The influence of extrusion processing on the nutritional value of barley for weanling pigs and broiler chickens by Annette Gale Heryford A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Animal Science Montana State University © Copyright by Annette Gale Heryford (1987) Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the extrusion process on the nutritional quality of barley. Three barley cultivars (Hector, Franubet and Washonupana) were used in the preparation of raw and extruded diets. Hector is a covered barley and the other two are hull-less. Barleys were analyzed for their chemical composition, physical measurements and tested in meal diets of weanling pigs and broiler chicks in the ground raw or extruded state. Raw barley diets consisted of 70% raw ground barley plus 30% extruded soybeans, blended with minerals, vitamins and antibiotics. Extruded diets were made from a mixture of 70% barley plus 30% soybeans, extruded together in an InstaproR extruder (Triple "F", Inc., Des Moines, IA 50322). After extrusion they were blended with minerals, vitamins and antibiotics as with the raw diets. Soybeans were necessary to facilitate the extrusion process. The average calculated fat value of the extruded barley-soybean mixtures was 7.8% However chemical analysis of the extruded barley-soybean mixtures showed an average fat value of 2.2% This low value may have been a result of amylose-fat complexes formed during extrusion, which made the fat less extractable by conventional chemical methods. The extruded barley-soybean mixtures showed higher viscosity readings than the raw barley-soybean mixtures. It is possible that extrusion increased the soluble beta-glucans at the expense of the insoluble, which may have increased viscosity. Chick growth trials, using 1-day-old broiler chicks, indicated a significant difference between raw and extruded barley-soybean diets for average weight gain and feed/gain ratios. Results of chick trial 1 showed that chicks fed the extruded barley-soybean diets exhibited significantly lower weight gains (p= .0001) and significantly higher feed/gain ratios (p= .0001) than chicks fed the raw barley-extruded soybean diets. The addition of beta-glucanase to diets in chick trial 2 improved weight gains over trial 1, but chicks fed the extruded diets still gained significantly less (p=.0004) and had significantly higher feed/gain ratios (p=.0039) than chicks fed raw barley-extruded soybean diets. The addition of supplemental lysine to the diets decreased weight gains significantly (p=.0017). Pig growth trials, using 3-week-old pigs showed no significant difference in weight gains (p=.46), feed/gain ratios (p=.83) or feed consumption (p=.67) between pigs fed raw barley-extruded soybean diets and pigs fed extruded barley-soybean diets. It is concluded that the extrusion process reduces the feed value of barley for broiler chicks from 0-21 days without any apparent effect on the feed value for weanling pigs, and that the extrusion process has an influence on the nutritional value of a feed, but further studies are needed to determine the exact nature of these influences.  the influence of extrusion processing on the nutritional VALUE OF BARLEY FOR WEANLING PIGS AND BROILER CHICKENS by Annette Gale Heryford A th e s i s subm itted in p a r t i a l fu l f i l lm e n t o f the requ irem en ts fo r the degree o f M aster o f Science i n ' Animal Science MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana May 1987 - ° p . i i APPROVAL of a th e s i s subm itted by- Annette Gale Heryford MAIN US. This th e s i s has been read by each member o f the th e s i s committee and has been found to be s a t i s f a c to ry regard ing c o n te n t , English usage, fo rm at, c i t a t i o n s , b ib lio g ra p h ic s ty l e , and c o n s is te n cy , and i s ready fo r subm ission to th e College of G raduate S tu d ie s . Approved fo r Chairperson , Graduate Committee Major Department Q kA V-. Head, Major Department Approved fo r the College o f Graduate S tu d ie s Date Graduate Dean i i i STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE In p r e s e n t in g t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e requ irem en ts fo