian Country”. The period from about 1850 to 1887 are refer re d to as the reser vation movement . Mili tary engage men ts across the Great Plains had many tri bes forming alliance s to prot ect their tradit ional 3 William C. Canby , Federal Indian Law in a Nut Shell, (S t. Paul, MN: W est Pub lishing, 1998) , 13. 4 Canby , Federal Indian Law, 73. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 192 Kuiper s, Dusti n way of life. As the concept of mani fe st desti ny had Europe an dece dents pushi ng to the west , Indi an and non- Indi an relations became viole nt and subs equently forced Native s onto smal l plots of land called re ser vations . It took brut al acts of warfare and genoci de to shut down the India n resis ta nce on the Great Plai ns and forc ibly mov e those left onto reservati ons . The poli cy of assimil at ing the Nati ves into domina nt cultur e had begun. The allotment an d assimil at ion period (1887 - 1934 ) atte mpte d to dive rt Natives away from thei r old ways and teach them to far m like the sett lers in orde r for the Indi an s to sta y in one spot and be „ ci vil ized. ‟5 In 1934 , the Indi an Reorganiz ati on Act (IRA) 25. U.S.C.A. 461 all owed Nati ve Amer ic ans to reorga niz e their tribal and, more import ant ly, their political structure s. By this time, the Depart ment of Interior and Bureau of Indi an Affairs (B.I.A.) had been established to deal with the “Indian problem.” The IRA allowed tribes to structure their own political bodies so long as the Secr etary of Int erior agreed with their propos ed form of gover n ment s . With assimil at ion tactics in mi nd, these newly for me d tribal political entitie s would most like ly only be appr oved if they mir ror e d that of the Unite d States Constituti on . From the 1950‟s to the 60‟s, known as the Termi nat ion era, Indians were being encour aged by the B.I.A. to leave the reser vations and work in th e metropol itan citie s. With the B.I.A.‟s support in assimilation theory , many reser vation India ns relocated to larger cities to work low payi ng jobs . Also during thi s time, Congre ss passed Publi c Law 280 , 67 (Stat .) 588 (1953) , in whic h all criminal acti vit y on reser vation s, among othe r things, was to be under the authority of the state . Following the civil rights movements in the late 60‟s, the American Indian Movement (A.I.M .) rallied m any Nati ves to meet at Wounded Knee, a his tori cal site wher e a band of Lakota Indians were shot unarmed and star ving in the wint er of 1890 . A.I.M. press ed 5 See section on ju risdiction for discussion about allotment. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 193 Kuiper s, Dusti n the era of Tribal Self - Deter mina ti on and Congress passed the Indi an Civil Rights Act of 1968 (82 Stat . 77 25 U.S.C.A. 1301 ) amon g othe r acts that tried to ensur e Native rights, such as religious freedoms. Jurisdiction in Indian Countr y The iss ue of crimina l jurisdi cti on in Indian country has become an extreme ly comple x arena as the unique relationshi p s between the federa l government , sta te gover nment s and tribal g over nment s evol ve int o an ent angled web of poli tical confusion. Before reser vation s and all otm ent , triba l coercion over deviant me mber s was handl ed differ ent ly than the Eur opean - Amer ic an phil osophies of crimina li ty and legal proc eedings. Jeffery Ian Ros s and Lar ry Gould opined that “European (idea of the cri mina l justice) syste m rests on punishment and retribution, whereas the Native American more often relies on cooperation and consensus building.” 6 The str ong diversit y and dichotomy that exi sts betwee n Euro - Ame ri can and Native North Amer ic an culture s always has to be taken into consi deration when thinking about incar ceration, jur isdicti on, crimina li ty, and crimina l rehabilita tion. For example, when addre ssi ng crimina l jur isdicti on this examina tion will approach it by discussi ng Supre me Court cases, legislat ion, the effect s of the Allotment Act on crimina l juri sdic tion, and Publi c Law 280 . All of these vari able s play inte gral rol e s in untangli ng the mass confus ion concerning matte rs of juri sdicti on on reser vations in Mo nta na to better under sta nd the over re pre sentation of Native Amer ic ans in Montana‟s prisons. From conta ct to assimil at ion, legal relations between Euro -Amer ic ans and Native Amer ic ans mostl y involved treat y maki ng, allia nces in warfare , and the acqui sition of Nati ve 6 :ĞĨĨĞƌLJ/ĂŶZŽƐƐĂŶĚ>ĂƌƌLJ'ŽƵůĚ͕͞Native Americans, Criminal Justice, Criminological Theory, and Policy Development,” in Native Americans and the Criminal Justice System , eds. Jeffery Ian Ross an d Larry Gould (Boulder, Colorado: Paradigm Publishers, 2006), 3. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 194 Kuiper s, Dusti n la nd by Europeans . The Mar shal cases, duri ng Indian Remov al , defined what India n nation s are, consi dering their soverei gnty and unique relati onship to the United States governme nt. But, of all the cases deci ded in Indian law concer ning crimina li ty , Ex parte Crow Dog 109 U.S. 556 (1883) is the most import ant as far as a prece dent set ting case s for cri mina l juri sprude nce on tribal land . This case involved the murder of a Lower Brul e Sioux, by an Ogla la Sioux, that happened on the res er vation and no arr est was ma de . The maj ori ty public was out ra ged that a murder was commit te d and no one was arrested. No other case had reached a high court that invol ved an Indi an on India n murde r and took place on Indian land. Duri ng allotment and assi mil at ion , The General Crimes Act held statues against mur der in all claimed terri tories of the United States. The Supreme Court , however, ruled that the Genera l Crimes Act excluded federal jur isdicti on in crimina l acts wher e both the offender and victim were American Indian. The cour t held that the responsibi lity of justi ce in this matte r was of tri bal jurisdic tion. Essent ially handing the iss ues of India n crimes on India n land over to the tri bal council s and leaders to deal with, refurbishin g their inher ent sovere ignty over crimina ls back to them, if only for a shor t time. This wrought questions about crimina l jur isdict ion over Indians tha t are not enr oll ed in the particular tribe where the crime took place. More rece nt cases (after the Ind ia n Reorganization Act of 1934 and starting in 1924 when Amer ic an Indi ans were fina ll y recognize d as U.S. cit iz ens and protected under the Bill Of Rights ) concer n Amer ic an India ns and tribal me mber s facing double jeopardy for crimes commit te d. That is, be ing tried and prosec uted by State and federa l gover nment s as well as tribal courts. Duro v. Reina, 495 U.S. 676 (1990) deci ded that domest ic dependant sover ei gns did not have cri mina l jurisdiction over Indian s who were not member s of the tri be subje cting those non- me mbe rs to State or feder al prosecut ion even though the crime took place on tribal or reserva tion land. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 195 Kuiper s, Dusti n The proc ess of chec ks and balances that are framed insi de the Unite d States Const itution seem to wor k quic ker with respect to Feder al Indian Law. The rulings of Crow Dog a nd Duro show that feder al and state institut ions do not have jurisdi cti on when the crimes incl ude India n on Indi an crimes. I n response to the Crow Dog r uli ng, Congress react ed promptl y and passed a new piec e of legi sla tion modifying the Genera l Crimes Act and ext ended feder al jurisdiction to tribal land when the cri mes commit te d met cer tain criteria of crimina l offenc es. The Major Crimes Act of 1885 ori gina lly held seven (now fourtee n) major cri mes that circumvente d tri bal sover ei gnty to hol d and pros ecute any Indi an that commit s the se crimes whet her the victims are Indi an or not or whether the crime commit te d took place on India n land. If any Indi an or enrolle d me mber a tribe commit s a murder, rape, felony assault , etceter a on a reservation it is always a matter of feder al or state juri sdiction under the Major Cri mes Ac t. Consequently, this is the only instance in all of crimina li ty and crimina l jurisdict ion in the United State s from the research I coll ected where the race of the offender is comple te ly depende nt on whose jur isdiction the crime fal ls under . In response to Duro, Congress passed an act recognizing that “the inherent power Indian tribes«to exercise criminal jurisdiction over all Indians.”7 Thus , thi s piece o f legislation still conflic ts with court ruli ngs concerning crimina l juri sdic tion. Usuall y when a crime does not fit into the fourte en crimes unde r the Major Crimes Act, and is more often than not a misde meanor , it is under the juri sdiction of the tribal court so long as the offender is Amer ic an India n. If an offender on a rese rvation is white it is always under State or feder al jur isdicti on according to Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe , 435 U.S. 191 (1978) . This case post ulates that Indian tribes lack ed crimina l jurisdiction over non- Nati ves consi dering the language of Indi an Civil Rights Act of 1968 . The cases and legisl ati on expla ine d above show matte rs conc er ning crimina l juri sdic tion become confusing very fast , and with the late 19 t h 7 Ind ian Civil R ights Act of 1968 25 U.S.C.A. 1301. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 196 Kuiper s, Dusti n cent ury passing of the Dawes Act or Gener al Allotment Act matte rs become even more confusing. During this time, the Unit ed State s gover nment creat ed the responsi bility to assimil at e Nati ve Ame ri cans int o Euro - Amer ic an cul ture . In the Marshal ruli ngs, Indian nati ons were defined as “domestic dependant nations” and “wards of the government” which stipulated that the responsibility rests in the gover n ment to „civilize‟ Indian peoples which also entails their „fiduciary‟ responsi bility to Nati ve Amer ic ans . They figu red the most effective way to „civilize‟ was to teach them the farming techni ques of Euro - Amer ic an culture and Congress enact ed the Allot ment Act of 1887 , 24 Stat . 388 . This act “authorized the president, at his discretion, to sur vey and break up the communal land holdings of tribes and to “allot” land holdings to indi vidual India ns .” 8 The addi tional land on reservation was deemed as “surplus land” and was then divided out to white set tlers and far mer s for dimes to the acr e creati ng a “ chec kerboard ” effec t of jur isdiction on rese rvation lands and perpetuating harsh rel ati ons between conflict ing culture s in addit ion to the clash of legal instituti ons. Indivi dual izing Indian allotment s int o 80 or 160 acr e allotment s decimat ed co mmunal and tribal land owners hip as well as tribal sover ei gnty and instituted a str ong n on - Nati ve communit y insi de reser vat ion borders. Non - Natives are in no way subjec ted to tribal courts or prosecuti on for any offense includi ng speedi ng and other traffic viol ati ons. They can, alth ough, be detai ned by tribal poli ce and tur ned over to state or county poli ce if those departme nts choose to press charges. Consi der ing these insta nces , the jur isdicti onal proceedi ngs on reservations are awkward, speci fic to inst ances, and usuall y dependen t on the race of the offender. In the 1950‟s, another piece of legislation cleared some 8 David E. Wilkins and K. Tsiannina Lomawaima, Uneven Ground: American Indian Sovereignty and Federal Law, (Un iversity of Oklahoma Press: Norman Publishing, 2001), 77. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 197 Kuiper s, Dusti n of the confusion of juri sdic tion on reservations but subsequently attac ked anot her aspect of Amer ic an India n sovereignty. Publi c Law 280 (PL 280), or somet imes calle d House Bill 55, was enacted in 1954 dur ing the Termina ti on pe ri od (1950 - 1968) that transferred almost comple te jurisdiction on Indian reser vations to t he federal gove rnment , who thereby handed the jurisdiction to the State s that house PL 280 res er vations. The state of Mont ana has only one reservation that is deemed PL 280, Flat head reser v ation, where the sta te presides over all crimina l and civil jurisdicti ons. In her book, Inventing the Savage: The Social Construction of Native American Criminality, Luana Ross describes the passing of PL 280 as “one of the most bold and discriminating actions against Natives in the legal and judicial system” and “PL 280 denies Native nations the right to gover n themsel ves .” 9 This piece of legi slation singl e- handedly erased tribal autono my in matte rs conce rning India n crimina lity and socia l/tribal conflict s that happen insi de reser vation borde rs . Many of the cri mes commit te d on reservations by Amer ic an Indi ans and enrolle d tri bal me mbers usual ly invol ve alcohol and subst ance abuse . Larry Gould outlines that “alcohol is invol ved in 75 percen t of all fatal acci dents, 80 percent of all suic ides and 90 percent of all homic ide s involving indigenous people.”1 0 Due to the Native‟s genetic vulner abiliti es (the unique ness of NA genet ic s) , susce ptibi lity to binge drinking, and accustomed ext re me povert y on their reservations, it is not sur prisi ng that 90 percent of all homic ide s invo lvi ng indigenous people incl ude, in one way or anot her, the use of alcohol . 1 1 Beari ng in min d the unique dichotomy of Euro - Ame ri can and Nati ve Amer ic an cul tura l wo rl dvie ws, PL 280 fails to involve 9 Luan a R oss, Inventing the Savage: The Social Construction of Native American Criminality, (Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1998) 24. 10 Larry Gould, “Alcoholism, Colonialism, and Crime,” in Native Americans and the Criminal Justice System , eds. Jeffery Ian Ro ss an d Larry Gould (Boulder, Colorado: Paradigm Pub lishers, 2006), 96. 11 For gen etic susceptibility to modern f oods and alcohol, see Why Some Like It Hot: Food, Genes, and Cultural Diversity by Gary Paul Nabhan. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 198 Kuiper s, Dusti n tr ibal autonomy in any rehabilitative or addiction counseling for India n crimina ls unt il retribution is made to the State for that individual‟s crime. Th e combin at ion of Supreme Court cases, Congress ional legislation, the Allot ment Act of 1887, and the init iation of House Bill 55 have resulted in what is called checker boar d jur isdicti on in Indi an Countr y. All of these fact ors have played a role in the def ini ng and molding what polit ical insti tuti on is allo wed jurisprude nce for cri mina ls. Although the above paragraphs outl ine some of the policy, it does not entail the entire history. There is an innate differ ence between Native Nort h Amer ic an culture s, so cie ties, traditions and religions that often conflic t with the now domina nt Euro - Amer ic an culture, society, traditions and religions . Through the proc ess of coloni zation and assimil ati on, Amer ic an India ns were forced into a differ ent world inside thei r own Native lands and droppe d into a melti ng pot of a society that never even wanted them. Consequ ent ly, they now live at a soci a l disadvanta ge in the crimina l just ice system. The Overre pre sentation of Incar cerated Native Ame ri cans in Mont ana Accordi ng to the U.S. Census Bureau, the estimat ed 2008 indige nous popula tion of Mont ana was 6.4% of the 974,989 resident s of Monta na 1 2 . Nati ve commun it ies in Montana repre sent a smal l por ti on of the tot al sta te population yet represent a much highe r proport ion of incarcerated indi vidual s, both men and women. Accordi ng to the 2002 Mont ana Depar tment of Corre ctions Legisl ati ve Report , Native Amer ic an men repr esent ed 18.7% of inca rcera te d indi vidual s in Mont ana and Native women repr esent a n outstanding 30.2% of incar cerate d 12 U.S. Census Bureau: S tate and County Facts Ͷthe 6.4% is also individu als that are claiming one race on the cen sus and most likely tribally enrolled. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 199 Kuiper s, Dusti n fe mal es. 1 3 A count in June 2010 fro m the Department of Corr ections estimat ed that Nati ve Amer ic an males repr esent about 16% of the current prison population in Mont ana State Prison in Deer Lodge, Montana. 1 4 These numb er s beg the quest ion of: Why does this disti nct over re pre senta tion of incar cerated Amer ic an Indians exist in Mont ana? These populations are unique given their federal status and sover ei gn status as nati ons, with the ability to gover n themsel ves inside the bo rders of their tribal lands. The reader needs to be reminded that “Indian people must be caught up in a world not of thei r own maki ng (and) find (them)s el ves drifting helplessly into a melting pot.” 1 5 The definit e overrepre senta tion of Amer ic an India ns inside coer ced institut ions of Monta na is directl y attributed to socia l, poli tical, econo mic , and rehabilita tive var iables inside the indige nous communiti es of Mont ana. The soci al factor s to Native Amer ic an crimin al it y incl ude a long, compli cated history. Many of the indivi dual s behind the percenta ges state d above have a direct connection and relation to those who saw and suffer ed the worst from coloni zat ion. That is, their ancestor s and the ethnographic image of Plai ns India n cultures bei ng the resist ance against the United State s Caval r y and imper ia li sm and the refore receiving the har shest act s of war and treatment fro m the United States mil it ar y. The tribal warri ors who stood up and fought against the coloniz e rs to prot ect their culture s, tradit ions, and famil ie s from being oppres sed or removed fro m their sacred native land s , were in turn labeled „criminals‟ and „deviants‟ to the greater society. Their religions were labeled „savage‟ and „heathen‟ and outlawed from pract ic e. Their cultures and tradit ional communit y life were cri mina lized and their children taken away to strip the 13 The numbers from 2002 do not inc lud e self -identification. With my telephon e con versation with Ms. Kuka, I was informed that self -identifying Ind ian ƐĂƌĞŶŽǁŝŶĐůƵĚĞĚŝŶϮϬϭϬ͛ƐŶƵŵďĞƌƐ͕ǁŚŝĐŚƐŚŽǁĂůŽǁĞƌƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞŽĨ Native inmates in MSP. 14 Department of Corrections, Incarcerated Offenders by Race Code . Data generated from OM IS 06/15/2010 15 The Seven Visions of Bull Lodge as told by his daughter, Garter Snake, E d. George Horse Captu re, (Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1992) 11. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 200 Kuiper s, Dusti n int erge nerational knowledge away fro m the unique cult ure s . Luana Ross outl ines and anal yzes these iss ues in her book , Inventing the Savage, as she addresses how the term “savage” was hist oric all y invente d by neo-colonialism and how racial oppressi on is still apparent in cont empora ry Monta na soci et y. Relentles s in her writ ing, she conveys that oppre sse d Nati ves communit ies are “c ouche d in assimil at ionist rhetori c, racialized events - - incl uding treaties, reser vation and pass systems, land allotment s, boar ding schools, and bans on Nati ve religions - - influence who Native people are today.” 1 6 The soci al factors of coloni zation are indeed disa strous for Nati ve people s and still influence thei r plight today. Along with soci ety, econo mic s also plays a part in Native oppre ssi on. In 2008 pover ty in Mont ana was at 13.6% maki ng Mo nta na the 16 th highest in pover ty rates in the United States. 1 7 From the same arti cl e, the U.S. Cen sus Bure au reveal ed that Big Horn County, Blai ne County, Glaci e r County, and Roosevelt County were the four highest poverty stricken counties and “three of the four counti es are the only three counties in Mont ana with a majori ty of Native Amer ic an residents.” 1 8 Criminol ogist Michael J. Lynch argues that life cours e plays a major role in the individual‟s process of decision making . His theory of life course “«attempts to situa te individuals within the social context in which they live and act” and “is concerned with the soci ologic al, economic al ly, and politicall y relevant forces that eithe r enhance or limit the proba bili ty of an outc ome in a life - course.”1 9 Pover ty stric ken communiti es need to exist in orde r for weal thy communities like Aspen, Colora do and the Yell owstone Club in southwest er n 16 Luan a R oss, Inventing the Savage: The Social Construction of Native American Criminality, (Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1998) 52. 17 David Boston, Poverty Rates in Montana: Needs of Native American Reservations Consistently Underrepresented, http://poverty.suite101.com/article.cfm/povert_in_montana. July 20, 2008. 18 Ibid. 19 DŝĐŚĂĞů:͘>LJŶĐŚ͕͞ůĂƐƐ͕ZĂĐĞ͕'ĞŶĚĞƌ͕ĂŶĚƌŝŵŝŶŽůŽŐLJ͗^ƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞĚĐŚŽŝĐĞƐĂŶĚƚŚĞůŝĨĞŽƵƌƐĞ͘͟ŝŶƌĂŐĂŶ Milovanovic and Martin D. Sch wartz, eds., Race, Gender, and Class in Criminology: the Intersections, (New York, New York: Garland Pub lishing, Inc., 1999) 6. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 201 Kuiper s, Dusti n Mont ana to bloss om. Elit e communit ie s like these thrive in all 50 states and have a very loud voic e in the poli tical arena and/ or are maj or campaign contributors and/or are liste ned to very closely by those who make deci sions for us. Native Amer ic ans, on the other hand, have almost no poli tical voic e, have some of the highes t rates of alcohol ism and subs ta nce abuse, have a dist inct overrep re sent ation insi de prisons, and, as nati ons, are confined to set tling questi ons of sover ei gnty and cor porate/ polit ical disputes inside the halls of long and expensi ve court hearings. Afore ment ione d, Nati ve communit ies have high rate s of alcoholi sm and it is safe to say that the maj ori t y of American Indians in MSP most likely offended under the influence of alcohol . Larry Gould assert s that “homicide rates among indigenous people in the United States ar e about three times that of the over all population, and about 90 percent of those deaths invo lve alcohol consumption.” 2 0 Gould als o cri ticizes the inde finite use of exploi ting Indi ans susc epti bili ty to alcohol addi ction for pri vate personal profit . And then, the liquor store owners being the one s who complain the most about the “drunken Indians” to the rest of the communit y and the police . “The people who sell alcohol to indigenous people are the same peopl e are often the very same people who want the poli ce to exercise a lot of cont rol over them. They want to sel l their product , but as soon as the transaction is consummat ed, they want the Indi ans to move on unti l they need to buy alc ohol aga in.” 2 1 An ofte n sad picture is painte d before us on and around reservati ons in Montana as we look at the dest ructive nature alcohol has on the tribes . I t is obvious alcohol abuse plays a major role in the over re pre senta tion of Nati ves in prisons. Quali tati ve Resear ch 20 >ĂƌƌLJ'ŽƵůĚ͕͞ůĐŽŚŽůŝƐŵ͕ŽůŽŶŝĂůŝƐŵ͕ĂŶĚƌŝŵĞ͘͟/ŶNative Americans and the Criminal Justice System, eds. Jeffery Ian Ross an d Larry Gould (Boulder, Colorado: Paradigm Pub lishers, 2006), 96. 21 Ibid. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 202 Kuiper s, Dusti n The two willing parti cipants in my qualita tive resear ch had previous ly been incarcerated in Monta na Stat e Prison withi n the last 25 years. Their names were unrecorde d and simply titled as Previ ous Inmat e #1 (non - Nati ve) and Previ ous Inmat e #2 (Nat ive ) . My int enti on was to get their pers p ect ives and exper ie nces with the Native demogra phic inside MSP, what kind of rehabilita tive se rvices M.S.P. and D.O.C. provide d, and if they had any religious rights. Also, I wanted to find out more about the relations hip between pri sons and the soci al construct ion of race because it is often that prison subgroups are separ ate d into racialized groups that compet e agai nst each othe r and those subsequent racial group s are almost always dependa nt an indi vidual ‟s security as a inmat e . Questi ons for Previ ous Inmat e #1 (Non- Nati ve) : These were the guidi ng quest ions for the inte rview: 1.)What were the Prison subcult ure s like in Montana State Prison? 2.) We re there any raci sts, cruel or unusua l poli cie s enforc ed? 3.) What kind of rel igi ous freedoms, if any, did MSP allow? 