r a m a s te r 's degree a t Montana S ta te U n iv e rs ity , I agree th a t th e L ib rary s h a l l make i t a v a ila b le to borrowers under ru le s of the L ib r a r y . B r ie f q u o ta t io n s from t h i s th e s i s a re a llow ab le w ithout s p e c ia l perm ission , provided th a t a ccu ra te acknowledgment o f source i s made. Perm ission fo r ex ten s iv e q u o ta tio n from or rep roduc tion o f t h i s th e s i s may be g ran ted by my major p ro fe s so r , o r in h is absence, by the D ire c to r o f L ib ra r ie s when, in th e op in ion o f e i th e r , th e proposed use o f th e m a te r ia l i s f o r s c h o la r ly pu rposes. Any copying o r use o f the m a te r ia l in t h i s th e s i s fo r f i n a n c i a l . g a in s h a l l not be allowed w ithou t my w r it te n perm ission . iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would l ik e to g ive s p e c ia l thanks to Dr, Walt Newman, my adv iso r and f r ie n d , fo r h is guidance and support throughout my g radua te work. I would a lso l ik e to thank Dr. Rosemary Newman, Dr. Mark P e te rsen and Dr. Jacquelynn O1Palka fo r se rv ing on my g radua te committee, and fo r t h e i r gu idance . Thanks a lso go to A p ril B arnes, Nancy Roth and P e trea Hofer fo r t h e i r hours o f h e lp , t h e i r p a tien ce and t h e i r encouragement. I would a lso l ik e to th an k Sandy Gagnon f o r h i s f r i e n d s h ip and counse ling throughout my g radua te c a re e r . This re s e a rc h was supported in p a r t by a g ra n t from th e Montana Wheat and B arley Commission, G reat F a l l s , Montana. A pp recia tion i s a lso expressed to Mr. Denny P e rry , Western S ta te s I n d u s t r ie s , Choteau, Montana fo r ex tru d in g the b a r le y s . T r ip le 11F11 Feeds, I n c . , DesMoines, Iowa a re a lso recognized fo r t h e i r c o n tr ib u tio n o f feed supplements and adv ice . VTABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................... v i ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... v i i i INTRODUCTION I REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................... . In tr o d u c t io n .................................................................. .... B arley Kernel S tru c tu re and Composition . . . P hy sica l C h a r a c te r i s t ic s ............................. ...... . Chemical Composition...................... .... C arbohydrates ......................................................... L ip id s . . . . . . . . . .............................. . P r o t e i n ...................... .............................. .... . . . O ther N u tr ie n ts . . ............................... .... . . B e ta -g lu can s ............................................................. P ro cessing . . . . . . . ............................... . . . H ea t. . . ......................................................... .... . . G ritiding and P e l le t in g . . . . . . . . . . . E x tru sion ........................................ ........................... E f fe c t o f E x tru sion on P ro te in ...................... E f fe c t o f E x tru sion on S ta rch ...................... E ffe c t o f E x tru sion on O ther C on stitu en ts 3 3 4 4 6 6 7 7 9 9 16 16 17 19 21 22 22 MATERIALS AND METHODS. . ' . . . . ........................................... 25 B arley s . . . . . . . ............................... 25 Chemical A n a ly s i s ............................................................................... . 25 P hy s ica l Measurement; ................................................ . . . . . . 26 Animal S tu d ie s .............................. 27 Swine t r i a l . . . .................................................... 27 Chick t r i a l s . ............................................................................................ 28 Chick T r ia l I ..................... 28 Chick T r ia l 2 .............................................................................. 29 RESULTS...................... 33 B arleys and D ie ts ........................................................................................ 33 P hy sica l Measurements ........................................................................... 37 Animal S tu d ie s . . . .............................. 39 . Chick T r i a l s ..................................................................... 39 Swine T r i a l ..................... 47 DISCUSSION ........................................... 52 Chemical A nalysis .............................................................................. 52 Chicks. . . ................................................ 54 Swine . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................... 56 CONCLUSIONS. .................................................... 58 REFERENCES CITED................................................ 60 v i LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 COMPOSITION OF PIG STARTER DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEYS, AS FED . . . ........................... 3O 2 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEYS, AS FED (CHICK TRIAL I) .................. 31 3 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEYS, AS FED (CHICK TRIAL 2) ...................... 32 4 PROTEIN, ETHER EXTRACT AND FIBER CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEANS, DRY MATTER............................................................................. 33 5 ASH, CALCIUM, PHOSPHOROUS AND STARCH CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED. BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEANS, DRY MATTER. ................................... .............................. .... . 34 6 AMINO ACID CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED BARLEY- SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEANS, DRY MATTER. . . . 35 7 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEANS.............................................................................................................. 36 8 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS OF BARLEY KERNELS . . . . . . . . . 38 9 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES, AS FED. . . 39 10 STARCH AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES, CHICK TRIAL I .................................................................................. 40 11 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) LATE FRANUBET BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURE, AS FED, CHICK TRIAL 2 ............................... . . . . . . . . . . 41 12 STARCH AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) LATE FRANUBET BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURE, CHICK TRIAL 2 .................... 42 13 COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEED/GAIN RATIO, CHICK TRIAL I . . . . 43 14 . COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEED/GAIN RATIO CHICK TRIAL I . . . . 43 15 FOURTEEN DAY DRY MATTER CONTENT OF CHICK FECES FROM CHICKS FED RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN DIETS (EXT) CHICK TRIAL I ........................................................................ 44 16 COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED LATE FRANUBET-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS SUPPLEMENTED WITH AND WITHOUT BETA-GLUCANASE AND LYSINE FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEE/GAIN RATIO, CHICK TRIAL 2 ....................................... 45 17. COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED LATE FRANUBET-SOYBEAN (EXT) BARLEY DIETS SUPPLEMENTED WITH AND WITHOUT BETA-GLUCANASE AND LYSINE FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEED/GAIN RATIO, CHICK TRIAL 2 ..................... 47 18 CONTRAST OF DIET COMPONENTS OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY- SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR GAIN, CHICK TRIAL 2 ...........................48 19 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF PIG DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEY-SOYBEANS, AS FED. . ............................... 49 20 STARCH AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF PIG DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEY-SOYBEANS> AS FED...................... 49 21 COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR AVERAGE DAILY GAIN PER WEEK FOR PIG TRIALS...................... 