4.) What do you think about „race‟ and how did your time i n MSP change that? 5.) Did the rehabilitative ser vices help you? 6.) Why or why not? Any int e re sting stories you want to tell about your expe ri ences ther e? Previ ous Inmat e #1 (non - Nati ve) was in MSP after 2000 on two sepa rate occasions. We deci ded to meet at publ ic place and I had four or five outl ining quest i ons to ask him, but I wanted the conservati on to evolve and go wher ever it needed . Also, I did not use the questions above in orde r, I would ask t hem at differ ent spots of the inte rview when they seemed most appr opiate . I had recorded w hat he said longha nd , which cons isted of most ly him tal king and me writ ing trying to keep up. At fir st, I did not want to tell him exactl y what I was resear ching to try and get him to guess what I was tryi ng to find out, but for the sake of our time I just out right told him. I McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 203 Kuiper s, Dusti n expl ai ned the over representation and life course and especia lly how alcohol pla ys a key role . His response was: “ the problem@ is that the behavior or environment we observe can‟t tell us what beliefs are there, unless we first know about the other auxiliary beliefs that are „in the neighborhood,‟ contributing to the production of a certain behavior or the formation of a new beli ef (2000). For ex ampl e, EWB-MS U cannot just buil d a co mpo sti ng latrine or a bo r ehole wit hout people being tr ained to maintain the pieces of equipm ent. What if in their nati ve langu a ge the re is no term for “maintenance"” Most meetings and training sessions, we hold are in Luhya, their tribal langu a ge, but ev en then t he translator does not full y unde rstand our me aning. This wil l continue to remain an iss ue. Ethnogr aphic res ear ch was m y main fo rm of gath ering in formation durin g m y first trip in 2009. I led three focus groups, with 7 to 8 teacher s at a time. This past summ er, 2010, I uti li z ed another kind of resea rch method, time stamps, which I have turn ed int o cas e studi es. Time stamps are a wa y fo r the indi viduals participati ng to calculate how mu ch of their time is spent on acti vit ies throughout the da y. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 221 Malone, Me gan Ethnographies & Focus Groups I sp ent 6 weeks in Ken ya during the summ er of 20 09. There were a few dif ferent fo cuses of m y trip; the first was to learn how the Khwiser o comm unit y was respon ding to the work that EWB was doin g. But I was also there to wor k wit h the youn g girls and women of the comm unit y. My ini ti al i dea was to tak e a pedom eter and coll ect wat er wit h some of the women and figu re out how far th e y walked. I found that I could collect vital infor mation spending time in the kit chen or around t he compound wit h the women and all the pedome ter would do was tell me how far th e y went. But instead I sp ent tim e talking and watchin g the int eracti ons betw een EWB-MS U and the com muni t y. Ethnogr aphic work was m y first step to gaini n g i nsight into the connecti o n between water and gender inequalities. The point of ethnographies is to watch and take note of “different cult ures and subcult ur es to make sense of their lived reali t y ( Sharl ene Na gy Hesse - Biber and Le av y 2006 ). As a partic ipant observer, it was bes t for me to watch and wri te down m y questi ons before approa c hing the women with those questi ons. To note, the lan gua ge barri er was made less apparent when I was just observing people‟s daily activities. Language barriers al low resea rche rs to miss part of the cult ural cont ex t of the people the y are stud yi ng. How eve r, dail y labor tasks look simi lar. For ex ampl e, coll ecti n g water fo r some looks like goin g to the kit chen sink and fil li ng a pit che r or glass full of wate r, for o thers it is taking a buck et down to a stream, filli ng it with water, than carr yin g it on their he ad back to their home. Or doing the laundr y: for me, doing the laund r y is placing m y clot hes in the washing m achine, addin g soap, and pressi n g some butt ons. For those in Khwisero washin g the ir clot hes consis ts of gath ering th ree or four McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 222 Malone, Me gan buckets of wat er 3 , then spend ing thr ee or four hour s hand washin g their clot hes. My point is that women‟s tasks are fairly universal. Though I had some reser ves about tr yin g focus gr oups in a forei gn countr y, I kn ew that the y would be the best w a y to gather inform ati on and data. Focus groups provide insi ght into a cult ure throu gh a small group of people. But not onl y ar e you looki ng for their answers, but you are looki n g to their re acti ons. You have to be tune d int o how the emot ions of the group ch an ge. I had neve r actuall y held a focus group in pr evious projects of mine, so I was awar e of m y goal, but did not know how well I could interp ret their emot ions. I think focus gr oups are important to incorporate into one‟s research because they allow the participants to interact with one another and even invent new idea s because th eir ideas pla y off of one another. Hess e -Bib er and Le av y explain that focus groups help to “generate, develop, and screen ideas or concepts.” I was able to define my research topic. To “generate” the information concerning gender inequalities and even dev elopm ent ideologies, m y fo cus groups we re compos ed solel y of women that were th e teache rs of thre e of the primar y schools that EWB -MS U work at. To gath er participants for the focus group, I asked the head te ache rs of Shir ali , Ekatsom bero, and Mwise na primar y schools if I could interview the fem ale teach ers of thei r schools . I was invi ted to come durin g their br eak. For all thre e group sessi ons, I tol d the women what the goal of the int e r view was and th at the y di d not have to answe r an y of the questi ons. I had some questi on in mind but I reall y want ed to just gene rate convers ati on so that the y would just start discussi ng iss ues among themselv es. I di d not ask about gender ro les or inequali t y, rather I asked them wh at iss ues the y ran int o tr yin g to work and take car e of their chil dren. I also 3 Th ey u sed j erry ca n s a n d d ru ms t o co ll ect wat e r McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 223 Malone, Me gan all owed them to ask me questi ons about the United States. 4 The focus grou ps lasted an ywhe re from 30 minut es to 45 minutes. The tea chers from Ekatsom bero we re le ast recepti ve while the teache rs at Mwisena wer e the most rec epti ve. Time stamps Time stamps were a new and important method fo r me to tr y bec ause it gav e insi ght into another angle into the women‟s lives. In many respects time stamps are like in -depth interviews. A rese arch er does not coll ect as man y time stamps as the y would surve ys. The purpose of th e time stamp is for women to writ e down their dail y acti vit ies accordin g to ho w the y break down time. Time stamps gave the women the abil it y to track their tasks throu gho ut the da ys. I had them keep tra ck of their t im e for seven da ys from when the y woke up to when the y went to sleep. I did not tell them how to break down th eir da y; I just su ggested th at the y write down ever y task on ce it was co mpl eted. I am able to lo ok at how the y divi de up their time and what the y prio ritiz e. The women seemed to br eak down their da y ac cordin g to task and chore . Another re ason I gav e th em tim e stamps was so that I would not inhibi t their work. I am ver y aw are th at m y pr ese nce is daunti ng. With the Ken yan cult ure ev er yo ne is a gu est who does not live on their compound, so wheneve r I was with the women the y wer e const antl y wo rried I was not comfortable. So, time stamp al lowed them to be full y honest and not worr y about m y presenc e. 4 I th o u gh t th is was imp o rta n t b ecau se a llo win g t h e m t o a sk me q u e stio n ga ve me in sight o n some o f t h e i s su es th at co n cern ed t h em. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 224 Malone, Me gan Literature Review This secti on looks int o differ ent aspe cts of develo pment and gender studies . The literature review looks at the langu a ge barrie rs and chall en ges asso ciated wi th ethnogr aphic resea rch; issues con cerni ng water and developm e nt; how women pla y a ro le in developm ent; and what I see as the importa nt insti t utions that have to be put in place or chan ged befor e wat er and land rights can be come a focus or reali t y for wome n. The practi ces I fo cus on are female genit al mut il ati on/cutti ng (FGM/ C ), pol ygamous mar ria ge s, and the d ynami c batt le of educati on ri ghts. Concernin g educ ati on, I look specificall y at the go als of Education for All , enacted b y th e United Nati ons Educati onal, Sci enti fic, and Cult ural Or ganiz ati ons (UNESC O) an d how the y aff ect yo un g girls in Ken ya . FGM/C will be approache d from cultural and sc ien ti fic perspecti ves. When I tr avell ed to Ken ya, I knew the y spok e En gli sh as one of at least thre e lan gua ges that the y know. En gli sh and Swahil i are the two official lan gua ges of Ken ya, while ea ch household speaks their tr ibal langu a ge. The re wer e a few Ken ya ns in the Khwisero district that I met that also knew Ar abic bec ause the y tr avell ed up north to find work or the y wer e from the coast that has as a hi gh Arab population. In m y op ini on resear ch is hard to anal yz e, even wh en both the resea rche r and t he participant spe ak the same lan gua ge fluentl y. Howeve r, workin g in Khwisero, whe re the y sp eak mostl y Luh ya and S wahil i, tr yin g to gathe r information was ha rd. The women I wo rked wit h and int erviewed all spoke Engli sh well , which made res ear ch easier. Th e y were the women I sp ent the most time wit h during m y first t rip. Headin g ba ck thi s past summ er, Christ ine the mama of the hous e where m y team sta ye d at Elwangale spoke Engli sh ver y well , howev er, this trip around Rina who spoke ver y litt le En gli sh I spent the most time wit h. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 225 Malone, Me gan :omen’s ,nteractions Zith 'eYelopment Water poli cies and gend e r inequali ti es wer e establ ished as an important asp ect of development in the mid 1970‟s ( R a y 2007 ) how eve r earl y on in the studi es, questi ons were posed concernin g ho w women shoul d be incorporated in to the developm ent pol icies. Part of the deb ate was whethe r or not wom en shoul d be just consi dered in developm ent proj e cts or shoul d the women be acti vel y invol ved in how projects are conducted. Studies are sh owing that ther e is a sli ght benefi cial outcome if women ar e directl y in volved in the design and implementation of projects, but it is not conclusi ve ( Zwa rteve en 199 7 ; Nati ons 2005 ; Ra y 20 07 ). Another wa y to look at it is through the e ye s of Is ha Ra y. Again the iss ue in the literature concernin g women and developm ent are the ideol ogic al shi ft in women in d evelopm ent, women environment and developm ent, and gender and d evelopm ent. The app roa ch that women in developm e nt theor y tak e s is to just take women and throw them into developm ent, assumi ng that just women givi ng th eir opini on is enough for de velopm ent. Whil e gende r and developm ent looks at the relations hips between men and women , the cult ural impl icati ons of what it means to be a man or woman, and how women wil l be ef fec ted by developm ent. It is ar gued in the literature on water in dev elopm ent that women need easie r ac cess to wat er so that the y can spend their “new ” free time wo rking on providi n g a new source of inc ome to the fami l y while gend er and developm ent address es the compl ex it ies of the dynami cs b etween m en and women and wh at women need. Th e other i ssue that gender and development assess is how women‟s roles have been form ed throu gh cult ural, ethni c, and so cial ties throughout histor y (Ra y 2007). Women, the environment, and developm ent argues that wome n have a spe cial tie to nat ural resour ces and have an und erstandin g fo r the land and water that others do not understand because women ne ed to understand the land to feed and ca re fo r the fam il y (Ra y 2007). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 226 Malone, Me gan The Intern ati onal Confer ence on Water and the Environment held in Dubli n, Ireland, in 1992, establi shed four po int s to which water and s ustainable developm ent p oli cies should be based on. The point s are refe rred to as the Dubli n Principl es which state the foll owing: 1. Fresh water is a finite an d vulnerable resourc e, es senti al to sust ain life, developm ent and the env ironment. 2. W ater developm ent and mana gement shoul d be based on a participator y approach, invol vin g user s, planners, and poli c y m akers at all levels. 3. W omen pla y a central p a rt in the provisi on, managem ent and saf e guardin g of water. 4. W ater has an economi c value in all its competi ng uses and shoul d be reco gniz ed as an econom ic good. ( R a y 2007 ) I thi nk that these four pri ncipl es are important to be awa re of when dev elop ment projects ar e being pro duced. Again, I questi on whether or not water shoul d hav e an eco nomi c value att ach ed to it, since it is the essence of sustaining lif e. Base d off of ex perien ces wor king with EW B-MS U water shoul d not have a monetar y value, but the maintenance of the pump and other machin er y shoul d have value pla ced on it. Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Female Genit al Mut il ati on/C utt ing (FGM/G) is a procedur e that alt ers the vagin a and makes it painful t o impossi ble to have sex . Accor ding to The World He alt h Organiz ati on (WHO), FGM/C af fects between 100 and 140 mill ion youn g girls and wo men. There are four different te chniques to FGM/C : clit redectom y, pa rtia l or full removal of th e cli toris; ex cisi on, partial or tot al removal of the cli toris, the labia minora, and someti mes the labia majora; infibul ati on, which is the narrowin g of th e vagina with a seal b y cutt ing an d reposi ti on parts of McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 227 Malone, Me gan the labia and removi n g th e cli toris; finall y, ther e is other forms of harming t he va gina and cli toris by fo rms of prickin g, pie rcing, in cisi ng, sc rapin g and caute riz ing the genit al are a 5 . The proc edure sta rts bet ween the ages of inf anc y to fifteen ye ars of age an d in Africa alone af fects mor e than 90 mill ion girls and wome n. This tradit ion can cau se c ysts , infertili t y, bladder infe cti ons, risks during chil dbirth includi ng the death of the newb orn, and if the girl has had the infibul ati on proc edure done, th e y have to undo it s o that she can co nceived a chil d and give birth to the chil d to l ater hav e the pro cedur e performed again. (Acco rd ing to UN Refu gee Agenc y r ou ghl y 30% -50 % of women hav e unde r gone FGM/C , the numbe rs fluctuate dep endin g on age.) Beat rice A, on e of the women I grew to know ver y well , was the one and onl y woman who approa ched me abo ut this issue. She asked if women in the US go thr ough thi s proc edure. I said no, and I reacted in such a wa y th at I thought was inappropri ate. I was negati ve about the iss ue and tol d her we tho ught it was bad. Later on I did fu rther rese arch on the topic and I found that FGM/C is an invasive procedu re, it leav es a lo t of women defo rmed an d in pain, but I also saw the cult ural side of the iss ue. Why is this proc edure sti ll being condu cted toda y? There ar e stron g reli gi ous and cultural traditions that are still ingrained into today‟s culture. Was it a procedure to control women or prote ct them? In Eu rope an d Americ a t he procedu res were int ro duced durin g the 19 t h and 20 t h century to curve women‟s sexual desires. I think originally in African and Middle Eastern tradition, it was a procedure not to control one‟s desire, but to preserve purity and chasti t y. 5 Un les s o th erw is e spe cifi ed , a ll sta tistic s a n d d efin itio n s a re fo u n d o n W H O.in t McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 228 Malone, Me gan For Ni ge rian women FG M/ C was a sign of chasti ty, purit y, and a passa ge from a yo un g girl to womanhood ( Prisc a O. Anuforo 2004 ) it is a procedu re to be reve red . Howeve r, Anuforo et al, also found that the tradit ion is fading and tha t it is the grandmot hers that would like the tradit ion to be main tain and the youn g girls and th eir fathe rs want to see th e procedu re removed. That can be seen in Ken ya wher e in the weste rn re gion it is basicall y nonex ist ent. There are people that believe that FGM/C is against human rights, “«only someone who was coe r ced, manipulated, or highly irrational would agree to undergo female genital mutilation and«valid informed consent« is impossible ( Sal l y Shel don 1998 ) . I thi nk if we stil l saw FGM/ C as a means to cont r ol women as it was in the Unit ed States and Eur ope than it should be eradi cated. But if the indi vi dual feel s that it is a rit e of pass age, or they thi nk that it repr esents chasti t y, does that mean that the procedure is w rong" Especially when in today‟s “modern” society, piercing one‟s clitoris and having labiapasty has bec ome incr ea si ngl y mor e popul ar . What is the dif ferenc e bet ween a rel i gi ous proce dur e and plast i c sur ger y? My poi nt is that our per cepti on is that women do not have a choi ce when it comes to cer emoni es like FGM/ C, but if it is becomi ng les s and less of an iss ue than there has to have been a cult ur al shif t and women must have a choi ce . Monogamy, Polygny, and Religion The Kenya Nati onal Bureau of St ati st ics and USAID publi shed anot her year s wor t h of dat a from thei r annual Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) . They repor t that birth rat e is at an all time low at an average of 4.6 birt hs per woman. The average woman in urban area s has 2.9 chi l d r en, whi le in rur al areas it 5.9 chil dr en ( St ati st ics 2010 ) . There is also a str ong corr el at i on bet ween the low birt h rates of women who are educat ed at 3.1 to those who ar e uneduc at ed at 6.7 bir ths. The dat a report ed that 95% of all women and 98% of all men who took the sur vey wer e awar e of diff erent kinds of fami l y planni ng met hods whet her it is condoms or pill s. If that is the cas e then how is the bir t h rate sti ll so high in rural ar eas ? McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 229 Malone, Me gan The Dail y Nat i on in Nai robi report ed that the birt h rate is high in the rur al areas because Polyga my/ pol ygn y is hi gh in those areas and that oft en the co -wi ves co mpet e for the number of chil dren bet ween them and they seem to have pr ef er ence s on the sex of the chil d ( Si ri ngi 2010 ) . A study done in 1998 showed that women in a pol ygynous mar r i age have mor e contr ol over the number of chil dr en and if contr acepti ves are used ( Dodoo 1998 ) . Along wit h that compet i ti on I found in my dail y conver sat i ons wit h the women that among them, their pas tor s and missi onar ies ar e al ways tell i ng women and their husba nds that each chi l d is a bles si ng. Anot her area of ques ti on I saw ari se was that of wif e inher it ance . The pract ice of wif e inher it ance is that when a husba nd dies, the wif e or wives and their chi l dr en would be taken in by a brot her or per haps an uncl e so that they can be taken car e of. However , what choice s are the women given once taken by their husband‟s brother or uncle" Findings Lookin g at the dif fer ent water poli ces and the gen der and dev elopm ent I th ink that each theor y has its place but I look to questi ons that are not as ked in those ideologies. Th ere are two problems I see here base d from m y obs ervati ons from the Khwisero re gion . First, if you make water acc ess easie r for women, the developm ent group needs to spend time convincing th e comm unit y that the new source was the cle anest water so that the water wil l help prevent disease and illness. Se condl y, th e women ne ed to be tau ght what fre e time is. Women know how to keep their houses clean and keep food on the tabl e for their fami li es. Feedi ng and nu rturin g the fami l y i s a womanmother‟s number one concern. I saw no such time spent as “leisure” unless it was ri ght befor e the wom an went to sleep. Wome n are const antl y fil li n g up their time wit h other occupati ons. M y conc er n with the second issue is thi s: If the y le arn to ma ke products, who is goin g to want to bu y the products the women mak e in this new free time? In Khwisero I sa w McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 230 Malone, Me gan women doing dif fer ent kinds of acti vit ies for the welfar e of the fami l y. If th e woman was a sta y at hom e mot her, she was coll ecti ng water, prepa ri ng the fo od, or cle anin g the compound. If the woman was also a worki ng mot her; i.e. te achin g, working at their shop in town or selli ng food, she was doin g all the acti vit ies of the sta y- at -home mot her plus goin g off in to town, or to work to bring in some inc ome wh il e the husband was of f working in the fields or at a business in town. The products of most con cern are the foods need ed for the fami l y. If wome n are tau ght to knit hats or brac elets tourist are going to b e the intende d p art y. Out in rural pla c es like Khwisero tourist s are ra rel y seen an d I have yet to run int o a NGO that provides the m eans for women to send the products to store s in the states. It seems to me, base d on my obse r vat i ons that men and women unde r st and that the mor e mout hs you have, the har der it is to feed them. But in thes e rural areas most peopl e have 5 or 6 chil dren. Granted some of these chil dr en are product s of co -wi ves that have di ed like the case of Nel li e and J ackson, but most of thes e peopl e seem to j ust keep havi ng chil dr en even if they ar e poor. However , Nel li e, Chr isti ne, and Beat ri ce M are all well educ at ed women, with mul ti ple cer ti fi cat es and have or st ill do wor k other places ; thes e women all have 4 or mor e chil dren. Tradi ti on and God (acc or di ng to most reli gi ons) say that the mor e chil dr en, the mor e bount if ul and fruit f ul your lif e is and will be. But when that col li des with modern technology like contraceptives then how can people justify going against God‟s Will verses what might be see n as heal thi er. During th e 2009 and 201 0 trip, I sp ent a lot of time in the kitchen with the women. 6 It did not matter that there was a language barrier; women‟s work is very similar across cultures. Mother‟s are the care takers and are to p rovide sus tenance to their fami l y. The kit chen is an important place be cause the women ar e usuall y pr eparin g food and the chil dren ar e alw a ys with 6 Th e Kitch en for mo st co mp o u n d s co n sist s o f a s ep ar at e h u t th at is small er th an a t y p ical ho u se, a n d u s u su ally ju st o n e r o o m. Their h o u s es a re b ein g mod ern iz ed a n d o n certa in co mp o u n d s t h e k itch en is p laced with in t h e main h o u se. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 231 Malone, Me gan their mot her. The kit che n is where the wom en, who are not awa y workin g in the shambas 7 or own businesses, would b e workin g on the meals all da y. For ex ampl e, Chr ist ine from Elwangale, who I sta yed with, would wake around six in the morning, prep ared br eakf ast while gett in g re ad y for work, s weep and clean parts of t he compound, b y ei ght in the morning start walking to wo rk. She would work at a secondar y school about a 45 minute walk from the compound. She would be home around five in the evenin g, and immediat el y sta rt prepa rin g dinner. Dinner would b e set on the table, the who le fami l y sit s down for di nner, and she would then start to gr ade home work, spend time wit h he r husband, and then go to bed around ten or eleven at ni ght. The dish es from dinner would b e saved for chores in the m orning. M y point is that the work of a woma n is to not onl y to pr epar e the food, but make sur e that ever yone is content. Towards the en d of my trip this summ er when I was jus t overseei ng the last pie ces of our projects I would was h clot hes and help the wo men prepa re dinner. Just watchin g the cooks int eract wit h the mother of the house, or watchin g the mother of the house i nteract wit h he r husband all owed me to observe the d yn ami cs in the differ ent rel ati onshi ps. Having th e abil it y to just sit and listen to the women speak of no rmal acti vi ti es and iss ues gav e me gr eat insight int o how far off m y ori ginal resea rch questi on was: How does colle cti ng water impact educati on? The focus groups all owe d me to see that the issue s Ken yan women fac e are not so diff erent from American wom en. Fo r ex ampl e, Ken yan women struggle wit h tr yin g to balance a fami l y and a job (like most women the y have to do all the house work and be finished 7 Field s, t h ey gro w t h e main st ap le foo d s: corn , p o ta to es, t o m at o es, n ap ia gras s (for th e a n imals), an d t ea. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 232 Malone, Me gan b y the tim e the y have to start walki ng to wo rk) an d it is comm on knowledge that husbands beat their wives, but not an issue for the wom en to discuss togethe r, it is a private matter. 8 Case Studies & Time Stamps To tr y and fi gure out the role that women pla y in t he Khwisero dist rict and perhaps all of Kenya, I wanted the women to complete time stamps. Each booklet would record one week‟s worth of work and dail y acti vit ies of each woman. Within these booklets I also asked five op en - ended questi ons:  W hat does educati on for girls mean?  What values have you ta ught your dau ghters and yo un g girls?  How has your role of wife and daughter changed from your mother‟s ?  W hat are the roles of wo men in societ y?  W hat hopes and wishes d o you hav e for youn g gi rls? I was ori ginall y going to ask three or four wom en that I kno w to compl ete tim e stamps for me and giv e them 2 or 3 ex tra booklets to hand out to random women the y kno w. Howeve r, I reali z ed that the y would probabl y giv e the ex tra booklets to women that knew En gli sh, and knew Engli sh well enou gh to write and compr ehend the questi ons I asked without having to transl ate them. But I also reali z ed that the women I know well becaus e the y were eit her related to Jackson or were te ach ers. Teach ers hav e a hi ghe r level of educ ati on and pe ople who know J ackson just want to please the visi tors. My natur al incli nati on when travel li ng is to gr avit ate towards En gli sh. I am more than wil li ng to learn local lan gua ges; I thi nk that Luh ya , the tribal langu a ge of the region is beauti ful, but workin g on resea rch and l earnin g what chicken is in Luh ya is not condu cive to gett in g m y work done. My time was limi ted so I had to gravit a te towards people who coul d help me gather info rma ti on the quickest. 8 /ŶƚŚĞ<ŚǁŝƐĞƌŽƌĞŐŝŽŶƚŚĞƌĞŝƐĂǁŽŵĞŶ͛ƐŐƌŽƵƉƚŚĂƚŵĞĞƚƐŽŶĐĞĂǁĞĞŬŽƌƐŽƚŽĚŝƐĐƵƐƐŝƐƐƵĞƐŽĨŝŶĞƋƵĂůŝƚLJ͕ƚŚŝƐ ap p ar en tly is a n ew k in g o f gr o u p . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 233 Malone, Me gan Case studi es are a form o f rese arch th at allows the resea rche r to get the stor y of indi viduals with more breadth. I fo cused on thre e women who I felt comfo rtable talki ng with. Case studi es allow the re search to dive deep er into the cult ure of the peopl e the y decid e to follow. Case studi es look for trends but reco gniz e that quanti tativel y the numbers are not the re. This second trip to Ken ya all owed me to do a few case studi es and the tim e stamps ac compani ed these case s tudi es. Case studi es is a form of res ear ch that all o ws the rese arch er to focus acut el y on a few women and their lives unlike surve ys that just gathe r surfa ce inform ati on and look at gener al them es. When I left last summ er I had met some ama z ing women from the focus groups I conducted , like Beat rice A whom I mentioned earlier. Goin g ba ck and approachin g them mad e me reali z e that there wer e a few flaws in m y resea rch. I reali z ed that the women I was about to ap pr oach are all highl y edu cated women, especi all y for a region like Western Ken ya. I gravit ated towards thes e wome n because I found that th eir ac compl ishm ents in their lives seemed mor e t ypic al from the standp oint of someone (me) wh o has grown up with equal ri ghts to educati on and gender issu es. Now the main purpose of the tim e stamps was to see how the wom en condu cted their ever yda y lif e. The wom en spent most of their da y doin g house chores. The house chor es bein g; sweepin g, cookin g, di gging, washing dishes, fetch ing wat er, and coll ecti n g veget ables to name a few. Man y thi n gs did no t chan ge from da y to da y. Nell ie and Beatri ce A would bathe the chil dren, and both the Be atrices would go to schoo l to teach. Nell ie and Be atrice M menti oned time spent in leisure being eit he r watchin g TV as Beat ri ce M did or spendi n g time wit h her husband as Nell ie had reported . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 234 Malone, Me gan Nellie Nellie was Jackson‟s second wife. However, as long as I have known her she has been his onl y wife. I have establi shed the most comfor table and closest relations hip wit h her. Durin g m y first six week stint , I spent a lot of time observ ing her and talkin g with her about he r life. She is a ver y edu cated an d accompl ished woman. She is certified as a secre tar y and she has finished seconda r y schoo l and some other certifica ti ons. By the tim e I left after those six weeks she was trav ell ing to Kak ame ga to work. Th at me ant that J ackson would take car e of their chil dren Monda y throu gh Frida y and Nell ie would come home on weekend s. That was ver y unusual to see and I neve r reall y questi oned wh y s he went aw a y to work. Jackson and Nell ie had four children and a nephew that lived with them; Johnson, 15 is their oldest and Jackson‟s first wife‟s child; 9ivian, 5 their only daughter is Nellie‟s biological child; Hilary, 3 ò years is also Nel lie‟s biological child; and finally Sims, 3 ó years is their youngest and Jackson‟s first wife‟s other chil d. I kn ew that pol ygam y was stil l an acceptable pract ice in Luh ya cult ur e, Ken ya , and most of Afric a. I noti ced th at Hil ar y and Sim s are onl y 4 mont hs apart. Soon af ter Nell ie had Hila r y, Jackson‟s first wife Elizabeth gave birth to Sims and died of complications from his birth. When Nell ie told her stor y to me, she ex pressed how har d it was to raise t wo babi es. She said it was basically like raising twins, “One child carried on my back, and the other child carried on my side.” When I first met Nellie I was very surprised to find that she was originally a second wife, because sh e was so educ ated it surprised me that she stil l practi ced pol yga m y. She took care of her fami l y so well and tr eated her guest so well , t hat it was hard to ima gin e her has a second wife taking ord ers from the fir st wife. To this da y, J ack son has not taken a se con d wife, and I do not thi nk he will . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 235 Malone, Me gan When Nell ie would discuss her stor y she has so pr oud of her fami l y and her accompl ishm ents, but what seemed to make her th e proudest was th e fa ct that she had he alt h y chil dren and was able to run a stron g secu re house hold. The chil dren are b athed eve r y da y, she walks to the market ev er yd a y to bu y food, and sh e prepa res food all da y lo ng. When I visi ted both tim es, she had other women in the comm unit y helpi n g he r prep are m e als and clean for he r because sh e and J ackson would house EWB-MS U memb ers throu ghout the summer. There are two incid ents at the end of m y t rip in 2010 with Nell ie that stand out. Nell ie , I had asked to complete a tim e stamp. I had also as ked her to att end the op e ning ceremon y of th e borehole and the compos ti ng latrine at Elw an gale Primar y. On th e da y of t he cer emon y a piki piki driver 9 picked her up and brou ght her and she remained close to me thro ughout the da y. During th e ce remon y, J ackson was ask ed to speak : during his speech he said, “Behind every gr ea t man, stands his wife,” and asked Nellie to introduce herself to the crowds. I had never seen a man ackno wled ge his wife like that befo re in Ken ya . The other incident was la ter that da y. At the end of the ceremon y, aft er we all ate, Nell ie and I we re spe akin g. She handed me back her time stamp, looked at me, and said thank you. She went on to mention that she is either on the co mpound or at the market, never abl e to go other places. She was gr ateful for the oppo rtunit y to spend time wit h other people and se e ot her events. I knew th at women sta ye d on their compound; I just neve r knew what it meant to them when the y could le ave an d see somethi ng new. Th ese ex ampl es are just so me of the social const raint s women face. Beatrice M 9 Piki piki is t h e t erm for a mo to rcy cle d riv er McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 236 Malone, Me gan Beat rice M and her husb and Laban both te ach at s chools in the east part of the dist rict. The Summ er 2009 trip was the first tim e we work ed in the east. She and Laban hav e five chil dren, and which two of those chil dren are girls . I chose he r for m y time stamp this summ er because sh e and her husb and seem to have a ver y nontradit ional relations hip. I met Beatrice M and Laban s epar atel y bec ause Lab an worke d at the other east school we wer e workin g at. The two of them are ver y cal m, ver y understandin g pe ople, who are obvious l y highl y educ a ted. Lab an was v er y pati ent wit h us and he just had a good unde rstandin g of us . Beat rice was jus t ver y kind and ver y under standing of us also, but she had a gener al sphere about her that made her alm ost seem like the matriarch of th e primar y school. Beatrice A Now Beatric e A also wor ked with Be atrice M but she is significantl y youn ge r and he r children are also very young. Beatrice M‟s children are all older and out o f the house. Beatri ce A. has three chil dren, tw o of which ar e girls. I wanted to get a sens e of who she was and wh at she beli e ved was the role of women because wh en I did the focus group at her school she asked me if Americ ans beli eve in female cir cumcisi on. There I saw was a level o f educati on and knowledge that was b e yo nd what I had run int o be fore. She was obvi ousl y keepin g touch wit h the curr e nt issues of the world. The other question I found that had intriguing answers was “What are the roles of women in societ y? 1 0 ” Beatrice A had a completely different answer than Nellie and Beat rice M. She beli eves that women sho uld;  Guide youn g gi rls/children on to good behavior.  P rovide basic needs e. g. goods, clot hes and shelt e r 10 Th es e a n sw er s we re p ro vid e d in t h e same o rd er th e wo m en p laced t h em. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 237 Malone, Me gan  Ensure that chil dren have medical care  P rovide securit y and prot ecti on of girls Whil e Nell ie answered th e qu esti on with the foll owing ans wers;  Giving birth to chil dren  Taking car e of her chil dr en and husband  P reparin g food fo r the fami l y  W elcoming visi tors  Taking car e of the hous e: sweepin g, cle aning, arr a ngin g, dust ing and planni ng how the fami l y will eat and at what tim e  P lanting ve getabl es so that she should not waste tim e and mone y goin g to the market to by vegetabl es  J oining with other wome n in sharing ide as on ho w the y can develop their houses. It is wall in Kiswahil i: Maendeleo ya wanawake Beatrice M‟s answers seemed to follow Nellie‟s;  C ooking  Laund r y  Giving birth  Bab y Car e  Fetchin g fir ewood  Fetchin g water  House and home maint en ance  S erving visi tors  S erving husbands I find these answers fascinating especially because Beatrice M‟s answers doe not link up to her answer about the role of educati on for women. She sa ys she wants equali ty amon g girls and boys, but does equality mean serving ones husband" Nellie‟s answers again seemed typical for the wa y she ran her house and tre ated her husband . With Beatric e A‟s answers do not really come close to matching Nellie‟s or Beatrice A‟s answers. It seems to me that she is more concern ed with youn g girls learnin g to take car e of the comm unit y at lar ge. My Interactions with other Notable Women throughout the Community There were m an y women who I had the ple asure of running int o. The women above fit int o m y rese arch as speci fic cas e studi es and were the easiest for m e to cont act in m y time frame. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 238 Malone, Me gan Howeve r, the women I menti on nex t were just as crucial to m y rese ar ch but for various reasons I was not able to ask them for time stamps. I gave a time stamp to Al freda for numerous reaso ns. She is a teache r at M wisena prim ar y school in the eas t district and works with the youn g chil dren. She is the mot her of 5, 4 gi rls and her youn gest is a bo y. She and her dau ghters do ever ythi n g, wh ether it is cooking dinner or washin g clot hes to make sure their broth er can sp end all his tim e stud yin g and be come a success ful man. Her daughters wer e ver y s elf -su fficient and wh en I arrive d at their house with Alfreda th e girls wer e ma king dinner, doin g cho res , and workin g in the sha mba. The other reason I thou ght her influenc e was imp ortant was the fact that h er husband was working in another cit y, and living with another woman. Alfred a tol d me that unless her husband could affor d raisi ng their kids and providi ng enou gh mon e y for the m to survive; he could not marr y thi s woman. During th e summer, 200 9, I sta ye d in the east with a pol ygami st fami l y. Christ ine, the mot her of the house that we sta yed with on the co mpound was one of fou r wives. The compound was owned by Christine‟s mother and her eldest son. (I would like to note that Christine‟s mother, and two of her sisters are pastors.) The four wives all lived on the compou nd with Christine‟s mother while the eldest son was living in another city with another woman. C hrist ine was the first wife, had fou r chil dren, and her youn gest chil d was v isi ti ng when I was sta yin g on the compound . We did not see Christ ine much bec ause she was a meat inspector and was constantl y travell in g from one mark et to the nex t making sure the me at kiosks were up to code. The y wer e obvious l y wealt h y becaus e ther e wer e four wives, and th is past summ er I found out that her son was in London for two weeks. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 239 Malone, Me gan During th e summer of 20 10 I sta ye d with a wome n name Christ ine who lived near th e Elwangale Prim ar y s cho ol, her husband Fred, wa s the head tea che r of Eka tsom bero Primar y school. She was notable in m y res ear ch for a few reasons. She was a mother of fou r w ho onl y ever wanted thre e chil dre n. She felt it was best to have fe w chil dren to tak e care of. She work ed full time as a secr etar y at Eshi nutsa Secondar y Sc hool. She was also nomi nated as the Chairwoman of the Scho ol Management Comm it tee, which EWB -MS U as ks the comm unit y to set up so that there is rep resentation of the parents of the students to comm unicate wit h EWB - MS U. Whil e m y team and I wer e sta yin g on their compound, Christ ine would wake up around 6 in the morning, help he r hired worke rs get br eakf ast read y and do some ho use cleanin g cho res. But once m y te am left sh e did all the cookin g and cleanin g in the mornin g before sh e left at around 830 for work. She would arriv e home aro und 530 or 6 and then get dinner prep ared for me and the fami l y. I dist inctl y rememb er on e da y when we were sit ti ng in the kit chen, sh e looked at me and said “I am done” she decided that that was the day where she was not going to do any work. No house cleaning, no ironing, and no cooking. Just go to church and “hang out.” She was going to leave the cooking and cle aning to the wom en she hired to help while my t eam was ther e. Livi n g with her family for 6 weeks gave me great insight into how women‟s roles were defined. She worked five da ys a week gett in g paid, but she w as also ex pected to fulfill all her duties as a wife and mot her. She was sup posed to cook eve r y meal , clean the house, and ma ke sure he r husband and chil dren had eve r ythi ng the y needed. Her elde st and youn gest chil dren lived at hom e, but the two middl e chil dren were awa y at boardin g sc hool about an hour from their home. One incident I had with the fami l y all owed me to see what the y thou ght of Americans. I was home with Christ ine whil e m y te am was awa y on a week end trip. I off ered to wash th e McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 240 Malone, Me gan windows for them (the y were fix ing up their house so there were rep airs that had to be made ). I offer ed to get wate r and s oap, but she said no, the hired help would get it. So, once I had ever ythi n g, I start ed to cl ean the windows. Fred came home soon aft er I s t arted and he tol d me right wa y th at I did not need to do that. Christ ine then said I was doin g a good job and she did not know I kn ew how to do that. She alm ost seemed surprised to se e that I knew how to cle an. I had to spend time ex plaining how Ame ric ans qu a nti f y work. She said she pictured us sitt ing around and ha ving othe r people work fo r us. I had to ex plain to her that most Americans put mone y behind an edu cati on, and for the most part, our parents tak e ca re of us whil e we gain an educati on so that we can increas e our capit al. The biggest reali z ati on I had was that in the U.S . we quanti f y work b y th e hour. Wages d epend on what the job is and how man y hou rs a week we put in. In Khwise ro, peo ple pa y b y the da y. Fund is (labor worke rs) are pai d by the da y. Fo r ex ampl e, when we hired people to buil d the compos ti ng latrine we paid the head work er 300 KES a da y and the people he hired got paid 250 KES a day. That is rou ghl y 3 US dol lars a da y for the fundis to feed the mselves and their fami li es. Th e point I am tr yin g t o make is that it is hard for me to critiqu e th eir work and suppo rt dev elopm ent when the y are working in a ver y different cult ural s ystem than Americans. The foll owing thr ee wom en I will mention briefl y. The y wer e women that i n m y m ind have eit her ov er come or coped with gende r inequ ali ti es. Josephine is a teacher at Mwise na prim ar y and thi s past summer I found out she ha d one son. He sta yed at s chool wit h her bec ause she could not affo rd to pay for a nann y. Unde r th e right condit i ons J osephine would have be en able to pa y for a nann y s o that she could work, an d the nann y could take ca re of her son and tak e care of the compound. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 241 Malone, Me gan Sophia is a woman who was a translato r for us whil e we wer e condu cti ng the surve ys in 2009. Since her En gli sh was so good, we kne w that she had compl eted sec ondar y school. She is a mother of five gi rls. I remember her tell ing me that she had no sons, and that her five girls were a “blessing.” She did ask about birth control and having girls verses boys. I told he r that some people used birth control, but that there wer e man y people who felt that God provides them with as man y chil dren ha s He wants. When it came to the gender of the chil d, I said that each child is a “blessing” and that one gender is n ot bet ter than the other. When I came back in 20 10, J ackson had assembled the previous transl ator s, however, Sophia was not there. I asked him where she was and he said, “You know Megan, some men want their wives to stay at home and do their duty.” It w as alri ght fo r her to make a litt le mone y the previous yea r bein g our translator, but for her to do it again this past su mm er was out the questi on. Rina spoke the least amo unt of Engli sh of all the women I got to know. But she gave me the most amount of contrast to women like Be atric e M and Nell ie. Rina wa s the cook and cleane r that Christ ine dec ided to hire when m y tea m was sta yin g at Elwan gale. She is around 30, married, and has a four year old son, Paul. Rina has her own hut on her husband‟s mother‟s land. Her husband lives i n another cit y, and gives his mother the mone y for the fami l y. Her husband has anothe r wife and Rina would like to just live alone and have her husband send her mone y so that she can su rvive, but she wants to be on her own. Rina ma y be a mother, but she does not get to raise her son. The mot her - i n -la w takes care of Paul and Rina someti mes sees him at school. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 242 Malone, Me gan I reco gniz e that all of tha t seems t ypic al, but I fou nd out that she lived with a whit e man in Nairobi for man y ye ar s. She learned to cook al l kinds of forei gn food. She did this all while she was mar ried. Christi ne said Rina was happ y t hen. When I heard Rina‟s story I distinctly remember Christ ine sa yi ng that, wh en Rina lived with the mzungu 1 1 she was happ y, and Christ ine said that she did not understand wh y he r husband would not just let her go and let her be happ y. That se emed like such an odd comm ent , because it means that Rina was living outsi de the sancti t y of marri a ge, and that Christ ine was alr ight wit h that. My perspective as a project manager: I had ver y posi ti ve ex peri ences whil e I was in Kh wisero for both summ ers. Howeve r, there were some cult ural boundaries such as women in power, and the idea of women as homemakers that m ad e m y role hard. The re wer e definitel y ex perienc es I had that had more impact t han others. In th e summer of 2009, that tr ip was about gett ing to k now the cult ure and the ex pectations of women. I would sit and watc h what Nell ie would wor k on during the da y. She taught me how to co ok local foods and b y the end of the trip thre atene d to marr y me off to one of her brothers. Th at seems mini mal; howeve r, I could tell that bein g able to cook well and serve me als was a si gn of having the pot enti al to be a goo d wife. 2009 and 2010, both pro ved to have gend er stru ggles. Ken ya is a ver y tra dit ional, patriarch al societ y; there are ve r y fe w women who hold high posi ti ons. In 2009, I was the coordinator of the su rve ys. I kn ew what the two EW B -MS U teams had to do, and I was the on e to facil it ate traini n g the Ken yans to condu ct the surve ys. I remember whe n I sta ye d in the East, one of the male head te ac hers asked when I was going to work on the su rv e ys. I gave him an 11 Mzungu is a t erm in Swah ili t h at mean s E u ro p ean , foreign e r, a n d sometim es t ra n s lat ed a s wh ite p er so n . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 243 Malone, Me gan answer. He then went to m y teamm ate, asked him the same questi on, and beli eved the answ er that m y teamm ate gave. (My te amm ate did not ha ve the cor rect info rmati on, because we had not seen ea ch other all da y.) In 2010, thr ee of the four project mana gers we re women. To eas e thi s sti gma, I mad e it ver y cle ar to the Elwangale community that I am “just” an anthropologist and sociologist that the ex per ts were m y teamm at es, made up of fou r en gine ers. Jackson and I had ver y a good wo rking rela ti onshi p in 2009 so working with him was not an i ssue, but for m an y people takin g stron g suggesti ons from wom en is ver y uncomm on. The fu ndis understood to talk to m y en gine ers, but if I was not satisfied with the work, the y were not gett ing paid. 1 2 At the tim e it did not necessaril y s ee m like it was hard for the m to li sten to me. But at the opening cer emon y at Elwan gale thr ee group s of students, made up of girls, all wrote son gs ab out how strong and coura geous I was, and that the y wanted to be just like me. (W ow, talk about the pressure. ) To be noted at Elwan gale, th e water us er comm it tee and the school mana geme nt commi tt ee that the schools set up, both of the chair people we re wom en. Another interesti n g incid ent I found at the op ening ceremon y was at the en d of the da y. We ended the festi vit ies with food. I was w alki ng around sa yin g goodb ye t o guests , and I walked over to on e of the classrooms. Ther e I fou nd all the women who were ap art of the festi vit ies were also the cooks. The y wer e sit ti ng i n the back eati ng beca use the y had to make sure that there was enou g h food. I did not feel co mfortable to sta y, bec aus e the y immediatel y treated me like a guest. I just wanted them to rela x . Analysis and Discussion 12 Note: all the treasur ers I have met of comm it tees, ex cept one, have been women. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 244 Malone, Me gan Lookin g at the answers to the five in -depth questi ons I gave the wom en, the word choic e was quite simil ar, like eq uali t y, discrim ination, the right choices, enableme nt, coura ge, comm unicati on, and dire cti on to name a few. I th ink that this is a sign that the women ar e educated and know wo rd s that follow the comm on iss ues that run through Ken ya, like gend er dynami cs o r the idea of coloni ali sm and discrim inati on. When I sa w words like equali t y and enablement I thou ght of NGOs and other develop ment groups tha t would u se words like that. I do not think the women are liberat ed b y using bi g words like that, howeve r, I do wonder if it is one of the first si gns that all ow women to become liberated. For Nell ie educati n g gir ls meant that the y wer e to learn their rol e in the house and lea rn how to handle her fa mi l y. Whil e Beatrice A said t hat educati n g girls meant to teach them how to adapt to chan gin g cir cum stances with cour a ge and Beat rice M said that edu cati ng girls me ant educati n g their fami li es to understand that girls are equall y important as bo ys and for that shoul d not be discrimi nated. A ll those answers are ex tremel y diff erent from one another, and in gett in g to spend time wit h each one of these wom en, thei r answe rs fit the wa y the y ran their households . Nell ie is ver y tradit ional and she has a certifi cate in t ypesett in g, like I said earlier sh e was all owed to go work in Kakame ga durin g the week while Jackson sta yed at hom e and took car e of the chil dren. Late r in 20 10 I asked Nell ie wh y that stopped an d she ex plained to me that it was too hard for the fami l y and she missed her chil dre n. When I spent most of m y time wit h Nell ie in 2009 she taught me ho w to cook tradit ional foo ds and serve th e fami l y. I felt ver y much like I was bein g conv erted and it seemed important for Nell ie to teach me the ways of her house. For Nell ie the sign of a good educati on is a household running smoo thl y. Whil e I was growin g up m y mot her tau ght me ho w to clean, set the tabl e, and cook some meals, bu t she also stressed the importance of gett ing a formal educati on. From m y observ ati ons it does not seem that women McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 245 Malone, Me gan are stressi n g to their chil dren the importanc e of school and what gaini n g a formal educati on means. Beat rice A is the youn g t each er who wo rks wit h preschool age chi ldren at Mwisena and wanted girls to learn to walk wit h coura ge. She wants her chil dren to b e ab le to get a good job. She herself is a certified t each er and from what I can see has t au ght her chil dren to get a fo rmal educati on. She seem ed to see the adv anta ges to a formal educ ati on, but I al so wonder what p art her husband and her pare nts have pla yed in that. Finall y, Be atric e M want ed girls to be t au ght alon g with their parents that t he y are equal to bo ys and shoul d not b e treated di ffe rentl y. This phi l osoph y is mirro red in her marria ge. Lab an tre ats his wife wit h equali t y. Beatrice M does not have to do all the house work and mak e sure the food is alw a ys read y to b e serv ed. Laban once said that sometim es when he gets up earl y and Be atrice M is not read y to go to work, he heats up the water, gets the break fast re ad y for both of them. That is ver y untradit ional, and t he y have raised their chil dren to know what equali t y is. These women fetch wate r ever yd a y but it is not their main conc ern fo r their chi ldren. These women want their chil dren/gi rls to understa nd equali t y and equal op portunit y. These women want their chil dr en to run a household. But these conce rns sound ver y sim il ar to the wa y m yself and m y friends were raised. I was tau ght that I was e qu al to ever yo ne else around me. Perhaps m y class status was not the same, but I was getti ng the same edu ca ti on. Educati on is where I see the di ffe renc e. In the Unit ed States and most European countr ies our parents tak e their time and mone y to make sure that we can acquire an edu cati on. But accordin g to those terms, that i s a formal ed ucati on. The people in Khwisero ar e just be ginni ng to unde rstand the McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 246 Malone, Me gan im portance of a formal educati on. For me and m y fami l y gett in g a degre e means that I hav e a chanc e to make mone y and own a home. Fo r the people in Khwisero an ed ucati on for their chil dren means that the y have to spend mone y on uniforms and books, and not food for the fami l y. Finall y it me ans that the free labor the y need to keep th eir fa rms going is go ne. Conclusion Gende r inequ ali t y is root ed in educati on. A forma l educati on all ows wome n to be equal to men. The purpose of Education for All is clear in that it is look ing towards a future wher e women are cr eated equal and treated with equali t y. The idea is that when women are educat ed the y then can tak e part in their own welf are. Th e y are abl e to lim it the number of chil dr en the y have, the y can work outs ide of the home, and the y are abl e to leave th e cont rol of their husbands. As I have stat ed , the prob lem with thi s process is that it ex pects that men and women can s ee the benefits of f orm al educ ati on right aw a y, and mak e the necess ar y ch an ges ri ght aw a y. I contest that there ne eds to be a cult ural shi ft that allows women to make steps to learn abo ut their ri ghts. But what also ne eds to occur is that ther e needs to be a broad er definiti on of developm ent and educati on. Access to cl ean water del egates how eas y it is for women to spend time on their dail y acti vit ies. Clean water m eans that people are healt hier and can live longer. The dist ance to get water me ans that women can invest more wo rk on the compound or find tim e to work at a shop so that the y can lea rn diff erent trad es. But acc ess to water does not me an women are disadvanta ge. What dete rmines who is and who is not disadvantaged is the cult ural histor y of a nati on or a tribe. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 247 Malone, Me gan Developm ent groups go in seeing a problem and t he y want to solve the sol uti on. For ex ampl e, missi onaries believe that the y need to co nvert people so the y can be sa ved. Christi an reli gions pol ygam y is pr ohibi ted; however, in Afr ica pol yga m y sti ll runs ramped. EWB -MS U beli eves that to solve the iss ue of clean water and creat e bett er acc ess to water is to buil d a pump at a prim ar y school. Afri ca Now wanted to solve t he problem of water, so t he y just buil t giant tanks at each s chool. Yet , each school that we hav e worked at stil l has those Afric a Now tanks that are fa ll ing ap art . M y point , developers are missi ng a step. Develope rs are not spendin g the time to unders tand the cu lt ure the y want to help. Take the tim e to understa nd the cult ural specifics behind the imp ortance of pol yga m y; t ak e the tim e to understand t he iss ue of access to clean water. Take the ti me to understand the cult ure befo re fix ing it. Though I sp ent onl y a few months in the comm unit y of Khwise ro over two ye ars, I have learned a lot about the ro le the women pla y in that area, I hav e seen the eff e cts of developm ent, and I have s een the issue s of educati n g youn g girl s. In the United States chil dre n and specificall y girls are bein g tol d to gain an edu cati o n, but maint ain the gend e r boundaries that are placed on us. Girls and bo ys are bein g tol d to gain a formal edu cati on so that the y can gain a job and have opti ons when it comes to car eer choices. But youn g girls are sti ll being tol d, obtain a degree , get marri ed, have chil dren, be a st a y at ho me parent, and su fficientl y provide for t hose chil dren, if need be, quit yo ur job. Tod a y, women want to have choi ces. Some women do not want to have chil dr en, an d because mu ch of the id eolog y in the United Stat es is sti ll patriarchal , women are s een to be cri ti ciz ed if the y do not wan t children. But wh at wo men in the global north have, are choi ces. Women in Ken ya s eem t o be fast appr oachin g tho se gender ed iss ues. Spec ificall y from the observati ons I hav e made, women and girls are bein g tol d to gain an educati on, but are sti ll McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 248 Malone, Me gan asking, What is the point of my fo rmal educ ati on? Nell ie, Be atrice A, and Beat rice M, hav e all gain e d a fo rmal educ ati on of some sort. Nell ie sp ends each da y on the co mpound and rar el y leaves, but she ex pects h erself and her dau ghter to be treated fairl y at hom e . Beat rice A. and Beat rice M. both tea ch and want to tell youn g girl s that th e y are equal to bo ys. For the girls in Khwisero, thi s is the stepping stone. On ce the y be li eve that the y ar e equal and once Ken ya has developed fu rther, the gir ls and women wil l also have choic es. As I saw, I thi nk developers see women who ar e dep ende nt on their husbands, like the cases with wif e inher it ance. The Glob al North wants t o see wom en have the choice to rais e their chil dren on th eir own, marr y anoth er person, or ev en in cas es like Rina, be able to wat c h her son grow up and no t live under the scrutin y of a mother- i n -law or husband that do es not like her. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 249 Malone, Me gan Bibliography D o do o, F. N.-A. (1998). "Marriage Ty pe and Repro ductiv e D ecisio ns: A Com parativ e Study in Sub - Saharan Africa." Jo urnal o f M arriage and Fam ily 60 (1): 232-242. Jo nes, T. E . (2000). "E thno graphy , belief ascriptio n, and e pistemo lo gical barriers." hum an Relatio ns 53 (1): 117-152. Ministry o f E ducatio n, S. a. T. (2004). A Po licy Framerowk r Fo r Educatio n, Training and Re search: M eeting t he Challenges o f E duacatio n, Training and Rese arch in Ke ny a in t he 21st Century . S. a. T. M inistry o f Eduacatio n. Nairo bi. Natio ns, U. (2005). Wom en and W ater. D . f. t . A. o . W. D . o . E . a. S. Affairs. Beijing, W omen 2000 and Beyo nd. P risca O. Anufo ro , L . O., D ula F. P asqui ao (2004). "Co mparative Study o f M eanings, Be liefs, and Practices o f Fem ale Circum cisio n Amo ng T hree Nigerian T ribes in t he United States and Nigeria." Jo urnal o f T ranscultural Nursing 15(2): 103-113. Ray, I. (2007). "Wom en, Wate r, and D ev elo pment." Annual Rev iew o f Env ironm ental Re so urces 32 : 421- 449. Sally Sheldo n, S. W. (1998). "Fem ale genital m utilatio n and c o smet ic surgery: re fulating no n -therapeutic bo dy mo dificatio n." Bio et hics 12 (4): 263-285. Sharlene Nagy Hesse -Biber and P . Leavy (2006). The P racit ce o f Qualitat iv e Research Tho usand O aks, Sage P ublicatio ns, Inc. Siringi, S. (2010). Po lygamous M arriages E xpo sing Kenyans to Risk o f HIV/ Aids, Warns New Surv ey . D aily Natio n. Nairo bi, Natio n M edia Gro up. Statistics, U. a. K. N. B. o . (2010). Kenya D emo graphic and Health Surv ey 2008-09. K. N. B. o . Statist ics. Nairo bi, USAID. Zwartev een, M . Z. (1997). "Wate r: Fro m Basic Nee d to Comm o dity : A D iscussio n o n Ge nder and W ate r Rights in t he Co ntex t o f Irrigatio n." Wo rld D ev elo pment 25 (8 ): 1335-1349. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 250 Mor ris, Zachar y X-Ray CT Scanning Techniques on Soil Samples Zachary Lee Morris McNair Scholarly Research Montana State University- Bozeman McNair Mentor: Dr. Robert Mokwa McNair Director: Dr. Shelly Hogan McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 251 Mor ris, Zachar y Table of Contents 1 Abstra ct ................................ ................................ ........................................................ 1 2 Int roduction ................................ ................................ ................................................. 2 3 Review of Lit era ture ................................ ................................ .................................... 4 4 Met hodology ................................ ................................ ................................................ 5 4.1 Background of Met hodology ................................ ............................................... 5 5 Data and Findings ................................ ................................ ........................................ 7 6 Conclusi ons ................................ ................................ ............................................... 12 7 Areas for Improve ment ................................ ................................ .............................. 13 8 Appendice s ................................ ................................ ................................................ 14 8.1 Labora tory Manual for Destr uctive Test ing Techniques ................................... 14 8.2 Labora tory Manual for Non- Destr uct ive Testi ng Techni ques ........................... 17 8.3 Images fro m the Scanner afte r Editing in ImageJ .............................................. 30 9 Refer ence s ................................ ................................ ................................................. 35 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 252 Mor ris, Zachar y List of Tables Table 1. Samples Used for Analysi s ................................ .................................................. 7 Table 2. Void Rati os, P oros ities, and Perc ent Differ ence s ................................................ 8 Table 3. Speci fic Gravity Example Calcul ati on ................................ .............................. 14 List of Figures Figur e 1. Grai n size distri bution plot for gravel sample G-2. ............................................ 9 Figur e 2. Grai n s ize distri bution plot for gravel sample G-3. .......................................... 10 Figur e 3. Grai n s ize distri bution plot for coar se sand sample CS -3. ............................... 10 Figur e 4. Grai n s ize dist ri bution plot for coar se sand sample CS-5. ............................... 11 Figur e 5. Grai n s ize distri bution plot for coar se sand sample CS -6. ............................... 11 Figur e 6. 2" PVC pipe and pl at form. ................................ ............................................... 17 Figure 7. CT scanner‟s control panel. ................................ .............................................. 18 Figure 8. CT scanner „Motion Control‟ and „;ray Control‟ boxes. ................................ 19 Figur e 9. Coll imat or and CT platform. ................................ ............................................ 20 Figur e 10. CT scanner 'System Cont rol ' box. ................................ .................................. 21 Figur e 11. Image t ab, expos e. ................................ .......................................................... 21 Figur e 12. CT loop tab. ................................................................ .................................... 22 Figur e 13. CT to PJ conver ter program. ................................ .......................................... 23 Figur e 14. Sele cting proper fil e when usi ng CTSim. ....................................................... 23 Figur e 15. Para met er s used for reconstr ucti on of images . ............................................... 24 Figur e 16. Import image sequenc e in ImageJ . ................................ ................................. 25 Figur e 17. Para met er s used for filt er in ImageJ . ................................ .............................. 25 Figur e 18. Thres hold ing the image. ................................ ................................................. 26 Figur e 19. Para met er s used for binar y conversion. .......................................................... 26 Figur e 20. RO I Manage r in ImageJ. ................................ ................................................ 27 Figur e 21. Para met er s used for ROI Mana ger. ................................ ................................ 27 Figur e 22. Analysi s usi ng histogram. ................................ .............................................. 28 Figur e 23. Analyzi ng particles. ................................ ........................................................ 29 Figur e 24. G -2 image after editi ng in ImageJ . ................................ ................................. 30 Figur e 25. G -3 image after editi ng in ImageJ . ................................ ................................. 31 Figur e 26. CS- 3 image after editing in ImageJ . ................................ ............................... 32 Figur e 27. CS-5 im age after editing in ImageJ . ................................ ............................... 33 Figur e 28. CS-6 im age after editing in ImageJ . ................................ ............................... 34 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 253 Mor ris, Zachar y 1 ABSTRACT This research focuses on the refinement of x-ra y compute d tomogra phy (CT) on soi l sample s. The prim ar y soil sample s that were used were gravel and coarse sand. Because these two soil sample s were used, the software processes a nd man ipul ati ons were calibrated to provide anal ysis only for these granular soil types; however , the general process should be simil ar for most soil samples. The goal of this research is to provide non - destruct ive techniques for determini ng the following soil proper ties: void rati o, poros it y, grain size distri buti on, a nd pore size distribut ion. Afte r finding proper techniques for deter mini ng these propertie s, a lab manual wa s creat ed to aid future students and individua ls in under sta nding CT tec hnolog y vs. tradit ional geotechnical laboratory techni ques. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 254 Mor ris, Zachar y 2 INTRODUCTION X-Ray computed tomogra phy on soil sample s is a scie nce that is currently sti ll in its infan cy in the engi neeri ng field. Computed tomography involve s non- dest ructive testi ng and there fore provides th e ability to re-run mult ipl e tests on a soil sample , which is valuable beca use it reduce s o r elimina te s testi ng bias . Another import ant fact or for non - destru ctive testing techni ques is effic ie ncy . Tradi tional destr ucti ve testing technique s are time cons u mi ng and may invol ve conside ra ble labor. As a conseque nce , vari abil ity between lab technic ia ns and their results can frequently occur . The x-ray CT scanne r at Mont ana State Univers ity - Bozeman (MSU) is not nearly as effic ie nt as curr ently available devices. MSU has a 2-dimensi onal 3 rd gener ation diverging scanner , wher eas the new scanner s are 3-dimensional cone beam; this create s for a large difference in scanning time. MSU‟s current scanner t akes approxi mat el y six to eight hours to compl et e a scan, and then another four to six hours to analyz e the scan. Wher eas , the cur rent 3- dimensi onal sca nner s can comple te a scan in less than th ir ty minut es; however , the anal ysis time for the new scanner s is curr ently unknown for the soil samples and para met er s anal yzed in this research. This report addre ss e s : a revie w of the literature used; how soil sample s were obtai ned; data, results, compar isons , and findings; destructive and non -dest ructive testin g techniques; lab manual s of the two tes ti ng methods; end results, ways to improve , and resear ch areas that were not explore d due t o time const raints. The main so il properties that will be eval uate d are void ratio, porosity, grain size dist ribution, and pore size distribution. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 255 Mor ris, Zachar y Void ratio (e) is defined as the volume of voids (V v ) divide d by the volume of solids (V s ), e = V v / V s . Porosi ty (n) is simil ar , and is defined as n = (V v ) / (V v + V s ). Poros it y and void rati o are directl y related using the following for mula , n = e / (1+e) . Grain size distr ibuti on is a statistic al dist ribution that is used for soil classific at ion (Mokwa 2008) . It is det er mine d by using mult ipl e sieve sizes and then using a machi ne to shake the sample for a ppr oximat el y ten minut es. The retur ned soil is wei ghed on each sieve, recor ded, and plotte d on a percent finer by weight vs. grain diamet er graph . Pore size distri buti on is a soil property that is very hard to preci sely anal yze . It is similar to grain size dist rib ution, but it is based on pore or voi d sizes, rather than soli d part icles as in grain size distri buti on. There are curr ently no preci se methods for determini ng thi s proper ty for gravel and coar se sand sample s. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 256 Mor ris, Zachar y 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Otani (2004) reported on x- ray research performed at Kumamoto University. Otani‟s re search primar il y focused on four main topi cs: 1) the char act erization of soil behavior, 2) the devel opment of new triaxial compre ssi on test appar a tuses, 3) more appli cat ions of x-ray CT data, and 4) bearing capa city m echa nis ms under vertical pile loading (Ota ni 2004). Kobayashi et al. (2010) anal yzed the change in porosit y of a biogrout specimen usi ng a micro - focus x-ra y CT scanner and image proces sing. Cnudde et al. (2010) describe d a 3D anal ysis of geomat er ia ls utilizi ng the software progr am Morpho+. Morpho+ is a flexible 3D analysi s progr am that provides petr ophysic al paramet er s of scanned sample s in 3D. Cnudde et al. applied Morpho+ to analyze geo mat er ial prope rties such as por osit y, part ial poros it y, pore - siz e distri buti on, grai n siz e, grain ori enta tion, and sur face deter m ina ti on (Cnudde et al. 2010) . Zacher et al. (2010) micro anal yzed geol ogical sample s usi ng a high - resoluti on CT scanner . Zacher et al. primar il y focu sed on por e anal ysis, pore network and surface extr action, and micro fossils using the „nanotom.‟ The nanotom is “the first nanoCT system featuring voxel resolutions of less than 500 nanometers (0.5—m)” (=acher et al. 2010). The nanotom also has “the abi lity to deli ver ultra - high resoluti on images of any internal obje ct detail at virtual ly any angle” (=acher et al. 2010). McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 257 Mor ris, Zachar y 4 METHODOLOGY For each scan, dest ructive test methods as well as non - destructive test methods were performed. This was necessar y in order to compar e traditional methods vs. non - traditional methods. Much of the result s were compar abl e to the results of Brent Nielsen‟s research (Nie lse n 2004) because some of the same sa mpl es were the used . Nielsen‟s research provided a chec k on the dest ructive testing methods that were per formed, and the destruc t ive testing methods provided a check on the non- destructive testing methods. Resear ch was conduc te d in bot h Bozeman and Le wi stown, Mont ana. In Bozeman, research, CT scans , and some of the destr ucti ve tests were performed at MSU . In Lew ist own, research and dest ructive tests were conducte d at the Montana Department of Transportation‟s Labora tory. 4.1 Background of Methodology The main so urc e used in thi s rese arc h was Brent Nielsen‟s thesis (Nielsen 2004). Nielsen‟s work was well received and due to his success, research in this report was adapt ed off of his, further develope d, and compil ed into a lab manual in order for stude nts to gain a bett er under sta nding of the two dif ferent methods of deter mini ng soil properties. The foll owing software progra ms were used in conducti ng resear ch: CT to PJ Convert er , CTSi m, and ImageJ . These software programs made anal yzi ng and edi ting the scans possi ble and more effi ci ent. The CT to PJ Conve rt er softwar e was creat ed at MSU, and its functi on is to take the CT fil es that are created during the scan, and then conver t them with a specified offset , to PJ file s. Once thi s is perform ed, then CTSi m uses the PJ fil es to reconstr uct t he images and conver ts them to Dicom file s so that the ImageJ software can make the fin al edits, calcula tions, and analyse s. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 258 Mor ris, Zachar y Another main sour ce used was the user manual create d by Bryant Robbins and Josh Nichol s (Robbins and Ni chol s 2010) . This manu al provide d a brie f overvie w of the process e s invol ved with the software used i n this report and the procedure for settin g up the scanner . Furt her more , Robbins and Nichols assis te d with the resear ch in thi s report by provi ding a hands - on demonst ra ti on of how to use the scanner, and an in-depth expl anation of the proc ess e s fo r performing succ ess ful scans . Last ly, Dr. Robert L. Mokwa assis ted in this resear ch in many ways. His Geot ech Lab Manua l (Mokwa 2008) provi ded the methods of dest ructive testi ng techniques , and ther efore provi ded for anothe r check between dest ructive and non- destruct ive tests. Dr. Mokwa also deter mine d that a lab manual shoul d be created to intr oduce future stude nts to the new technol ogie s and adva nces in geote chnic al engi neer ing. The lab manu al that was create d from thi s researc h inc orporates both destruct ive and non - destructive testing technique s, and desc ri bes how both techniques meas ure void r atios, poros ities, grain size distri butions, and pore size dist ributions 1 for gravel and coarse san d sample s. Additionally, Dr. Mokwa‟s personal guidance throughout the research kept it in focus, on sche dule , and accompli shabl e. 1 – Pore size distri bu ti on met hods are only brie fly desc ribed for non-destruc tive testi ng tec hnique s . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 259 Mor ris, Zachar y 5 DATA AND FINDINGS Data was coll ected from multi ple scans and tests were performed on grav el and coarse sand sample s. Table 1 details the list of the samp le s used in the analyses : Table 1. Samples Used for Analysis Title Date Performed Increment of Rotation (degrees) Abbreviation Gravel 2 5/31/ 2010 1.00 G - 2 Gravel 3 7/18/ 2010 1.00 G - 3 Coarse Sand 3 7/2/ 2010 1.00 CS - 3 Coarse Sand 5 7/5/ 2010 0.50 CS - 5 Coarse Sand 6 7/18/ 2010 0.25 CS - 6 Note: Coar se Sand 3, 5, and 6 were all taken from the same soil sample. Grav el 2 and Gravel 3 were taken from separ ate soil samples . The void ratios, porosities, and grain siz e distri buti ons , obtai ned usi ng x-ray CT for both G-2 and G-3, were close to the value s obta ine d with the destr uct ive testi ng methods, indic ating that the grav el sample s provided relative ly accurate non - destructi ve testi ng results. The pore size dist ribution s were anal yzed as well , however because there were no non- destr ucti ve tests to compar e t his data to; there was no accurate way to know whe the r or not the pore size dist ribution model was corr ect. The x-ra y CT results for the coarse sand sample s did not match the mecha nic all y meas ure d re sult s, even though the same method s for dete rmini ng the soil prope rties as was used with gravel. The coar se sand i mages had to be adjuste d in the ImageJ soft ware by adjusti ng the thr eshold to a darker level . By doing thi s, the binar y image became blacker resulting in changes to void rati os and por ositie s . This adver sel y affect ed the qualit y of the grain size distributi ons . Consequently, adjusting the thre shold to a darker level was avoided in all analys e s . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 260 Mor ris, Zachar y The results are summar iz ed in Table 2, which shows that the x-ra y CT result s for coarse sand sam ple s did not correlate well with meas ure d results, whil e thi s method of CT anal ysis worked ver y well for t he gravel samp le s. Table 2. Void Ratios, Porosities, and Percent Differences Sample eDest. eCT % Difference nDest. nCT % Difference G - 2 0.84 0.84 0.69% 45.55% 45.73% 0.38% G - 3 0.82 0.73 - 11.26% 44.94% 42.32% - 6.20% CS - 3 0.49 1.55 68.29% 33.02% 60.86% 45.74% CS - 5 0.48 1.08 55.88% 32.28% 51.93% 37.84% CS - 6 0.52 0.81 36.07% 34.15% 44.78% 23.75% The percent differ ence s were eval uated with the CT values in the denomina tor . An example of the CS-3 percent differ ence for void ratio is shown below:  Perc ent Differ ence = [1 – (e Dest. / e C T )] * 100 = [1 – (0.49 / 1.55)] * 100 = 68.39% * Nu mber s differ due to rounding The differ ence between gravel and coar se sand becomes even more apparent when grain siz e distri buti ons are analyzed. On the following pages are compar isons of the five differ ent scans that were analyzed and the ir grai n size distributi ons (Figures 1- 5) . Each image shows both the destructive test results (sie ve analyses) as well as the non -des tr ucti ve tests results (CT scans ) . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 261 Mor ris, Zachar y Figur e 1 shows grain size distribution curve s . The blue (thick) line is the result of the CT scan, and the red line is the result from the dest ructive test ing methods . The CT scan line had more data point s because more soil particle siz es were analyzed. An avera ge diamet er for these soil particl e s was used for plotting . For the destr uct ive method, only spe cific sie ve sizes were used, whic h results in larger gaps between particle sizes . Figure 1. Grain size distribution plot for gravel sample G-2. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.010.1110100 P er ce n t F in er b y We ig h t (%) Grain Diameter (mm) G-2 (CT Scan) G-2 (Sieve Analysis) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 262 Mor ris, Zachar y Figure 2. Grain size distribution plot for gravel sample G-3. Figure 3. Grain size distribution plot for coarse sand sample CS-3. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.010.1110100 P er ce n t F in er b y We ig h t (%) Grain Diameter (mm) G-3 (CT Scan) G-3 (Sieve Analysis) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.010.1110 P er ce n t F in er b y We ig h t (%) Grain Diameter (mm) CS-3 (CT Scan) CS-3 (Sieve Analysis) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 263 Mor ris, Zachar y Figure 4. Grain size distribution plot for coarse sand sample CS-5. Figure 5. Grain size distribution plot for coarse sand sample CS-6. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.010.1110100 P er ce n t F in er b y We ig h t (%) Grain Diameter (mm) CS-5 (CT Scan) CS-5 (Sieve Analysis) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.010.1110100 P er ce n t F in er b y We ig h t (%) Grain Diameter (mm) CS-6 (CT Scan) CS-6 (Sieve Analysis) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 264 Mor ris, Zachar y 6 CONCLUSIONS This research has shown that CT scanning methods can provide accurate resul ts for gravel type mater ia ls. It has also shown that the smal le r the degr ee of rotati on betwee n x-ra y shot s, the m ore accura te the re sults are. This was most evide nt with the coarse sand samples beca use CS -3 had one degree of rot ation , CS-5 had ½ degr ee of rot at ion , and CS-6 had ¼ degr ee of rot at ion . X-ra y CT result s for void ratios, porosities, and grain size distri buti ons matched close ly to mecha nic al m eas ure ments for both testing methods for the gravel samp le s. On the othe r hand, the coars e sand scans did not match ver y closel y with the coars e sa nd destructive tests. This is beca use the coar se sand sample s had smal le r parti cl e siz es and there fore it is neces sary to appl y more adjustment s and r efinement s to improve the CT resol ution. These include adjusting the exposur e time for the camer a and energy inte nsit y of the x-ray device . Because the gra in size distri buti ons for the gravel sample s were accura te, espe ciall y for the G-3 sample, the po re size di stributions were furt her anal yzed. This analysi s, while not include d in this report , demonst ra te d that analyzing pore sizes usi ng non -dest ructive testi ng techni ques is possi ble, and that more research and devel opment shoul d be appl ied in thi s area to further the advancement s in geotechnic al engi neer ing. CT technology is still in its infancy in the geotechnic al engi neer ing field; however , it is sta rting to be l ooked at as a gate way for improvi ng effic ie ncy and enha ncing testing methods. This research paper and the two lab manual s were created to aid futur e student s and indivi duals int ere sted in thi s technology, its applicati ons, and its potentia l as an upcoming and pro mine nt method for det er mini ng the properties of soil s . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 265 Mor ris, Zachar y 7 AREAS FOR IMPROVEMENT One are a that coul d be improve d when using the scanner is the plat form whi ch holds the soil sample and attaches to the scanner ( Figure 6 ). The curre nt platform is no t level or cent ere d, and therefore error is introduced in the images . If a plat form was created that provi ded a level and cent ere d image, then the en d result s would improve . Furthermore , if such a platform were created, it would be beneficia l to mak e it co mpat ible with soil sample s fro m a Shelby Tube so that it would be more appli cable to the technology used to acqui re soil sample s. A major issue that was not caught unti l the end of thi s proje ct was how adjust ing the thr eshold for a stack (group of image s ) was inaccur ate beca use it base d the thr eshold for all of the images on just one image. It would be better to analyze each scan indivi duall y and then deter mine the void rati o, poros i ty, and grain size dist ribution . Note: this issue could potentially go away if a proper plat form was const ructed. However , with the current hardware setup, manual edit ing of each im age would improve the compute d to mogra phic results. Another area for improv ement appli es refining adjust ment s to th e camer a expos ure time, kilovoltage , and mil li amps used when runni ng a scan. These three paramet er s all play an import ant role in the quali t y of an image, and they were hel d const ant throughout the majori ty of thi s researc h. Of all of the areas for improvement , the greate st st ep in impro ving effic ie ncy and accuracy would be with a new, sta te of the art scanner . A new scanner would significant ly decr ease the time it takes to run a scan, increase the quality in the imager y, and provide for a 3- dimensi onal image whic h would provi de benefits far beyond the scope of thi s research proje ct. This would signi ficantl y advance our technol ogical capabilities and move us closer to the goal of a non- destruct ive method for meas uri ng pore size dist ribution s . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 266 Mor ris, Zachar y 8 APPENDICES 8.1 Laboratory Manual for Destructive Testing Techniques Speci fic Gravit y The spec ific gravity determina ti o n is in general accordance with Montana‟s Materials Manua l of Test Proc edures, Section MT -204 (Montana Depart ment of Transpor tation 2010) , and Dr. Mokwa‟s Geotech Lab Manual, Specific Gravity Lab (Mokwa 2008) . The tes ts foll ow MT - 204 up unti l the fina l calcul ations are to be made; which the n, Dr. Mokwa‟s Lab Manual is to be followed. Below is an example of th e cal cula tions for the soil sample CS- 5: Table 3 . Specific Gravity Example Calculation Mas s of Flask, H 2 O, and stoppe r (M pw ) 830.3 G Temper at ure 77 ÛF Relat ive Densi ty at Temper at ure 0.9971 g/cm 3 Mass of dry soil (M s ) 100.0 G Mass of Flask, H 2 O, soil , and stopp er (M p ws ) 893.0 G Temper at ure 77 ÛF Relat ive Densi ty at Temper at ure 0.9971 g/cm 3 ܩ௦ൌ൤ ெೞ ெೞାெ೛ೢି ெ೛ೢೞ ൨כቂ ఘೢ ఘೢమబ ቃ G s = [(100.0g) / (100.0g + 830.3g – 893.0g)] * [(0.9971g/ cm 3 ) / (0. 99823 g /cm 3 ) ] G s = 2.68 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 267 Mor ris, Zachar y Water Content The method for dete rmini ng water conte nt is in gener al accordance with Dr. Mokwa‟s Geotec h Lab Manua l, Water Content Dete rmina ti on Lab (Mokwa 2008) . Soil Bulk Moist Density The method for dete rmini ng the soil bulk moist densi ty is in gener al accordance with Nielse n ‟s procedure descr ibe d in his thesis (Nielsen 2004, pg. 45) . Void Rati o (e) Afte r the speci fic gravi ty, water conte nt, and soil bulk moist densi ty are all known, the void rati o can be determi ned fro m the foll owing equat ion: ȡm = Soil Bulk Moist Density G s = Soil Speci fic Gravi ty w = Water Content e = Soil Void Rati o ȡw = Densit y of Water (0.998 g /cm 3 ) *Assu mes ideal condit ions Porosi ty (n) Porosi ty can be det ermin ed as soon as the void rati o is known beca use they are bot h dir ectly related by the following equati on: ൌ݁൤ܩ௦כሺͳ൅ݓሻכ ߩ௪ ߩ௠ ൨െͳ ݊ൌ ݁ ͳ൅݁ McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 268 Mor ris, Zachar y Grain Size Dist ri buti on The grain size distr ibutions were in gener al accorda nce with Montana‟s Materials Manual of Test Proce dure s, Section MT -202 (Monta na Depar tment of Transpor tation 2010) , and Dr. Mokwa‟s Geotech Lab Manual, Mechanical Sieve Analysis Lab (Mokwa 2008) . Pore Size Distri buti on Pore size distri buti on was not tested dest ructively because ther e currentl y are no proven, reliable, or readi ly availa ble methods to determine pore size distr ibuti on on gravel and coar se sand soil sa mples . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 269 Mor ris, Zachar y 8.2 Laboratory Manual for Non-Destructive Testing Techniques Prepa ri ng the soi l sample and running the scan 1. Obtai n a dry soil sample . 2. Co mpact soil in 4-5 equal lifts in the 2” SCH 40 P9C platform do this with a standard proctor hammer and apply 6” blows at 10 blows per lift. Compact beyond the top of the PVC tube , and the n lev el off the top wit h a rule r/scr api ng tool . 3. Attach the PVC platform to the CT scanner platfor m using duct tape ( Figure 6 ) and place platform in CT scanner . Figure 6. 2" PVC pipe and platform. 4. Close the door to the scanner and open the „ CTScan0414 10-TRYME ‟ icon on the deskt op . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 270 Mor ris, Zachar y 5. Turn the CT s canner‟s control key on ( Figur e 7 ) and plug in camer a loc ated beneat h the scanner . (NOTE: REMEMBER TO UNPLUG THE CAMERA WHEN FINISHED) Figure 7. &7 sFannHU’s control panel. 6. On the CT scanner‟s contr ol panel , select the „ tube to be warmed up ‟ time for 1-2 days, the ener gy for 150kV, and then hit start and the scanner will warm up. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 271 Mor ris, Zachar y 7. On the computer , make sure that the progr am is set at 150kV and 4mA in the „;ra y Control ‟ box ( Figur e 8 ). Now, p osit ion the soil sample using the compute r: ente r in 120 in the Moti on Cont rol box, under Verti cal, New. Typica lly , around 120mm is a good posi ti on. Now, hit home, and then hit move, which is locat ed under neath the vertical section of the Motion Contr ol Box ( Figur e 8 ). Figure 8. CT scanner µMotion Control’ anG µ;Ua\ &ontUoO’ box es. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 272 Mor ris, Zachar y Lead Colli mat or 8. If the scanner‟s warm up cycle is comple te , hit enter on the CT scanner‟s contr ol panel and then you can open up the CT scanner door and look at the posit ion of the PVC tube . Note: the PVC tube shoul d be slightly above the collimat or s and their openi ngs ( Figure 9 ). Figure 9. Collimator and CT platform. 9. Afte r visua lly chec king the posi tion, close the door and then turn the x-ray on using the x -ra y contr ol box on the compute r: wait for the red stat us line to fill (line benea th the yellow line, Figur e 8 ). This process should take less than 30 seconds . If nothi ng happens within 30 seconds, close the progra m, and the n open it again and tur n the x-ray on. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 273 Mor ris, Zachar y 10. Clic k the Image tab from the Syste m Control box ( Figur e 10 ), ignor e the debuggi ng errors, and cli ck the expose tab. Use the foll owing set tings for exposur e ( Figur e 11 ): Figure 10. CT scanner 'System Control' box. . Figure 11. Image t ab, expose. 11. If, in the cente r of the pop up scree n, an image is displa yed, then exi t out and clic k the „ CT Loop ‟ tab in the „ Syste m Control ‟ box ( Figure 10). Note: if, after scr oll ing to the cent er of the pop up screen, an image is not shown, tur n the x- ray off using the „;ray Cont rol‟ box ( Figur e 8 ) and recheck the position of the PVC tube . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 274 Mor ris, Zachar y 12. Make sure all of the data for the CT Loop is correct and be sure to save the scanners data to a specified location . Figur e 12 shows an example of the gener al settings used in this research: Figure 12. CT loop tab. 13. Clic k the begin but ton on the CT Loop scr een. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 275 Mor ris, Zachar y Analyzi ng the Result s fro m the Scan 1. Go to the folder where you speci fied to store the images . Sort the fil es by type and then create two folders, „SSD files‟ and „CT files.‟ Move all of the SSD files to the SSD fol der and all of the CT fil es to the CT folde r. 2. Open up the „CtToPjConverter‟ icon and the image shown in Figur e 13 will appear . Now, sta rt with opening the first CT fil e of the scan and guess a few offset s (typical offsets are b etween 0 and 80). For each guess, clic k accept and save the fil e with a name that specifies its soil type, scan, positi on, and offset . Figure 13. CT to PJ converter program. 3. Open the software program CTSi m. When openi ng the fil e s from ste p 2 with CTSim, one must select Proje ctionFile ( x .pj) from the „ Files of type ‟ opti on at the bott om of the prompt scre en ( Figur e 14 ). Figure 14. Selecting proper file when using CTSim. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 276 Mor ris, Zachar y 4. Once the file is open in CTSi m, clic k the Reconstr uct tab, and clic k Fil tered Backproj ection (Rebin to Para llel«). Use the following parameters shown below ( Figur e 15 ), and then cli ck okay. Figure 15. Parameters used for reconstruction of images. 5. Analyze each scan for clarity and determine which offset is the best (round to nearest 5). Note: you only need the fil e that produces the best clarity with its given offset . 6. Repeat steps two thr ough five for the last CT fil e of the scan. Onc e the offset is deter mine d for this image, then use linear inte rpolat ion to determine the offset s for the rest of the CT fil es. 7. Once all CT fil es are conver te d to PJ file s, us e CTSi m and fol low the same reconstructi on proc ess as desc ri bed in step four. Now however , after the ima ge is reconstructe d, click file, export, and select Dic om as the file type: do thi s for every fil e. 8. Open up the software program Imag eJ and cli ck File, Import , Image Sequ ence . Click on the fir st Dico m fil e of the scan and then click open on the prompt window. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 277 Mor ris, Zachar y 9. Input the options shown in Figur e 16 fro m the box that pops up , and the n cli ck okay. Figure 16. Import image s equence in ImageJ. 10. Sele ct the Proces s tab, FFT, Bandpa ss Fil ter, use the sett ings shown in Figur e 17 , and then click okay. Figure 17. Parameters used for filter in ImageJ. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 278 Mor ris, Zachar y 11. Sele ct the Image tab, Adjust , Threshold. Move the line to the center of the bel l curve ( Figur e 18 ): Figure 18. Thresholding the image. 12. Sele ct the Proces s tab, Binar y, Make Binar y. Do not select any opti ons from the box that pops up ( Figure 19 ). Click okay. Figure 19. Parameters used for binary conversion. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 279 Mor ris, Zachar y 13. Select the Analyze tab, Tools, ROI Manager« , and the screen shown in Figur e 20 will open up. Figure 20. ROI Manager in ImageJ. 14. Sele ct More, Speci fy. If using the same plat for m as was used in this report, then the opti ons shown in Figur e 21 shoul d comply. Click okay. Figure 21. Parameters used for ROI Manager. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 280 Mor ris, Zachar y 15. Now, go to the Analyze tab, Hist ogram, include all images , and a histogram wil l open up as shown in Figur e 22 . Figure 22. Analysis using histogram. 16. Clic k List, and then write down the nu mber of voi d count s (Val ue = 0), and the number of solid counts (Value = 255). 17. Calcul ate the void rati o , e = (Voi ds) / (Soli ds) 18. Calcul ate the poros ity , n = [(Voids) / (Voids + Soli ds) ] McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 281 Mor ris, Zachar y 19. Grai n size distri buti on can now be dete rmine d as well . Clic k the Anal yze tab, Ana lyz e Part icles, and use the options as shown in Figur e 23 , and then click okay. When prompte d , sel ect to „include all imag es .‟ Figure 23. Analyzing particles. 20. There will be a subst antial amount of results: select the particle number column and the area column , and past e in an exce l spre adsheet. By taki ng the square root of the area, an aver age diamet er can be dete rmine d and this can be used as the determini ng factor of whether or not the particle will pass through a certain sieve size. Note: the particle area siz e needs to be adjusted beca use the scale is not correct. This is accompli shed by meas uri ng the outsi de diamet er in pixels , and comparing it to the outside diamet er in mm. Upon doing thi s, one can now adjust the area proper ly. For example , if 670pixe ls = 60.325 mm, then the True Area of the particle equal s is eval uate d as: True Area of the particle = (Are a in pixe ls ) * (60.325 mm / (670 pixe ls ) ) 2 . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 282 Mor ris, Zachar y 8.3 Images from the Scanner after Editing in ImageJ In Figur e 24 , the white areas repre sent the voids and the black areas represent the solids. The solid black circle represents the 2” P9C pipe used to scan the soil, and the colo red inner - ci rcle represents the region of inter est (ROI) . The area insi de of the ROI is where the soil is anal yzed, and the area outsi de of the ROI is disregarded. Inside of the ROI, ther e are void space s insi de of the solid spaces. These void space s are known as holes and were fil le d -in for anal ysis using ImageJ . Ther efore, the holes were counte d as part of the sol id in whic h they exist e d . Figure 24. G-2 image after editing in ImageJ. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 283 Mor ris, Zachar y Figure 25. G-3 image after editing in ImageJ. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 284 Mor ris, Zachar y Figure 26. CS-3 image after editing in ImageJ. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 285 Mor ris, Zachar y Figure 27. CS-5 image after editing in ImageJ. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 286 Mor ris, Zachar y Figure 28. CS-6 image after editing in ImageJ. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 287 Mor ris, Zachar y 9 REFERENCES Alshi bli , Khal id A., and Reed, Alle n H. Advances in Computed Tomography for Geomaterials. Hoboken: John Wil ey & Sons, Inc., 2010. Ferr eira, Tiago A., and Ras band, Wa yne. The ImageJ User Guide, Version 1.43. Bethesda , Mar yla nd, Apri l 20, 2010. G. Zacher, J. Santillan, O. Brunke, and T. Mayer. "3D Micr oanal ysis of Geologic al Sample s with High - Resolution Comput ed Tomogra phy." Advances in Computed Tomography for Geomaterials. Hoboken: John Wil ey & Sons, Inc., 2010. 197 - 204. Holtz, R.D., and Kovaks, Wil li am R. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. New Jers ey: Prent ice - Hall, Inc., 1981. Mokwa, Robert L. Geotech Lab Manual. Bozeman: Montana Stat e Universit y, 2008. Mokwa, Robert L., and Niel sen, Brent D. Characterization of Soil Porosity Using X-Ray Computed Tomography. Bozeman: Mont ana State Univer sity, 2006. Mont ana Depar tment of Transpor tation. Montana Materials Manual of Test Procedures. Helena: Mont ana Depar tme nt of Transpor tation, 2010. Niel sen, Brent D. Non-Destructive Soil Testing Using X-Ray Computed Tomography. Bozeman: Mont ana Sta te Univer sity, 2004. Otani , Jun and Obara, Yuzo. X-Ray CT for Geomaterials. Liss e: A.A. Balkema, 2004. Pete rs , Terry. CT Image Reconstruction. London, Onta ri o, July 03, 2002. Robbins, Bryant , and Nichol s, Josh. X-Ray CT Imaging of Geomaterials Users Manual. Bozeman: Mont ana State Univer sity, 2010. Rosenber g, Kevin M. CTSim 3.5 User Manual, Version 1.0. Albuquer que, New Mexic o, September 17, 2005. V. Cnudde, J. Vlass enbroeck, Y. De Wit te , L. Brabant, M. N. Boone, J. Dewancke le , L. Van Hoorebeke, and P. Jacobs. "Late st Devel opment s in 3D Anal ysis of Geomat er ia ls by Morpho+." Advances in Computed Tomography for Geomaterials. Hoboken: John Wil ey & Sons, Inc., 2010. 84-92. Y. Kobayas hi, S. Kawasaki , M. Kato, T. Mukunoki, and K. Kaneko. "Evalua tion of Porosi ty in Geo mat er ials Treated with Biogr out Consider ing Part ial Volume Effect ." Advances in Computed Tomography for Geomaterials. Hoboken: John Wil ey & Sons, Inc., 2010. 287 - 294. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 288 Rogala, Shelby Practical and Professional Ethics Establishing an International Voluntouring Ethic Auth or : Shelby Rogala Undergr aduate, Mont ana Stat e Univers ity Establishing an International Voluntouring Ethic McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 289 Rogala, Shelby Abstract The purpos e of this paper is to discuss the ethic al obli gati ons of int er nati onal volunt eers and volunt eer agenci es. One might think that volunteer s and volunt eer agenc ies have mini mal obli gati ons to the communit ies they ser ve precisel y beca use it is voluntary and non-profit. That is, we tend to think of volunt eer ing as a “supererogatory act” that goes above and beyond the call of duty. However, new ethi cal probl ems have emer ged, par ticularly in the area of short - stay volunteering, or “voluntouring.” I will argue that volunt eer pract ices are often car ried out in ways that deny the autono my of local populations. However, this does not translate int o inte rnational volunt eering as an inherentl y unethi cal practice to be conde mne d. Rather , I will argue bot h orga niz ati ons and volunt eers have mora l dut ie s to the popula tions they ser ve. I will draw out the impli cat ions that my analysis has for developing an “international volunteering ethic.” Introduction Due to global izati on and mobil iz ation of demog ra ph ic s from around the world, over seas aid is no longer a job relegated only to gove rnment al or reli gious organizati ons. As abilit y to travel has incr eased, and a desire to participate in somet hing more cult urally relev ant than cruise ship tours is spreadi ng, the industry of volunt ourism has ente re d the scene. I will define volunt ourism as the recent phenomenon of taking travel vacat ions that cent er around a shor t stint of volunt eering. This volunte ering acti vity can mani fest in many differ ent ser vic es, but is most commonly one of three forms: teac hing Engli sh to chil dre n, working towards women empo wer ment or pairi ng with medi cal orga niz ations to improve healthca re for certain popula tions. These programs are typical ly run in devel oping countries, in rur al or ur ban settings. On one hand, volunt ourism might be thought to be a good thi ng, insofar as it draws mor e people into volunt eering than otherwise might be interested. When volunt eering provide s the opport unity to see a comple tely differ ent countr y or have a unique cultural exper ience, while not requiring any long - term commit ment s, it can increase the appeal of volunteeri ng. People who might othe rwise take a vaca tion some where are now using their vacations to help other s. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 290 Rogala, Shelby Moreover , this allows weal thy West e rne rs to have interaction with differ ent cultures and populations who are less well off, which may improve Western‟s understanding of and compass ion for, the challenges developing countries face. On the othe r hand, voluntour ism tends to exacerbat e alrea dy exist ing problems in int erna tional aid. Agencies still deal with traditional proble ms such as ensuring susta inabl e aid, creating local agency and autonomy, and mainta ini ng posi tive cul tura l relations , but inste ad of working with a few volunt eer s for long periods of time, volu ntour agencies must conte nd with larger amou nts of untr ained, shor t stay volunteers. Due to the nature of over sea s volunte ering, these problems add upon each other. When volunteers are not trained, they aren‟t as aware of cul tura l norm s and history, when they aren‟t educated on their aid area, they tend to take less into account the area‟s needs and wants, when they forget this, local agency is minimalized, and aut onomy is margina lized. In this paper, I wil l outline the ethi cal problems in volunt ouring and expl ain the reasons these problems exi st. I will then suggest ways to est abli sh a volunt ouring ethic and draw out the impli cat ions this has for int erna tional volunteering in general, as the problems encounter ed in volunt ouring are al so rele vant to broader problems in volunt eer ing. Ethical Problems in Voluntouring I would like to prese nt an example of a sit uat ion commonly encounte red in over sea s aid. This is the case of Cruz Che, Guat emal a as outl ined by Ned Bresl in, CEO of the non - profit Water for Peopl e. Well - me an in g outsid ers built 30 toil ets but did not have enou gh mon ey to help the rest of the co mmun ity (35 familie s). The remainin g 35 families want free latr in es like their neigh bors and have rejected Wat e r For Peo pl e and the M unicipality‟s sanitation program because we insist on financial McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 291 Rogala, Shelby con trib ut ion s from the fami lies to help en sure a sens e of ownershi p and demon stra te the abili ty to cov er O&M costs. The well meani ng agen cy did not thin k beyo nd their initial invest ment of 30 toilets and have in the end un der min ed the furth er develo pment of the communi ty (Breslin ). In the case above, the outc ome was an inabilit y of organiz ations to co -opera te with local communit ies afte r a previous organizati on had give n what might be called a „handout.‟ These freebi es cu t at the very hear t of inte rnational aid ² the y exemplify the good inte nti ons of orga nizati ons and vol unteer s, a blatant lack of eval uation of proj ect manage ment , and per haps most unfort unat e, a created system of dependency upo n handout s rather than aut onomous communit y buil ding. Volunt ouring inte nsifies these problems because the volunteers are ther e for a shor ter amount of time and are arguabl y less inve sted in the commu nit ies. I will now dist inguish sever al aspects of thi s sort of sit uati on that are ethical ly probl emat ic . Lack of Autonomy and Agency The f act ors that lead to a lack of local agency is a combina ti on of pate rnalistic, or “West Knows Best” ideas and the structures of voluntouring non - gover nment al orga nizati ons (NGOs). The effect is a dependency on fore ign handout s that restric t local commu nit ies from becoming agent s of their own change. This is in neither the communit ies nor the organizations best inte rest. If a progra m was set up four decades ago to restr uct ure the school sys te m in southe rn Africa , and hasn‟t changed its mission, something is going wrong international aid should be transitory and hel pful, not permanent and bogged down (Str auss, 2008). It is assumed that ineffect ive or ineffic ie nt aid is to be avoide d, and that somet hing must be done to mainta in the integrity of both local communit ies as well as aid organizations. It might be prudent to assign an ethic of ensuri ng local owners hip to combat the problem of autonomy and agenc y. Many authors write on the need to get locals involve d and encourage volunt eers to under sta nd the need for local communiti es to exhi bit owner ship in the proje cts. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 292 Rogala, Shelby Local owne rship is defined as a community dictati ng where thei r aid is directed and taking an act ive role in the responsibi lity of manage ment as well as fiscal paramet er s. A lar ge part of ownershi p is maki ng sure the local communit y under sta nds that the NGO is not c oming to do the job for them that is, problems arise when programs are set up that “seem to suggest that young people from devel oped countries can solve problems tha t young peopl e in devel oping countries cannot solve for themselves” (Fulbrook, 2008). Thou gh avenue s may not always be open for local leadership, it becomes the NGO‟s responsibility to find acceptable routes. Aid orga nizati ons the n work as faci litators rather than devel opers . This ens ures proj ects to become sel f- sustaining, which leaves more re sour ces availabl e to develop meani ngful cros s - cultural relations hips. Autono my and agency come hand in hand ²someti mes promoti ng communit y inde pendence encoura ges communit y invol vement , other times autonomy grows out of acti ve ownershi p of projec ts, and an ability to dicta te what happens . Curre ntly either autonomy or agenc y are m il dly stre ssed as import ant role s in inte rnational aid (in respect to volunteer traini ng). Though both are nece ssar y, neither is suffic ie nt on its own. Both probl ems are directl y re lated to a third and perhaps fourt h nece ssary component, volunt eer training and positive volunt eer moti vati ons. The Problem with Good Intentions In eval uat ing aid proje cts, many view char it y as a step above and beyond our mora l obli gati ons . Because those vol unteering have good intentions, or are moti vat ed by an unsel fish desi re to help othe rs , this is taken to be suffic ie nt for thei r actions to have moral wort h. This leads to pro ble ms in the aid world. Singe r suggests that chari ty is not as effect ive when treated as merely an „extra‟ rather than a duty or obligation (CITE if possibl e) . When a per son engage s McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 293 Rogala, Shelby in an act of char ity, and feels as if they have already place d highe r standards on themsel ves, they and other s are less likely to questi on how much bet ter that act coul d have been. Beca use the mere act of givi ng two cents a day to an African child is mor e than most would do, few quest ion what could be done bet ter. When aid worker s believe tha t good intentions alone are suffic ie nt to foster ing positi ve communit y develop ment , they misr epr ese nt the diffic ulties of int erna tional aid. This problem is compo und ed when added ont o the goal s of Volunt our NGOs to funn el as many volunte er s through their programs as possi ble . Organizati ons take advanta ge of the fact that most volunt eers come to the proj ects already feeli ng good about their work. There is no need in the eyes of the volunt eer or the organization to provide ext ensive traini ng. Though most orga nizati ons offer a week - long orienta tion, this gener all y consis ts of a day or two of basi c language and culture educat ion followed by sightseei ng. Volunte er s are thu s ins ufficiently traine d to underst and the people , places and problems tha t they will inevi table face in the fiel d. Lough (2008) wri tes about neces sary training steps for outgoing vol unteer s and progra m manage rs . They incl ude rol e taking, reflection, int ensity, support and reciproc ity. Lough argues that encouraging positive and specific role taking, enough time for reflection of work, int ensity in dur ati on rather than work hour s, sufficie nt support on the fiel d and reciproc ity with local communit ies are neces sar y conditions for any succe ssful volunt eer placement . These meas ure s are inte nded to encourage a deeper under sta nding for the voluntee rs of what will be expect ed of them. In turn, it provides the vol unteer agencie s with an opport unity to ensur e volun teers and manage rs are commit te d to the program. This suggest s that in most precarious volunteer ing sit uati ons, those good intent ions must be accompanie d by a knowledge and capa bili ty that puts those inte ntions, energy and time to thei r best possible use. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 294 Rogala, Shelby I have argued that having good int enti ons are not suffic ie nt for ethical volunte ering, but thi s does no t mean that they are not a nece ssar y . In Kant ia n ethics, when good intentions are not prese n t, it is a simple case of using peopl e as means to an end, rather than treat ing them as means in t hemsel ves. When a vol unteer only donates h er time to a commu nit y in order to buil d a resume, she is treati ng the commun it y me mber s as obj ects to further her goal . Simil ar ly, when an aid worker signs up for an adventure to Brazil under the guise of a volunte er trip, she is usi ng the local cultur e of Brazil as a means to her end, without showing any sign of concern for the act ual community. Indeed, the fact that a) the volunt eer is using the locals as a means to an end and b) the v olunt eer is prete nding to help the local communit y makes the ethi cality even more quest ionabl e. Some may disa gree with thi s argume nt on the grounds tha t intenti ons have no impact on the work being done. No matte r if a volunt eer comes for thei r own pleasure or wit h the goals of helping a local commun it y, the benefit s are the same. When deal ing in close contact with other culture s and indi vidual s, however, intent io n comes out in a very visible way. Lucy Heal ey and Jenny and Jacques Boullet write in 9olunteering :hat’s in a 1ame, “We have seen volunteers come into the village communities to engage in „community development‟ work that collapses once the volunte er s ha ve left.” Presumably, if the volunteer had good intentions, vested interest beyond per sonal gain and correct follow - thr ough, the volunteer ing exper ience could provide a long - lasting benefit for the communit ie s invol ved, as well as the vol unteers. Good inte ntions and proper training become two more neces sar y condi tions for ethical volunt eering . Outli ned ab ove are the probl ems encountered in international vol untouring, that is, autonomy and agenc y thre atened by poorl y trained or mal - inte ntione d volunt eers . Applying these problems to a volunt eering ethic creates four neces sar y component s. These are : ensur ed McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 295 Rogala, Shelby autonomy, active agenc y (of the community) , well - inte ntione d volunt eers and prope rl y traine d volunt eers. The next section of this paper will descr ibe wh y these problems arise, and in what ways higher standards can be incorporated into existing voluntouring systems. It doesn‟t assume that probl ems in voluntouri ng agencies are inhe rentl y unethi cal , but rather that these problems can be addresse d in or der to improve the mora l wort h of volunteer ing, or to maxi miz e the ener gy and abilities volu nte er s can bring to developing countries . Toward a Volunteering Ethic In additi on to the four criteria for ethic al volunt ee ri ng that I have argued for in the previous sections , I would like to devel op a fifth ethi cal guideline that will suppor t the success of the other four. This guideli ne deal s with a need for transparency withi n the syst ems of volunt ouring, as well as interna tional aid in genera l. It is tied to the ideas of orga niz ational str uctur e and market based charit y. Organizational Structure Shepard (1998) suggests NGOs must engage in a certain amount of “unbundling” before NGOs can oper ate on a sust ai nabl e level. The term unbundli ng in this conte xt refers to the proc ess of creat ing a mor e transpar ent sys te m les s reliant on upper manage ment and more in tune with local cooperation. In a visual sense, it means moving from a ver ti cally structure d syst em to a horizontal one to „unbundle‟ leadership roles into the community as opposed to keeping them in high ivory tower s. In order to make this idea clearer, a hypothe tical Volunt our NGO str uct ure is outlined below. This repr esentative NGO ope ra te s in Indi a. It provides three ser vices (or volunte er opti ons) . These are teaching Engl ish in school s, worki ng with local dayca res and creating progr ams for street kids. The structure begins with the Inte rnational NGO orga nizati on, thr ough McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 296 Rogala, Shelby which volunte er s are put in cont act with the countr y coor dinat or employed by that NGO. After thi s layer, volunteers begin commun ic ation with the in -country coordi nator, who is stati oned in the country, and employ ed by var ious NGOs in a manage ri al posi ti on. This position is the link between the local NGOs and the inte rnational NGO. He/She may be working for var ious companie s at once, providing simil ar ser vices to each. In most organizati ons, this position is the host for orientation week, the airport pick up/dr op off coor dina tor , and init ial conta ct for the volunt eers. The loca l NGO has a simil ar funct ion to the in -count ry coordinator, except that this orga nizati on has little to no cont act with the inter nat ional NGO, and none with the volunte er s pre - arrival at the volunt eer site. Lik e the in-country coordi nator, the local NGO may be working simultaneously with various international NGO‟s, providing housing, food, and project ori enta tion and suppor t for mult ipl e locati ons and volunt eers. This partnership between int erna tional non- profi ts and local ones is mutua lly benefici al. Unless internat ional NGOs have the wherewithal to place volunt eers themsel ves, or local NGOs have the time and money to dedic ate to market ing out of country, each needs the other to comple te their job. Up until this point the struct ure of the orga nizati on is strictly vertical . There is litt le hori zonta l branching. However, once a volunteer arrives to their project locati on, a smal l amount of branching out takes place. This is support that can be provided by individ ual s not necessaril y tied to the inte rnational or local NGO. Curre ntly, these roles are fill ed by the principals in the school s, the teachers in the dayc ares, and hopefull y long term volunt eers in the street kids progr ams. Keep in mind, however , that of th e three proj ect s, each has various locati ons: there fore, ther e is not only one school or one daycare location, but several in the same town. This McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 297 Rogala, Shelby makes the leve ls of support more confusing by far, and the amount of managi ng on the part of the local NGO a big task. What I recommend addi ng is additional support syste ms on the loc al level ²unbundli ng leadership role s to include more local manage rs . The answer of the question of how to make transitions between volunteer s easier, and how to utilize the high ene rgy that short stay volunt eers can offer project s will also answer in what ways progr ams can better serve local communit ies. By creating an easily acce ssi ble ²transparent ² suppor t system at the local end, volunt eers are better able to conne ct with their pro je cts and communit ie s. Market Based Charity Perha ps the most import ant application of transparency is within the financi al areas of volunt ourism. The stigma that man y have about highe r prices meani ng highe r quality is taken advant age of in the voluntee ring realm. Higher cost doesn‟t necessarily translate to a better program. At times higher costs really mean greater profits for those running the “non - profit.” Many cheap, well - run organizations are overl ooked and others that funnel their funds in a mor e efficient manner that benefits locals are regarded as „unsafe.‟ How do costs translate" Some organizati ons take increased costs and put them towar d s market ing or upper management. This increases the „viability‟ of the company because the name becomes mo re mainstr eam, not due to results but to searc h engi ne popul arity. This means that money for marketing isn‟t necessarily the result of a popular program, but rather the cause of it. Some organizati ons charge extra money up front for ext ra activities , usi ng the impre ssive list of side vent ure s as an explanation for wher e all that money is going. There are a few probl ems with thi s line of persuas ion. Say yoga for one week costs 40 USD. One organizati on might add thi s charge to the volunteers ori ginal progr a m packa ge for each week they are there, McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 298 Rogala, Shelby regar dle ss of whet her or not they will take part in thi s activit y. However , thi s does not nece ssarily mean that if it is not included one cannot access it. As most volunt eer opera tions are funneled down to local non - profit s, and therefore local NGOs host several differ ent int erna tional organizati ons, the services avail able to one organization are available to all. Many orga nizati ons offer a bookle t of activities , outi ngs and ext ras that they will char ge for in addi tio n to the progr am pri ce. This makes the ini tial cost of the trip lower, and though volunt eers may have to pay extra for yoga or side trips, they are able to do so at thei r discr eti on. There fore, if a volunt eer was int erested in participat ing in all the extr a guided activities, the more expensive program might be a bett er deal in some ways. However , if another volunte er is looki ng to do trips on thei r own, or only take a few extra classes, the pay - a s - you- go opti on will prove much chea per in the long run ²the y won‟t be subsidizing other‟s activities as much. Ethi cally speaki ng, transpar ency in rates provides a fairer opport unity for the volunteer to choose which progr am best fit s their needs . Asking the volunt eers what they would want their extr a money to go to , most of the answer s, unsurpri singl y, were: safety, preparati on and creating local jobs. None answered , “I would like to pay an extra 500 dollars a week so that the president of the NGO can dri ve a BMW, or so the manage rs of the program can hire two maids and three chefs.” Though it is under stood that costs must go to those in charge , and their jobs are certainly import ant and dese rve to be rewarde d, there seems to be somet hing not quite right about taking advanta ge of people‟s goodwill and regard for safe ty to char ge exor bita nt pri ces . The more dir ect rout e to the commun it y an orga nizat ion runs , the lower the cost for the volunt eer and the greater the paybac k to the local communit y. In an inte rview conduct ed in May 2010, one volunt eer spoke of her conver s ations with coordinat ors regarding fina nces : McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 299 Rogala, Shelby “The only disappointing aspect of this experience was that the volunteer host had very limited funding. She only received 300 rupees a day per person from the coordinator, Dr. D, which barely paid for our food. We stayed at her house, and all other expenses were paid by her , only receiYed one meal from 'r ', on the Zay from our 'elhi &oordinator’s house to the volunteer host. It made me wonder where the rest of the money went (only $30 was paid to J. Sali, the volunteer host, for my week-long stay, although I payed $220 to the main organization for my week volunteering with her, on top of the $320 paid for the orientation week). It seems it Zas pocketed by 'r '” When thi s volunt eer wante d to compla in to th e orga nizati on about this discr epancy, she was asked not to, in order to not discoura ge other volunt eers from joi ning the organiz ati on. This is under the assumpti on that most volunt eer agencies operate in by cat eri ng to the highest paying inte rnational NGO and the lowest char ging local NGO to creat e the largest profit margin, and unc over ing the fisca l organization of one would not change the syste m. The quest ion beco mes whet her or not voluntour ing would be happening if these coordi nators were not maki ng a profit. It isn‟t evil to make a profit, or irresponsible. The probl em perhaps becomes transpar ency and under sta nding. The idea of a midd le man maki ng taking in a large sala ry while local NGOs barga in to feed and house vol unteers seems dist asteful. As ill ustr ated, however , a restructur ing not just of one NGO would need to be made, but of all . This garga ntuan task might in fact prove more disa str ous to effect ive aid than it would benefit. Per haps a way to man age this proble m is to create an ethical code whe rein NGO int erna l operat ions are made transparent to potential volunteers. Though thi s does not change the system, it places an awarene ss in the mind of the volunteer the market basi s of their goodwill . Thus, in addition to ensuring loca l autonomy and agen cy, encouragi ng proper training McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 300 Rogala, Shelby and moti vat ions of volunte er s, internat ional aid must also incl ude a meas ure of transparenc y withi n the oper ation of syst ems. Conclusions: The Next Step Whil e all can agree that many NGO‟s have the capability to pro mote soci al wellbe ing we can also recognize the pit falls and short comings of various organizations in practice . And yet, these prob lems see m to be slipping through the cracks: there is a cert ain amount of ignora nce or obli vion in the volunt ourism co mmu nit y as to the disastrous effect s of poorly operated aid agenc ies. This is a result of havi ng no esta bli shed set of governing ethic s. As volunt ouri ng is a repre sent ative microc osm of int er nati onal aid in gener al, and probl ems encountered in volunt ouring mi mic and expan d proble ms in inter national aid (wit h respect to volunteer s), the ethics defined for voluntouri ng can be roughly appli ed to internati onal volunteering. I have outlined the major ethi cal issues in regar d to inter nati onal voluntouri ng: lack of autonomy and agenc y, poor vol unteer traini ng, and shifting intentions of volunteering. I have tried to cha nge the se int o ethi cs to be followed, four neces sar y component s to inter nati onal volunt ouring: ensuring autonomy and agenc y, prope r vol unteer trai ning, and good intent ions. I have adde d a furthe r standar d of transparenc y wit hin NGO oper ations to pr omote under sta nding of market - base d chari ty. I then expanded these ethi cs to include not just int erna tional volunt ouring practices , but inter national aid in gener al, as problems run para llel in both sit uati ons. These suggestions can provide a starting poin t for buil ding a more compre hensi ve int erna tional voluntourism ethic . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 301 Rogala, Shelby References: Brown, Kathle en M. Keys to Maki ng A Volunt eer Progr am Work: A Guide for Organizations That Use Volunteers. Californi a: Brown, 1982. Boullet , Jacques and Jenny; Heal ey,Lu cy. “9olunteering What‟s in a Name"” Just Change: Feb 2008: 20. Bresl in, Ned. Rethi nking Hydrophi lanthropy: Smar t Money for Transformat ive Impa ct . Water For Peopl e. Lough, Benjamin J. “Principles of Effective Practice in International Social Work F ie ld Placements.” Journal of Social Work Education (2009) Kawashima, Tatsuhiko. “International 9olunteer Co - oper ations Acti viti es of GONG OVA: Gras s Roots Programme for the Underprivileged 9illages in Thailand.” Gakushin Economic Paper s, Vol 39, No. 2 (2002) . Musi k, Mark and Wil son, John. Volunte er s: A Socia l Profil e. Indi ana: India na Universit y Press 2008. O‟Neil, Edward. Awakeni ng Hippocrates. US: AMA, 2006 Oyen, Else. Best Practices in Poverty Reducti on. NY: Crop, 2002 Shepar d, Andrew. Susta inabl e and Rura l Develop ment . NY: St. Martins Pres s, 1998. Stra uss, Rober t L. Think Again Peac e Corps. Foreign Polic y Web Excl usive , 2008 Szporluk, Michael. “A Framework for Understanding Accountability of International NGO‟s and Global Good Governance.” In diana Journal of Global Lega l Studies (2009) McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 302 2 12 Th e Imp act of Manage men t Intensiv e Grazin g Jocee Stirling Depar tment of Ani mal & Range Sci ence: Mo ntana State Univer sity Ment ors: Clayt on Marlow, Mont ana State Univer sity Chuck Coffe y, Noble Foundat ion McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 303 Sti rling, Jocee TABLE OF CONTENTS Sections Page I . ABST ACT 1 II. INTRODU CTION 1 III. METHODS 2 IV. EXPERIM E NTAL DESI GN 2 V. RESULTS 5 VI. CONCLUSI ONS 8 VII. MANAGE MENT IMPLICATIONS 9 VIII . LITERATU RE REVIEW 10 IX. REFERENCES 11 Tables & Figures Figur e 1 4 Figur e 2 5 Figur e 3 5 Figur e 4 6 Figur e 5 6 Figur e 6 7 Table 1 7 McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 304 Sti rling, Jocee ABSTRACT The purpos e of thi s resear ch project was to deter mine the impact of a Mana gement Int ensive Grazi ng syst em on a native warm se ason past ure. A nine acre nati ve warm season past ure in Ardmore ,OK, was used for thi s experiment . Thi s resea rch proj ect was done for two conse cutive summer s in 2009 and 2010. The veget ation composi ti on increas ed in the presence of sedge s, forbs, and inva sive spec ies. The data in thi s study also shows that ste ers can sti ll exhi bit a preference while under a manage ment int ensive grazi ng system. Due to the results, manage me nt int ensive grazi ng does not appear to be a good syst em for preser ving a native warm season past ure . The manage ment int ensive grazing system clai ms to reduce sel ect ivit y and increase the uniformit y of grazi ng. This study suggests otherwise . INTRODUCTI ON Management Intensi ve Grazi ng or MiG is a rotat ional grazing syst em that is becoming a widel y used grazing syste m by livestoc k owners acr oss the United Stat es. This experiment was conduct ed to deter mine its effectiveness for use in preser ving native war m season past ure s while sti ll producing a profit . This experiment was conduct ed in Ard more , OK, under the super vision of the Samu el Roberts Noble Foundati on. The native warm season pasture that was used in this exper iment , pri or to grazing for thi s resea r ch, had not been grazed in 20 year s. The veget ative composi ti on of the pastur e was over 65% native vegetation . The grazi ng experiment was conduct ed fro m June through July in both 2009 and 2010 . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 305 Sti rling, Jocee METHODS • 14 Steer s (700lbs) grazed 0.33 acr es per day in this experiment . • Ground cover and vegetation compo sit ion data was taken by using the ste p - point method in a “zig - zag” pattern across all 9 paddocks. • Grazi ng prefer ence was deter mine d while performing the after grazing ste p - point data collecti ons. It was noted whether each plant recorded had been grazed by the steers or not. • Util ization of the avai lable forage was est imat ed by meas uri ng the grass height before and after grazi ng. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The past ure that was used for the exper iment was 9 acr es in siz e and was divi ded into 9 paddocks, each 1 acr e in size. The vegetati on in the past ure on aver age was composed of 19% Andropogon gerard ii (Big Bluest em) , 19% Carex spp ., 15% Schizachyrium scoparium (Little Bluest em) , 11% Panicum virgatum (Swit chgr ass) , 11% Bromus japonicus (Japanes e Brome) , 3% Festuca arundinaceae (Tall Fesc ue) , and 22% other mixe d spec ie s. The figure below is the layout of the past ure used in thi s exper iment . All o f the past ure s were not exac tl y the same shape , but all were 1 acr e i n siz e. The alley to the west of the paddocks was used to allow the steers acces s to a centrall y locat ed water tank in the alley . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 306 Sti rling, Jocee Figure 1: This is the pasture design used for the MiG research in Ardmore. N Transect Path Fence Temporary Fence McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 307 Sti rling, Jocee RESULTS Figure 2. Ground cover displayed an overall increase in the amount of basal vegetation cover and a decrease in the amount of litter and bareground cover. Figure 3. Grass heights before and after grazing. The average amount grazed per day by the 14 steers was 6.54 inches. 86% 79% 75% 3% 2% 2% 11% 19% 23% 2009-Before Grazing 2010-Before Grazing 2010-After Grazing Ground Cover Litter Bareground Basal Veg. Hit 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 G ra ss H e ig h t (i n ) Paddocks Grass Height Before & After Grazing (2010) Before Grazing After Grazing McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 308 Sti rling, Jocee Figure 4. Percent utilization of each paddock. The average percent utilization of each paddock was 19%. Figure 5: Vegetation types for the pasture from the before grazing data of 2009 and the before grazing data of 2010. These graphs show a decrease in the percent grass species and an increase in the percent grasslike species and forbs. 17 % 12% 23% 20% 26% 19% 14% 18% 24% 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 % U ti li z a ti o n Paddocks % Utilization (2010) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 % P re se n t Paddock 2009 Grass Grasslike Forb Shrub 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 % P re se n t Paddock 2010 Grass Grasslike Forb Shrub McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 309 Sti rling, Jocee Figure 6: This graph depicts the species origin of the paddocks of the before grazing data of 2009 to the before grazing data of 2010. There was a 13% increase in the percent introduced species. Plant Percent Total Before Grazing Percent Total After Grazing Percent Grazed Percent Ungrazed Big Bluestem 18.67 24.5 63.56 36.44 Sedges 19.33 14.78 51.89 48.11 Little Bluestem 15 22.9 61.11 38.89 Japanese Brome 11.33 8.89 8.33 91.67 Tall Fescue 2.78 3.56 29.4 70.6 Switchgrass 11 2.33 85 15 Table 1: This table depicts the grazing preferences of the steers. It shows that Big Bluestem, Sedges, Little Bluestem, and Switchgrass were preferred over Japanese Brome and Tall Fescue. 93% 80% 7% 20% 0 20 40 60 80 100 2009 2010 % C o m p o si ti o n Species Origin (2010) Native Introduced McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 310 Sti rling, Jocee CONCLUSIONS 2009 vs. 2010 • There was an incr ease in tot al percent composi ti on of Carex spp. and forbs . • An incr ease was shown in total percent composi ti on of inva sive species. (Predomina ntl y Japanese Brome) $ItHU JUazLnJ Gata Ln  sKoZHG tKat« • Litt er decre ased by 13% compar ed to pre - graze 2009 data. • Baregr ound cover decre ased by 30% in comparison to previous year‟s data. • Basal vegetation cover incr eased by 52% in re lation to the previous year‟s data . Steers exhibited a preference for the most abundant plant species, all of which were native grass or grass-like species. • Stee rs avoided grazing Japane se Brome and Tall Fesc ue. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS The data in thi s study shows that ste ers can sti ll exhi bit a preference while under a manage ment int ensive grazing system. Thus, they have a great er effect on the plants they prefer and less effect on the ungra zed plants. This give s the ungra zed plants a n advant age for McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 311 Sti rling, Jocee reproduction and growth. The increase of the less palata ble plants shown in the study is most likely a result of the preference and sel ection of more palatable plants by the steers . Due to the results, manage ment intensi ve grazing does no t appea r to be a good syste m for preser ving a native warm season past ure . The manage ment intensi ve grazi ng syste m clai ms to reduce sel ectivit y and increase the uniformit y of grazi ng. This study suggests other wise. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 312 Sti rling, Jocee LITERATURE REVIEW Mar riott, C. A., Hood, K., Fishe r, J. M., & Pakeman, R. J. (2009). Long - term impact s of extensive grazi ng and abandonment on the species composi tion, richness, dive rsity and produc tivit y of agric ultura l grassland. [Arti cl e]. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment, 134 ( 3 - 4), 190 - 200. This article described an experiment done to see the implications of extensive grazing versus intensive grazing. In conclusion, it found that extensive grazing buffered productivity better than intensive grazing in drought years. This is similar to my study, because it found that intensive grazing is not the best management strategy for the long term. Mar tz , F. A., Gerr ish, J., Belyea, R., & Tate , V. (1999). Nutr ient Content , Dry Mat ter Yiel d, and Speci es Compositi on of Cool - Season Past ure with Mana gement - Intensive Graz ing. Journal of Dairy Science, 82 (7) . Retrieved from htt p:// www.sciencedirect.com/sc ie nce/ article/B9887 - 4YS4MBF- S/2/ f1282c9d3ea f1529cbc1f3d62f5d 4416. doi: 10.3168/j ds.S0022 - 0302(99)75381 - 6 The objective of this study was to determine any changes in nutrient content, available pasture, and species stand counts of a cool season pasture under a management intensive grazing system. The conclusions of this study found that animal selectivity was strong enough over the grazing season to keep a constant quality in their diets. This study also found that the gra]ing of the pasture Zas uniform “enough” oYer the season 7his study is not similar to my study in this regard. I found there was a high selectivity of the cattle and that my experimental pasture was not grazed uniformly. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 313 Sti rling, Jocee REFERENCES Gerr ish, J. (2004). Management Intensive Grazing: The Grassroots of Grass Farming . Marriott, C. A., Hood, K., Fisher , J. M., & Pakeman, R. J. (2009). Long - term impact s of extensive grazi ng and abandonment on the species composi tion, richness, dive rsity and produc tivit y of agric ultura l grassland. [Arti cl e]. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment, 134 ( 3 - 4), 190 - 200. doi: 10.1016/j .agee.2009.07.002 Martz , F. A., Gerr ish, J., Belyea, R., & Tate , V. (1999). Nutr ient Content , Dry Mat ter Yiel d, and Speci es Compositi on of Cool - Season Past ure with Management - Intensive Graz ing. Journal of Dairy Science, 82 (7) . Retrieved from htt p:// www.sciencedirect.com/sc ie nce/ article/B9887 - 4YS4MBF- S/2/ f1282c9d3ea f1529cbc1f3d62f5d 4416 doi: 10.3168/j ds.S002 2- 0302(99)75381 - 6 Savory, A. (1988) . Hollistic Resource Management . Washi ngton, D.C.: Isla nd Press. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 314 Velasco, Fran cisco Asymm etric al Conflict: Sleep Deprivation as a Precursor to PTSD Amon g Veterans Fran cisco Vel asco Mont ana State Universit y McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 315 Velasco, Fran cisco Abstract Conflicts rangin g from a global sc ale to small er in digenous b att les have be en preval ent throughout hum an hist or y. Each contains unique cult ural and environm ental differ ences, but also a shared comm onali t y-comb at. The emph asis of combat and its ass ociation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is well do cumented, yet the pr ec ed ing mom ents leading into comb at are not understood . Are the re other unknown vari ables that act as a primer in an individual‟s vulnerability to PTSD" Literature has shown that in a civilian population sleep deprivat ion induces co gnit ive ab normali ti es (Heon -J eong & Kwan g- Yoon, 2003). Toda y, co mbat troops enga ge in as ym metric warf ar e that someti mes requires ex tensive sleep deprivation to compl ete a missi on. The purpose of thi s resear ch was to evaluate th e rel ati onshi p between sleep de privation during combat and a later diagnosi s of PTSD. Addi ti onall y, is there a relatio nshi p between sleep depr ivation and a late r dia gnosi s of a sle eping disorde r? Finall y, is t here a th reshol d at which troops can sust ain themselves in combat wit hout sleep and not succumb to eit her PTS D or an y t ype of sleepin g disorder? Veterans with and without a PTSD diagnosi s complet ed a surve y about sleep rotati ons duri ng missi ons and fire fight s, number of missi ons and diagnosi s of sleeping disord ers. Resul ts indicated that there wa s a signific ant relations hi p betwe en sleep deprivation and a la ter dia gnosi s of PTS D an d a later dia gnosi s of a sleep diso rder. In addit ion, preli mi nar y result s indi cated a max imum operati onal threshol d for troops. Research focused on slee p deprivation befor e and during comb at is crucial b ecause it may illustrate an individual‟s capacity to cope while under duress in a battlefield environment. C urrent treatm ents ma y be refined and tailored to address the se overlooked contribut ors to PTSD, which could lead to more efficient and suc cessful t r eatm ent outcomes . K eyword: Sleep deprivati on, PTSD , combat, mili tar y op erati ons McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 316 Velasco, Fran cisco Asymmetrical Conflict: Sleep Deprivation as a Precursor to PTSD Among Veterans War and conflict has bee n a conti nuous signatur e of the human race. Dispu tes ove r territ or y bound aries, reli gious affil iation, and race ar e some of the mos t salient factors that hav e influen c ed the init iation of such conflicts. These conflicts have ran ged from the most prominent countries to the most isol ated tribes. Alt hou gh diff erenc es in these various civi li z ati ons are app arent, the y have a singula r comm onali t y ² combat. The effe cts of ex posure to the se conflicts var y betwe en indi vidual s . Specificall y, veteran populations are showin g an incre ased maladjust m ent to life after combat. Some veter ans do reint e grat e int o a civi li an life wher eas othe rs develop a chronic form of post traumatic stress disorder (PTS D) or risk taking beh avior (Kil gor e et al., 2008). What i s it about combat or the preemptive moments that enhance an individual‟s susceptibi li t y to a later diagnosi s of PTS D? Specificall y, the prevalen ce of PTS D in the Unit ed States has become mor e promi nent due to the curr ent confli cts in Iraq and Afghanist an . Past and cu rrent confli cts have led to the dev elopm ent of rese ar ch focusin g on the mental impact of war. On e ar ea of emphasis was est abli shing the dia gnosi n g crite ria for PTSD and det ermini ng the PTS D severit y in an indivi dual. The dia gnosi ng criterion for PTSD is clearl y de fined in the DSM - IV -TR, which indi cates that indivi duals must have encounte red eit her a dire ct or indi rect s tressor that caused some t ype of trepi dati on. In addit ion, the stressor must be consi stent l y re currin g through int rusive recoll e cti on, such as a dream. Individuals must also be projecti ng fe eli n gs of numbness and ex uding avoidant behavi or related to the str essor. Some type s of hyp er- arousal, such as difficult y concentr ati ng or fall ing asleep must als o be associated McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 317 Velasco, Fran cisco with the stressor. The dur ati on of these problems combi ned with their impact on an individual‟s l ife determi ne whether an indi vidual has PTSD and to what de gree (Americ an Ps yc hiatric Associati on , 2000). I n the curr ent As ymm etri cal confli ct in Ir aq and Afgh anist an, devic es , such as improvised ex plosi ve devices (IEDs ) and homem ade ex plosi ves (HMEs) hav e be en refined from yea rs of war . The y have been dev elo ped to blend int o environments as innocuous objec ts to maxim iz e their effecti ven ess . IE Ds and HMEs cu rrentl y are the c urrent weapon of choice against Americ an and co ali ti on forces. This is illust rated in a congressi onal resea rch se rvice report (CRS ) in august of 2007 that stated that about six t y percent o f mili tar y causal it ies in Iraq and fift y pe rc ent of casu alt ies in Afgha nist an were due to IEDs and HMEs (W il son, 2007). Unfortunatel y these obj e cts have catastrophic con sequences not onl y on th e bod y, but on the mind as well . For some returnin g veter ans, these objects sti ll manifest themselves in ever yd a y items in the U.S . like loose wires in a home, electri cal out lets, phone outl ets , and trash on the side of a ro ad. It is thi s variet y and cor relati on of IEDs and HMEs wit h ever yda y ite ms that causes the returning vet eran dif ficult y in di sti nguishi ng danger from safet y. In ad dit ion, some veterans en gage in direct combat in bot h cit ies and rural areas fo r da ys. Alth ough slee p rotati ons ar e att empt ed to be enfor ced by comm anders, it is the boots on the grounds that m ust adapt to their environ ment. Consequentl y, some troo ps must sta y up for da ys t o maintain pressure on enem y fo rc es. Currentl y, the Depa rtme nt of Veter ans Aff airs ha s implemented the use of various a ssessments to identif y potential at risk veterans for PTSD. The PTSD Checkli st (PCL) is one such form. This fo rm has been alt e red to add re ss bot h civi li an and mili tar y McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 318 Velasco, Fran cisco populations. PCL-M is th e t yp e of PC L usu all y gi ven to acti ve mili tar y per sonnel and veterans. PC L-M is base d on a scorin g s ystem. The high er the sco re the gr eater the severit y (W eathe rs, 1993). The seve rit y s core, alo ng with an indivi dual me eti ng the criteria fo r PTS D in the DSM - IV - TR , provides a soli d base to understand i f an indi vidual has PTSD and to what de gr ee. This ass essm ent ha s been a suc cessful tool in screenin g veterans fo r PTS D. Given the init ial tool s to assess PTSD how do we isol ate and minim iz e the effe ct of each in fluen cin g elem ent of PTSD among veter ans? When these element s have been ex perienced, compound e d, and projected th rou gh s ympt oms of PTS D in a veteran, how do we int erven e or assi st in coping strat e gies that work? Evidence- Bas ed ps ychot herap y is the main tre atm en t emplo ye d b y the Department of Veter an Affairs due to its succ ess in reducin g s ympt oms and improvement of lifest yle for the veter a n. In Evid ence -B ased Th erap y the the rapist and pati ent out li ne significant probl ems toge ther. This cohesive envir onment is th an enhanced by the therapist guidi n g the pati ent through the problem, consequentl y enabli n g th e pati ent to be proacti ve in recove r y (Nati onal Center for PTSD, 2011). The re are s ever al t yp es o f evidenc e -bas ed ps ychot herapies. PTSD speci fic therapies that are uti li z ed by the Department o f Veteran affairs are Co gnit ive Processi n g Therap y (CP T) and Prolonged Ex posure Th erap y (PE). CP T assi sts the veteran b y alt ering str ess inducin g thoughts or thou ght proc e sses into less stressful ones. In essen ce thi s approach assi sts in rati onali z ing the occurr enc e of a negati ve ev ent, suc h as accidentl y kil li ng a civi li an who displ a yed thre ate ning manne rism, but who in reali t y was just nervous. The veteran‟s self -blame would be rati onali z ed by ex plaining to the veteran McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 319 Velasco, Fran cisco that the y rea cted b y the foll owing the rules of en gagement (ROE) in a host il e e nvironment, the civi li an response did not chan ge, so you had to en ga ge. PE approaches a veteran‟s problem by having them imagine the traumatic event or threatenin g obje ct in a cont rolled environment. This method wil l be conti nued unti l the veteran ov ercom es the hindering problem. Fo r ex ampl e, a veter an who was wounded b y a land mine whil e crossin g a clea ring to assault an objecti ve is terrified of walki ng ac ross his front lawn. Afte r imagini n g the environment where the injur y occur re d, it is hoped that the veteran will even tuall y underst and the uni que circumst an ce that sur rounded his inj ur y and that environm ent is not ex ist ent in his front lawn (Hambl en, 201 0). Evidence - Based ps yc hot her ap y is empi ricall y supported and effe cti ve betw een gend e rs and ac ross conflicts (Nati onal Cente r for PTSD, 2011). Although strides hav e be en made in copin g and in terventi on strate gies fo r PTSD from places , su ch as the Nati onal Center fo r PTS D, lit tl e is sti ll known about elements that may enhance an individual‟s vulnerability to the development of PTSD. There are a mul ti tude of elements that preempt batt le which have not been ev aluated fo r their associati on with PTSD. Indivi duals who op erate in combat ex perience a variet y of ph ysical and emot ional elements other than the widel y publi ciz ed fir efi ghts. The y someti mes end ure da ys of sil ence, sleep deprivation , sleep in combat, h ypothermi a, rati oned food and water and th e overall lack of normalc y in a civi li z ed environment. It is these ove rlooked elements that must be taken int o consi derati on to provide more empi rical lit erature that wi ll assi st in the treatm ent of PTSD. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 320 Velasco, Fran cisco The purpose of this resea rch was to fo cus on one such unknown element ²s leep deprivation and its relati onshi p to PTSD. Specificall y, does ex tended sleep deprivation before combat impair an individual‟s ability to cope with a traumatic experience and make them more susc epti ble to a later dia gnosi s of PTSD? In a civi li an pop ulation , de ficit s in co gnit ive func ti oning due to sleep dep ri vati on have be en reco gniz ed. He on -J eong and Kwan g - Yoon et al., (2003) cond ucted an ex periment in which thi rt y students wer e requi red to take neu roco gnit iv e tests and P300 event - r e lated potential during the mornin g an d evening of the two da y tes ti ng period. Particip ants underwent thi rt y - ei ght hours of cont inuous sleep deprivation. Result s for thi s stud y su ggested impairments in alertness and rea cti on time were due to sleep depriv ati on. Particularl y, a decre ase in al ert ness equ ates to a dec re ase in react ion. Kill gore, Balki n and Wes ensten et al., (2006) teste d the eff ects of sleep deprivation in judgment making; thi rt y four pa rtic ipants were given th e Io wa Gambl in g Ta sk (IGT ) befo re and af ter fort y-nine hou rs of sle ep deprivation. Befo re sl eep deprivation, p articipant s chose from less risk y dec k of cards. Howev er, this logical approach dim ini shed afte r the implementation of sleep deprivation. Particip ants began choosi ng from more risk y de cks. Althou gh sleep deprivation wa s condu cte d in a non- batt lefield environment , t he eff ects of sle ep depriv ati on on mental functi oning were e stabli shed. The eff ects of simul ated combat on co gnit ive func ti oning during mili tar y tr aini ng have be en evalu ated. Spe cificall y, the Unit ed State s Ar m y evaluated soldie r s during Range r school traini n g. Range r school consist s o f approx im atel y six t y-on e da ys of slee p deprivation integrated with intense ph ysic al traini ng and emphasis on succ essfull y McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 321 Velasco, Fran cisco conducti ng mili tar y ope r ati ons. The overall goal o f ran g e r school is to prov ide soldi ers who can ope rate while sleep depriv ed and le ad other soldiers in various ter rains to accompl ish a missi on (Mili tar y Ope rati onal Medic ine Resear ch Pro gram , 1999). Vital stati sti cs released by the Op erati onal M edici ne Resear ch Pro gr am pro vided a closer replicated example of the effects of war in combat MOSs. Ranger candidates‟ avera ge caloric int ake wa s 4000 kcal a da y while onl y consum in g an av er a ge of 2800 kcal. The av er a ge weight loss was 26.7l bs. The Li fting stren gth of can didat es was reduced from 170 lbs to 130 lbs at the end of the course. Ran ge r candidate s avera ge 3.6 hours of sleep a da y (Mil it ar y Op er ati onal Medici ne Resear ch Pro gr am, 1999). The eff ects of sle ep depri vati on in Range r school candidates were noted as in p revious rese arch uti li z ing a civi li an population. The impairment of reasoni ng and patt ern anal ysis was observ ed (C lass 11 -91). Inter esti ngl y, memor y was document e d as not being affe cted (Mili tar y Op erat ional Medicine Resea rch Progr am , 1999). The obs erved i mpairment due to sleep deprivation in participant s from bot h civi li an and mili tar y populations reit erates the impact of sleep in co gnit ive perform ance. The cu r rent stud y ex tends these lab-based findi ngs to real wo rld co mbat sett ings. A crucial factor to consi der when ex ami ning slee p deprivation is whether or not a relations hip between sle e p deprivation in combat and diagnosi s of a sleepin g disorde r e x ist . In relation to sleep deprivation, is there a th r eshol d at which indivi duals can sust ain themselves in combat without sleep and not succu mb to eit her PTS D or any other sleeping disord er? Finally, does sle epin g while di rectl y bein g en ga ged in combat affe ct the encoding of memories to such a degree that an individual‟s susceptibility to PTSD increas es? I h ypo thesiz e that there will be a si gnif icant relations hip betwe e n sleep McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 322 Velasco, Fran cisco deprivation befor e comb at and a late r dia gnosi s of PTS D. It is ex pected th at the dim ini shed cognit ive fun cti oning observ ed in Heo n -J eong and Kw an g-Yoo n et al., (2003) a nd Kill gor e, Balki n and Wesensten et al., (2006) stud y will also impact indivi duals in combat, but to a great er degree and respecti ve to th eir ex perienc e with trau matic events. There will also be a signi ficant rel ati onshi p betwe en sleep dep rivati on in a combat zone and a later dia gnosi s of a sleepin g disorde r. Although thi s is a novel area of res ear ch I beli eve that the consi stent sleep deprivation wil l lead to a modified comb at circadian rh ythm , which will lead to the developm ent of a sl eep diso rder. A threshol d at which indi viduals can sust ain themselves with out submi tt ing to a later dia gnosi s of PTS D, sleeping disord er or both will ex ist . This hypothesi s is derived from operati onal obs erva ti on in Operati on Iraqi Fr eedom. Indivi duals who slept dur ing dire ct en ga gement (whi le being fi red upon) wil l ha ve a hi ghe r suscepti bil it y to PTSD. This is due to startled responses that were obs erved in sol diers after the y had slept whil e directl y bein g enga ged durin g Oper ati on Iraqi Freedom. Uncoverin g the und erl yi ng me chanism of PTS D is a journe y of mental e x cavati on. Focusin g on detailed components of pre/post combat ma y not o nl y re fine coping str ate gies , but als o facil it ate novel enh anc ed int erventi on technique for PTSD, tailore d for both civil ians and indi viduals in areas of conflict . Unde rstandin g the sle ep deprivation threshol d for indi viduals in combat could provide invaluable in sight into the mind‟s enduranc e and ab il it y to cop e with traumat ic events . Method P articipants McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 323 Velasco, Fran cisco P r ospecti ve participants were rec ruited at the Veteran Servi ce Office at MS U and throughout mil it ar y inst all ati ons in the Unit ed States. Veter ans were uti li z ed because this stud y is focusin g on the relations hip between sle e p depriv ati on and PTSD among veterans. Th ere wer e a to tal of eight y- four particip ants . Age, gend er, and ethni cit y were accounted for, but did no t serve an y sp ecific purp ose in this stud y. In orde r to be eli gibl e for thi s stud y, pa rticipants must have served or cur rentl y be servin g in the Unit ed States Mili tar y and be a minim um of eighte en ye ars ol d. Materials An online questi onnaire was ac cessed b y particip ants through a secu red on li ne ne twork that was passwo rd protected. No person al identi f yin g information was collected or stored to maint ain part icipant anon ymi t y. A total of twent y- one qu esti on s were ask ed (se e Appendix ). Questi ons focus ed on sl eep deprivation duri ng deplo yment to a comb at zone. Ex ampl es of the questi ons that were asked are wh at is the longest tim e you sta ye d up consecuti vel y durin g deplo yment? Were you eve r orde r to sleep in combat durin g a lo ng fir efi ght? Data ente red b y participa nts appear ed in ex cel for mat in a secur ed email. A standard usb was uti li z ed to capture and t ransf er data to a stand - alone comp uter. Data wa s then be anal yz ed b y SPSS . P rocedure An online consent form was admi nist ered. In add it ion to the consent form on the sa me online page of the stud y it was emphasiz ed t hat parti cipation is voluntar y and that ther e is no financi al com pensation for pa rticipati ng, to prev ent coe rcion. Pa rticipants were info rmed of the pu r pose of thi s stud y in gene ral terms. Participants ac knowledge d McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 324 Velasco, Fran cisco thi s information before t he y proce ed ed to the qu e sti onnaire. Participants fi ll ed out an onli ne questi onnaire focu sing on sleep deprivation in combat. This is an original questi onnaire that was d e veloped based on ex perie nce and obse rvati on of so ldi ers conducti ng missi ons in Operati on Ir aqi Fr eedom. The missi ons ranged fro m reconnaiss an ce to dir ect enga gement of combatan ts with and wit hout the influence of sleep deprivation. Each questi on has been transl a ted in a manner that is flu ent wit h mi li tar y termi nolog y and acc essi ble by academi c anal ys es. This was don e to minim iz e the mis int erpretation of questi ons and all ow for a clear und erstandin g of th e relations hip between sle ep depriv ati on and a later di a gnosi s of both PTSD and sleeping disorders. I had sole access to the data and an al yz e d all ini ti al data m ysel f. A second ar y check of data was done by Dr. Mead e int o ensure accur ac y. Be fore th e ini ti ati on of thi s pr oject the app ropriate In sti tut io nal Review Board (IR B) approval was obta ined to ensure that pr ecauti ons are ad eq uate and con gruent wit h present regul ati ons. The projected tim e frame fo r this project wil l be four to six mont hs to compl eti on from the da y of the IR B approval. This is a correlational stu d y fo cusing on th e relatio nshi p, if an y, of sleep deprivation and PTS D. A gen eral across mili tar y s ervice anal ysis was cond ucted to depict the a ff ect of sle ep depriv ati on in indivi duals who have serv ed in a con flict and a later diagnosi s of PTS D. The relations hip between sle e p deprivation and a lat er diagnosi s of a sleep order was also eval uated. A chi-squ are test was empl o yed to observ e , if an y, an ope rati onal threshol d at which indi viduals can su stain themselves with out sleep befor e succumbi n g to a later dia gnosi s of PTS D, sleepin g diso rder or both. Specifi call y, th e McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 325 Velasco, Fran cisco threshol d or longest tim e up without sleep was ana l yz ed in da ys and comp ar ed to bot h the diag nosi s and non -dia gn osis of PTS D, sleeping di sorder or both. Veterans th at indi cate the ir longest tim e up in an area of conflict in hours were round ed to the nea rest da y. The ran ge of da ys that will be anal yz ed will be from less than twent y- four hours to the gr eatest pa rticipant enter ed amount of da ys up wit hout s leep. A secondar y obj ecti ve was to ex ami ne the relations hip between sleep deprivat ion and individual‟s later diagnosis of PTSD, sleeping disorder , or both b ased on mili tar y occupati on skill (MOS ). All MOSs regardless of their prev alenc e in conus or oconus missi ons related to confli c ts were evaluat ed and pl aced int o eit her a combat or support element cate go r y. Conus miss ions represent miss ions conducted from wit hin the conti nental United States and oconus miss ions rep resent miss ion conducted outsi de the conti nental United States. A chi-squar e test was empl o yed to observ e the frequenc y of P TSD, sleeping disorde r , or both in an indivi dual based on MOS. The divi ding of mi li tar y occup ati on int o these two cat e gories is meant to reflect an individual‟s MOS int eracti on in a combat z one. Veteran data that indicat ed the y wer e victim s of sex ual assault or had ex posure to c hemi cal agents wer e not uti li z ed for thi s stud y. The purpose of omit ti ng th is information is t hat the y are app arent confounds which would i nhibi t accurate findings. Although th is data was not uti li z ed in this stud y it was maintained for possi ble futur e ana l ysis . The difficult y in presc rib ing ad equate tr eatm ent and int erventi on for PTS D among veterans is not its abstrac t nature, but the ac cura c y of translati on of wartime ex perie nces from third person perspe cti ves. Data gath ered fro m veterans to res ear che rs leaves an erro r gap, all owing for some variables to be ov erlooked . B y compa ring ex ist ing literature McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 326 Velasco, Fran cisco related to PTSD with res earch focused on unkno wn variables that ma y en hance suscepti bil it y to PTSD, interventi on and copin g tr eatm ents ma y be refined. Ethi cal Consi derati ons Due to the nature of this stud y questi ons wer e ask ed in a manner th at does not e li cit an y t ype of negati ve responses. Ho weve r, if there were ne gati ve resp ons es the participants had access to the Department o f Vete r ans Aff airs (VA ) suicide hotl ine number wher e skill ed cli nicians can dir ect the pro per cours e of acti on. I als o had direct contact wit h the OIF /OE F cas e mana gement team and a rep resent ati ve of the Arm y W ounded Warrior Progra m (AW 2) to direct parti ci pants in need of assi stanc e who have c ontacted me dir ectl y. Th ese numbers were post ed onli ne along with the qu esti onnaire. Results R esult s are con gru ent wit h our predictions . A bet ween -subj e cts independe n t sampl e t-test was condu c ted between sle ep dep rivati on in a combat zone and a later diagnosi s of PTS D. Parti cipants wer e plac ed int o sleep deprivation cate gor ies respecti ve to the amount of sleep de privation the y indi c ated. The cate go ries ran ged fr om less than 24 hr s of sleep to bein g s leep deprived up to 11 days . The re was a si gnifica nt relations hip t (64)=-1.40, p<.05 . This relations hip was ex pecte d due to a dec rement in cognit ive functi oning influen ced by sleep deprivation as previous l y observ ed in Heo n -J eong and Kw an g-Yoon et al., (200 3) and Kill go re, Balki n and Wesensten et al., (200 6) civi li an stud y. A between -subj ects inde pendent sampl e t -test was conducted betw een sle e p deprivation in a combat zone and a lat er dia gnosi s of a sleep diso rd er. The re w as a significant relations hip t (72)=-1.52, p<.05. A modi fied combat circ adian rh ythm was McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 327 Velasco, Fran cisco anti cipated due to its dev elopm ent in an area of co nfli ct an observed m aint a in pattern of sleep in veteran‟s post -de plo yments . A chi-squar e test was empl o yed to obse rve the frequenc y of PTS D rel ati ve to the longest tim e an indi vidua l was up. A threshol d at which indi viduals can su stain themse lves wit hout submi tt ing to a later dia gnosi s of PTSD, sleeping disord er or both was observ ed. A threshol d of three da ys was obse r ved betwe en sleep dep riv ati on and a later dia gnosi s of PTS D. Specificall y, conti nuous sleep deprivation in a co mbat zone above three days (M 3.76, SD 2.82) increased an individual‟s vulnerability to PTSD where as indi viduals who were sle ep depriv ed belo w three da ys (M=2.35), S D=1.30) were less likel y to develop PT S D (see Table 1). Additi onall y, a sim il ar thr eshol d was observ ed be tween sle ep depriv ati on and a later di a gnosi s of a sleep diso rde r. Indivi duals who wer e sleep deprived past three da ys (M=3.65, SD =2.60 ) had an incr eased sus cept ibi li t y to a later dia gnosi s of a sle eping disorde r than indi viduals who wer e sleep depri ved below three da ys (M =2.72, SD= 2.02) during deplo ym ent (see Tabl e 2). An op erati onal threshol d was predi cted due to the observed ph ysi cal and mental br eakdow n of troops conducti ng missi ons duri ng Op erati on Ir aqi Freed om . A chi-squar e test was util iz ed to observe the fr equ enc y of PTS D rel ati ve to indi viduals who did and did not sleep while being directl y en ga ged. Findi n gs indi cated that sevent y- five perc ent of indi viduals who slept in combat (dire ct en ga ge ment) wer e also later dia gnosed with PTSD whereas fo rt y-thre e perc ent of soldi ers who did not sleep in combat were l ater dia gnosed with PTSD (s e e Fi gur e 1). This was ex pected bec ause of t he observed sta rtle respo nse in indi viduals who slept while bein g en ga ged during Operati on Ir aqi Freedom . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 328 Velasco, Fran cisco A chi-squar e test that sep arated MOS s also show e d that indi viduals who served in a combat MOS wer e fort y- ei ght p erc ent more like l y to be late r dia gno sed with a sleep disorder than indi viduals who served in a suppo rt MOS, who were fifteen percent likel y to be diagnos ed with a sl eep diso rder (see Fi gur e 2). This was not a primar y obje cti ve of thi s resear ch, but giv en the MOS s int eracti on with enem y for ce s thi s resul t was ex pected. Discussion The Relations hip betwee n sleep deprivation and a later dia gnosi s of PTS D, sleep disorder, or both we re ob served alon g with a max imum operati onal thresho ld. These findings are unique beca use the y int e grate comba t ex per ience from a first person perspecti ve with an acad emi c platform. The qu esti onnaire brid ges a gap between the int erpretation of comb at ex periences and actual combat by askin g ope rati o nal questi ons t ypicall y undis closed to t he gener al scienti fic comm unit y. The observed th reshol d for a later di a gnosi s of PTS D and a sleep diso rd ers was int eresti ng du e to their re lative simil arit y. This three -da y m arke r should be revaluated for its accura c y. A si gnifican t relations hip was also ob served betw een sle ep dep rivati on and a later dia gnosi s of PTS D and sleep diso rd ers, which supports the curr ent threshol d. Findi ngs illust rate possib le new vari ables that ma y enhanc e the onset of PT S D a nd sleep diso rde rs. Spec ificall y, the impa ct obser ved in veterans b y sle ep deprivation ma y be a foot hol d in understanding an individual‟s coping mechanism while under duress in a batt lefield en vironment. So, what role does personal coping and rati onali z ing during an d afte r the trau ma of war pl a y when infl uenced b y sle ep depriv ati on? Finall y, how does the mind encod e the surroundin g enviro nment when an indi vidua l is being McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 329 Velasco, Fran cisco directl y en ga ged? Is the r e a possi ble survival en c oding s ystem that is a co mbi nati on of ph ysiol o gical enh ancem e nts and unconscious moni toring? Although Kill go re, Balki n and Wesensten et al., (2006) re sea rch was oppo sing to m y findi n gs, there wer e t wo signific ant differ enc e s that were notabl e. The first differen ce was the environment and second the len gth of sle e p deprivation. Kill gor e, Balki n and Wesensten et al., (2006) r es ear ch was conducted in a controll ed environm en t whereas veterans were und er du re ss due to the batt lefield environment. Sleep depriv ati on was also longer in the veter an pop ulation. However, Kill go re, Balki n and Wesensten et al., (2006) stud y does provid e a goo d baseli ne to test future differen ces in indivi duals before and after deplo ym ents. The eff ects of sle ep depri vati on and co gnit ive func ti oning are well establi sh ed and illustrated in Killgore, Balkin and Wesensten‟s (2006) research and Heon -J eong & Kwan g- Yoon‟s (2003) research. These apparent deficits in cognitive functioning among a civi li an population ma y also indicate impairment in rati onali z ing and copin g with a traumatic ex perienc e. Uncoverin g the und erl yi ng me chanism of PTS D is a ps yc hologi cal journ e y of mental ex cavati on. Focus ing on detailed compone nts of pre/post combat ma y not onl y refine coping str ate gies, but also facil it ate a novel enhanc ed int erventi on te chnique for PTSD, tail ored for both civi li ans and indi viduals in areas o f conflict. Find ings from this stud y suggest that that ther e is a threshol d of thre e da ys of sleep deprivation. This th reshol d curr entl y is tit led the Percussi on Threshol d and shoul d be maintained speci ficall y as a possi ble theoreti c a l premi se for indi viduals directl y parti cipating in mil it ar y operati ons that requir e sleep depriv ati on (see Fi gu re 3) . The McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 330 Velasco, Fran cisco P ercussi on Threshol d hol ds that there is a thre e da y limi t of conti nuous slee p deprivation an indi vidual can endur e before becomi n g suscepti ble to PTSD, sleeping dis order or both. Future repli cati ons of thi s stud y ar e ne eded to det ermine the lon ge vit y of this threshol d. One limi tation of this stud y was that the over all number of particip ants wa s small re specti ve to mil it ar y branch of servic e and MOS. Future resea rch shoul d in creas e the participants for each bran ch of servic e and MOS. Due to the vast num ber of MOS s t his increas e shoul d reve al the sub -population of vete r ans that is mos t sus cepti ble to the effe cts of sleep deprivati on. By underst anding the eff ects of Sleep D eprivation related to MOS logist ica l prepar ati on could be refi ned to mini mi z e the someti mes -li felong batt le of PTSD. This can be done b y incr easin g the siz e of a combat for ce re specti ve to the siz e of its area of operati on (AO ). This should allow adequate time for rest. The disc repan c y between the conclusi ons of supported resea rch related to the ef fects of sle ep deprivation and war is that the mission and its environment wil l alwa ys o verride a conus mandat e from mil it ar y comm and related to s cie nti fic findi n gs. How do we int e grate scientific fin dings with combat operati ons? A possibl e soluti on to this unique problem would be to identi f y a full spect rum of variables that hav e bee n supported to be identi fier s of later dia gnosi s of PT S D. Specificall y, b y identif yi ng the qu esti ons that have a hi gh probabil it y of en hancin g PTSD rati ngs among curr ent as sessm ents used and cond ensing thes e questi on int o a form can be a bett er det erminant of whether PTSD ex ist or wil l ex ist at a later time. Future vari ables that show similar accuracy in depicting a veteran‟s susceptibility to PTSD should be McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 331 Velasco, Fran cisco incorporated to maintain a linear evolut ion wit h co mbat. Probabil it y of succ essfull y diagnosi n g PTSD ea rlier ma y be improved. This resear ch was also lim it ed due to the inadequ ate doc umentati on of ex posure to ex plosi on by vete rans. These blast injuries can l ead to traumatic brain injur y (TB I), which have been asso ciat ed with PTSD. The diffic ult y lies in dist inguishi ng the onset of PTSD due to combat ex perienc e and the influen ce of ph ys iol o gical induc ed PTSD like s ympt oms due to a TBI. The Depa rtment of Defe nse in conjunction wit h the Veter ans Brain Inju r y Center has stated that casualti es from Iraq and Afghanist an wit h brain inj uries because of comb at are approx im atel y 22 % (Sum merall , 2007). In the high pa ce environment of war each mobi le indivi dual who can shoot , move and comm unicate is vit al to the mission. Temporar y impairment or hea daches be caus e of ex plosi ons can and will be brushed off b y in divi duals to accompl ish the missi on. In s ome cases to “fall out” in the midst of batt le can be fatal to the indi vidual in the fight or the man or woman nex t to them. How do we doc ument these re gula r occu rrenc es? Miti gati ng the conflict of ideas in a civi l manner between dive rse cult ur es is a c omp lex matter, which requires enormous amount of enduran ce. PTSD will continue to be a growin g and signific ant problem amon g civi li ans and mili tar y personn el around the g lobe. Conti nued resea rc h int o the specific fa cil it ati ng elements of PTSD and refinement in strategi es for copin g and int erventi on in popul ati ons of high suscepti bil it y must and shoul d be conti nued. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 332 Velasco, Fran cisco R eferen ces American Ps ychiatri c As sociati on . (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Revised 4th ed.). Washington, DC: A u thor. Hambl en. (2010). Treatment of PTSD . Retrieved from http:/ /www.ptsd. va.gov/p ubli c/pages/handoutspdf/handout_Treatm entfo rPTS D.pdf Heon-J eong, L., Le e, K., & Kwan g-Yoon, S. (200 3). Cognit ive dete riorati o n and chan ges of P300 during tot al slee p depr ivation. Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences , 57 , 490. doi: 10.1046/j .1440 -1819.2003.01153.x Kill gore, W. D. S. , B alki n, T. J. & W esensten, N. J. (2006 ). Impair ed decis ion making following 49 h of sle ep deprivation . Journal of Sleep Research , 15, 7 13 . Kilgore, W. D., Cutti ng, D. I., Thomas, J. L., Cox , A. L., McGurk, D., Vo, A. H., Castro, C. A. & Ho ge, C. W. (2008). Post -combat invi ncibi li t y: Violent comb at ex periences are asso ciate d with increased risk -taki ng prop ensit y following deplo yment. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, (13), 1112-1121. Mellm an, (1995). Sleep events amon g vete rans wit h combat -related post tr aumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry , 152(1), 110. Nati onal Center fo r PTS D. (2011). Understanding PTSD Treatment . Retrieved from http:/ /www.ptsd. va.gov/p ubli c/understanding_T X/booklet.pdf Summ erall . (2007). Traumatic Brain Injury and PTSD . Retrieved from http:/ /www.ptsd. va.gov/p rofessi onal/ pa ges/t r auma ti c -brain -inj ur y-ptsd.asp U.S. Arm y Medi cal Ope r ati onal M edicine Rese arc h Progr am. (1999). Biomedical Studies of U.S. Army Ranger Training (Fact Sheet Number 5) . Retrieved from http:/ /www.mom rp.org/p ubli cati ons/ R angers.pd f McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 333 Velasco, Fran cisco W il son. (2007). Improvised explosive devices (IEDS) in Iraq and Afghanistan: Effects and countermeasures (CRS Report No. RS22330 ). Retrieved from htt p:/ /www.fas.or g/sgp/c rs/weapons/ R S 22330.pdf Weathers, F., Lit z , B., Herman, D., Husk a, J ., & Keane, T. (Octob er 1993 ). The PTSD Checkli st (PCL): Reliabili t y, Vali dit y, and Dia gno sti c Util it y. Pape r pres ent ed at The Annual Conventi on of the Intern ati onal Socie t y for Traumatic Stress S tudi es, San Antonio, TX. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 334 Velasco, Fran cisco Figure 1 . Relati onshi p between sleepin g in combat an d a later di a gnosi s of PTSD. Data suggests that Indivi duals who sleep in combat are more likel y to be later di agnos ed with PTSD. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 335 Velasco, Fran cisco Figure 2 . Com parison of mili tar y occup ati onal ski ll (MOS ) to a later dia gn osis of a sleep disorder. Mili tar y occu p a ti onal ski ll was divided into combat and support elements. Data suggest that indivi duals in a combat MOS wer e m ore likel y to b e later dia gnosed with a sleep diso rder than indi vi duals in a support elemen t. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 336 Velasco, Fran cisco Table 1 Relationship between longest time up during deployment and a later diagnosis of PTSD. Numbers represent the mean days up in each category . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 337 Velasco, Fran cisco Table 2 Longest time up during deployment (LTUPDD) compared to later diagnosis of a sleep disorder. Numbers represent the mean days up in each category . McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 338 Velasco, Fran cisco Figure 3 . R efers to a pos sibl e threshol d of three da ys o f conti nuous sleep deprivation in a combat zone which may increase an individual‟s vulnerability to PTSD, sleep disorder or both. McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 339 Velasco, Fran cisco Appendix McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 340 Velasco, Fran cisco McNair Scholars Program Montana State University 341