50 22 COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR FEED/GAIN RATIOS PER WEEK FOR PIG TRIALS. 51 23 COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR FEED CONSUMPTION PER PIG PER DAY............................................51 v i i v i i i ABSTRACT The purpose o f t h i s study was to determ ine th e e f f e c t o f th e e x tru s io n p rocess on th e n u t r i t io n a l q u a li ty o f b a r le y . Three b a rley c u l t i v a r s (,H ec to r, F ra n u b e t and Washonupana) were used in th e p re p a ra t io n o f raw and ex truded d i e t s . Hector i s a covered b a rley and the o th e r two a re h u l l - l e s s . B arley s were analyzed f o r th e i r chem ical com position , p hy s ica l measurements and te s te d in meal d ie t s o f weanling p ig s and b r o i l e r ch ick s in the ground raw or ex truded s t a t e . Raw b a r le y d ie t s c o n s is te d o f 70% raw ground b a rley p lu s 30% ex truded soybeans, blended w ith m in e ra ls , v itam in s and a n t i b i o t i c s . E x tru d ed d i e t s w ere made from a m ix tu re o f 70% ba rley p lu s 30% soybeans, ex truded to g e th e r in an In s taP ro fi ex tru d e r (T r ip le "F", I n c . , Des Moines, IA 50322 ). A f te r e x t r u s io n th ey were b lended w ith m in e ra ls , vitam ins, and a n t ib io t i c s as w ith th e raw d ie t s . . Soybeans were necessary to f a c i l i t a t e the e x t r u s io n p r o c e s s . The av e rag e c a lc u la te d f a t va lue of th e ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res was 7.8% However chem ical a n a ly s is o f the ex trud ed b a r le y - s o y b e a n m ix tu re s showed an average f a t value o f 2.2% This low value may have been a r e s u l t o f am y lose-fa t complexes formed during e x tru s io n , which made the f a t l e s s e x tr a c ta b le by conven tional chem ical methods. The ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res showed h ig h e r v is c o s i ty re ad in g s than th e raw barley -soybean m ix tu res . I t i s p o s s ib le th a t e x tru s io n in c reased th e so lub le b e ta -g lu can s a t the expense o f the in s o lu b le , which may have in c re a sed v is c o s i ty . Chick growth t r i a l s , u sing I -d ay -o ld b r o i l e r c h ic k s , in d ic a te d a s ig n i f ic a n t d if fe re n c e between raw and extruded barley -soybean d i e t s fo r average w eight g a in and fe e d /g a in r a t i o s . R e su lts .o f ch ick t r i a l I showed th a t ch ick s fed the ex truded barley -soybean d i e t s e x h ib i te d s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower w eight g a in s (p= .0001) and s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ighe r fe e d /g a in r a t i o s (p=.0001) than ch ick s fed th e raw b a r le y -e x tru d e d soybean d i e t s . The a d d itio n o f b e ta -g lu canase to d ie t s in chick t r i a l 2 improved weight g a in s over t r i a l I , but ch icks fed the ex truded d ie t s s t i l l gained s ig n i f ic a n t ly l e s s (p=.0004) and had s ig n i f ic a n t ly h igh e r fe e d /g a in r a t i o s (p= .0039) than ch ick s fed raw b a rley -ex tru d ed soybean d i e t s . The a d d itio n o f supplem ental ly s in e to the. d ie t s decreased w eight g a in s s ig n i f ic a n t ly (p=.0017). Pig growth t r i a l s , u sing 3-week-old p ig s showed no s ig n i f ic a n t d if f e r e n c e in weight g a in s (p= .46 ), fe e d /g a in r a t i o s (p=.83) o r feed consumption (p=.67) between p ig s fed raw b a rley -ex tru d ed soybean d ie t s and p ig s fed ex truded barley -soybean d i e t s . I t i s concluded th a t the e x tru s io n p rocess reduces th e feed va lue of b a r le y f o r b r o i l e r ch ick s from 0-21 days w ithou t any apparen t e f f e c t on th e feed va lue fo r w eanling p ig s , and th a t th e e x tru s io n p rocess has an in f lu en c e on the n u t r i t i o n a l va lue o f a fe e d , bu t f u r th e r s tu d ie s a re needed to determ ine th e exact, n a tu re o f th ese in f lu e n c e s . 2 , IINTRODUCTION Cereal g ra in s such a s w heat, maize, r ic e and b a rley have been an im portan t s ta p le in th e human food chain both as a food fo r people and a s a feed f o r t h e i r l iv e s to c k s in ce human c iv i l i z a t i o n began. At the very beg inn ing o f human h is to ry , b a rle y (Hordeum vu lg a re L .) was th e most im portan t crop grown in term s o f amount grown and monetary v a lu e (H arlan , 1968), but was g rad u a lly rep laced in im portance by g ra in s such a s wheat and maize. Today, b a rle y i s th e w o r ld 's fo u r th most im portan t crop , rank ing behind w heat, maize and r ic e (Mackey, 1981). I t s prim ary use i s fo r an im a l f e e d , w ith seco n d a ry u s e s in th e human food and brewing in d u s t r ie s , even though b a rley i s h igh in n u t r i t i v e va lue and can be grown over a w ider range o f environmental c o nd itio n s than any o th e r g ra in . B arley and b a rley by -p roducts have been m anu fa c tu red i n t o numerous human and animal fo o d s tu f f s and re sea rch con tinues to expand our a b i l i t y to use b a rley to i t s f u l l e s t p o te n t ia l . E x tru sion i s a method o f cooking in which a food m ix tu re i s p laced under h e a t , m o istu re and p re s su re , and a f t e r an ap p ro p r ia te amount o f tim e , i s fo rced through a sm all opening. The p roduct i s then cooled and cu t in to d e s ired shapes o r s i z e s . The l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e in d ic a te s t h a t t h i s cooking method has an in flu en ce on th e m olecu lar s t ru c tu re o f some of th e food components, e s p e c i a l l y p r o t e in and s ta r c h . This in flu en ce appears to a f f e c t th e d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f th e components, p o s i t iv e ly in some c a se s , n eg a tiv e ly in o th e r c a se s . The in fo rm ation a v a i la b le on th e in f lu en c e o f e x tru s io n cooking on b a rley 2and b a rley -b ased p roducts i s l im ite d . The focus o f t h i s re se a rc h was to d e te rm in e i f e x tru s io n cooking has a s ig n i f ic a n t e f fe c t on th e n u t r i t io n a l components o f a b a rley -b ased d i e t , and i f so , i f t h i s e f f e c t i s capab le o f s ig n i f ic a n t ly in flu en c in g th e d ig e s t i b i l i t y o f th e d ie t f o r w eanling p ig s and b r o i l e r ch ick s . The g en e ra l o b je c t iv e s o f t h i s study were to : 1 . Determine g ro ss chem ical composition o f fo u r d if f e r e n t , b a r le y s in th e raw and ex truded s t a t e . 2 . Determine the p h y s ic a l q u a l i t i e s o f th ese b a r le y s . 3 . Determine, growth and feed e f f ic ie n c y ra te s o f b r o i l e r chicks fed th e raw and ex truded b a r le y s . 4 . Determine th e growth and feed e f f ic ie n c y r a te s o f weanling p ig s fed raw and ex truded b a r le y s . 3LITERATURE REVIEW In tro d u c tio n B arley i s one one o f th e w o rld 's most a n c ien t c e r e a l g r a i n s , a lth o u g h i t s exac t o r ig in i s u n c e r ta in . The e a r l i e s t carbon-dated remains o f c u l t iv a te d b a rley d iscovered thu s f a r a re from a s i t e in I r a n , and d a te back to around 7900 B.C. (H arlan , 1968). However, a more r e c e n t , but u n v e r if ie d study by Wendorf e t a l . (1979), p lace s the o r ig in o f b a r le y to around 17,000 B.C. along th e N ile V alley (Poehlman, 1985). The o ld e s t remains a re a l l o f th e two-rowed ty p e s , but by a t l e a s t 6000 B .C ., s ix -row ed ty p e s were being c u l t iv a te d . i t i s b e liev ed th a t th e o r ig in a l a n ce s to r o f a l l b a r le y s i s a w ild form (Hordeum spontaneum) which i s found p rim a rily in th e Middle E a s t. This w ild b a rley has no t been w ell c h a ra c te r iz ed bu t i s a two-rowed b a rley which undoubtedly occu rs in vary ing deg rees o f h a r d in e s s ,g r a in s iz e , c o lo r , d ise a se r e s is ta n c e , e t c . Spring and w in te r forms a re known and hooded v a r i e t i e s a re found (B rigg s , 1978). The major use o f b a rle y i s f o r animal fe ed . The second largest use i s fo r m a ltin g . Of l e s s s ig n if ic a n c e i s b a r le y 's use fo r human consumption in th e fo ra o f whole g ra in , pearled b a r le y and f l o u r . B a r le y h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been a g r a in a s s o c ia te d w ith a low er socioeconomic s t a tu s , and as such i s no t the g ra in o f cho ice fo r human food even though b a rley i s h igh in n u t r i t io n a l q u a l i ty , has ex cep tion a l o rg an o lep tic a t t r i b u t e s and has th e ' a b i l i t y to be grown over a w ider environm ental range than any o th e r c e r e a l , 4Barley Kernel S tru c tu re and Composition Physica l C h a ra c te r is t ic s ' B arley comes in a wide v a r ie ty o f fo rm s, shapes and s iz e s , however a l l b a r le y s con ta in some common components. In many c u l t iv a r s , the k e rn e l i s covered by an o u te r husk c o n s is tin g o f th e p a lea and lemma, bu t in some l i n e s , t h i s husk s e p a ra te s from the k e rn e l , leav ing th e naked o r h u l l - l e s s k e rn e l . The s tre n g th of the attachm ent o f the h u l l a t m a tu rity depends on th e v a r ie ty o f th e b a rley and the cond itio n s unde r w hich i t i s grown (B r ig g s , 1 9 7 8 ). Naked k e rn e ls con ta in r e l a t iv e ly h igh e r p ro p o r tio n s o f f a t , p ro te in and s t a r c h due to a red u c tio n in th e f ib e r co n trib u ted by th e h u l ls (Newman and McGuire, 1985). Below th e husk l i e s the p e r ic a rp , the a leu rone la y e r , th e s ta rch y endosperm and th e embryo, which i s p a r t i a l l y exposed. The p e r ic a rp a c ts as a p ro te c t iv e covering fo r the k e rn e l . The s ta rchy endosperm makes up th e m a jo rity o f space in th e k e rn e l and p rov ides n u t r i t i v e t i s s u e f o r the developing embryo. The s ta rch y endosperm i s composed o f d i f f e r in g typ es o f dead t i s s u e . - A la y e r of c e l l w a lls w ithou t c e l l u l a r c o n te n ts , crushed to g e th e r , l i e s toward the base o f th e endosperm, w hile th e c e n tr a l p o r tio n o f the endosperm c o n s is ts o f th in -w a lle d parenchyma c e l l s packed w ith v a ry in g s i z e s o f s t a r c h g ra in s . The s ta r c h g ra in s l i e in a p ro te inaceous m a trix a sso c ia ted w ith fragm ents o f am y lop lasts in which the s ta rc h g ran u le s were f i r s t formed. The s ta rch y endosperm ad jacen t to the a leu rone la y e r con ta in s more p ro te in and l e s s s ta r c h . The s ta r c h which does r e s id e here tend s 5to c o n s is t o f sm alle r g ra n u le s . When cu t a c ro s s , the endosperms o f immature k e rn e ls tak e on a h a rd , f l i n t y appearance, w hile plump, mature g ra in s have a chalky o r f lo u ry lo o k . T h is c h a lk y ap p ea ra n ce i s p robably due to th e presence o f t in y cracks around th e s ta rch g ra in s which ho ld a i r (B rigg s , 1978). The a leu rone covers th e endosperm and con ta in s p ro te in bod ies and enzymes r e s p o n s ib l e f o r th e d ig e s t i o n o f th e s ta r c h y endosperm u n d e r ly in g i t . The embryo, which l i e s in th e base of the . k e rn e l develops in to th e young p la n t a s the seed germ inates (R eid , 1985) . P h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be u sed to d i s t i n g u i s h b a rley v a r i e t i e s from each o th e r . One o f th e most obvious t r a i t s i s whether th e b a rley i s two-rowed o r six -row ed . These term s r e f e r to th e number o f rows of g ra in v i s ib le on the p la n t . In two-rowed b a r le y s , the g ra in s a re sym m etrically a rranged . In a six-rowed b a r le y , the median g ra in s a re symmetrical w h ile th e l a t e r a l g ra in s a re unsymmetrical w ith e i t h e r a r ig h t o r le f t-h an d ed b ia s (B rigg s , 1978). Six-rowed b a r le y s take on an o v e ra ll look o f " fu l ln e s s " when compared to two-rowed b a r le y s , however l a r g e r , h eav ie r k e rn e ls a re u su a lly produced by th e two-rowed v a r i e t i e s (Newman and McGuire, 1985) and two-rowed v a r i e t i e s co n ta in an average o f I to 2% more p ro te in than th e six-rowed v a r i e t i e s (Pomeranz e t a l . , 1973). 6Chemical Composition . C arbohydrates. S ta rch comprises 63-65% o f the w eight o f a plump, two-rowed b a rley g ra in , and makes up 85 to 89% o f th e endosperm t is s u e (B rig g s , 1978). G e n e ra l ly , th e s t a r c h found in th e endosperm i s a p p ro x im a te ly 74 to 78% am ylopectin , w ith a m ix ture of a lp h a -1 ,4 - g lucopyranose u n i ts and a lp h a -1 ,6 - l in k a g e s . Amylose makes up th e r e m a in d e r o f t h e s t a r c h , and c o n ta in s s t r a i g h t c h a in s o f D- glucopyranose u n i t s w ith a lph a -1 ,4 lin k ag e s (B rigg s , 1978). However, some c u l t iv a r s co n ta in s ta rc h which i s 100% amylopectin (Goering and E s l ic k , 1976), and c u l t iv a r s w ith a 1:1 r a t i o o f amylose to amylopectin have been found (M e r r i t t , 1967). O th e r c a rb o h y d ra te s a r e p re s e n t in th e k e rn e l and have been q u a n tif ie d in both, th e a leu rone and in n e r endosperm a re a s . The c e l l w a lls in th e a leu rone la y e r a re comprised o f approxim ately 44% xy lo se , 29% g lu co se , 23% a ra b in o se , 2%.mannose, and 2% g a la c to s e . The two main polymers in th e se c e l l w a lls a re a rab inoxy lans (60%) and m ixed-linked b e ta -g lu can s (20%). Some p ro te in and pheno lic a c id s a re a lso p re sen t (Bacic and S tone , 1981). The carbohydrate p o rtio n o f the endosperm c e l l w a lls c o n s is ts o f approx im ately 74% D-g lu co se , 13% D-x y lo se , 10% L-arab inose and 2.5% D-mannose (Ballance and Manners, 1978). C e llu lo se , h em ice llu lo se and l ig n in a lso occur in b a r le y , and make up what i s g e n e ra lly re fe r re d to a s th e crude f ib e r p o r tio n . Hulled b a rley s con ta in 4 to 8% crude f i b e r , w h ile the h u l l - l e s s l in e s average 2% o r l e s s crude f ib e r (Newman and McGuire, 1985). 7Barley a lso c o n ta in s a ' s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f h y d ro c o l lo id a l • carbohyd rates c o l le c t iv e ly c a lle d b e ta -g lu c an s , which form p a r t o f the endosperm, and a re a major component o f the endosperm c e l l w a lls . L ip id s . The l i p id con ten t o f b a r le y i s low compared to corn and o a ts , and accoun ts f o r only a sm all f r a c t io n o f th e dry m a tte r (B riggs, 1978). L ip id s which do e x i s t in b a rley a re found p rim a rily in th e embryo, h u l l , and th e endosperm. A study on th e l i p i d s o f P r i l a r (a h u l l - l e s s b a r le y ) showed th a t the endosperm contained 77.156, the embryo •contained 17.9% and th e h u l l con ta ined 5% o f th e t o t a l l ip id s in th e b a r le y (P ric e and P arson s, 1979)• The amount o f l i p i d s in b a r le y v a r ie s depending on th e c u l t iv a r and th e environmental c o nd itio n s under which the b a rley i s grown (Newman e t a l . , 1974; Fedak and De LaRoche, 1977). The l i p id s in b a rley a re p r im a rily t r i g ly c e r id e s , th e m a jo rity o f which a re "palm itic a c id and the u n sa tu ra ted f a t t y a c id s , o le ic , l i n o l e i c , and l in o le n ic a c id s . L in o le ic ac id i s th e p r in c ip a l f a t t y ac id o f th e b a rley k e rn e l (B rigg s , 1978; P rice and P a rso n s , 1979). P ro te in . The composition and th e amount o f p ro te in have a major e f f e c t on th e n u t r i t io n a l q u a li ty o f a b a r le y . The p ro te in s found in g ra in s were o r ig in a l ly c la s s i f i e d acco rd ing to t h e i r s o l u b i l i t y in s a l t , ho t e th a n o l , w ater or a lk a l in e e x t r a c t s , as g lo b u lin s , p ro lam ins, albumins and g lu t e l i n s , r e s p e c tiv e ly (Osborne, 1924). . 8The major s to rag e p ro te in s a re p ro lam ins, which in b a r le y a r e c a l le d ho rd e in (Kirkman e t a l . , 1982) and a re found p rim a rily in th e endosperm. Hordein i s poor in ly s in e , but has a m ajor e f f e c t on • p ro te in q u a l i ty by e i th e r low ering o r r a is in g th e t o t a l ly s in e le v e l in the k e rn e l . An in c re a s e in ho rde in in b a rley reduces the pe rcen t o f ly s in e in th e t o t a l p ro te in . A lbum ins and g lo b u l in s make up 15-30% o f th e t o t a l k e rn e l n itro g en , and a re mainly m etabo lic p ro te in s , a lthough some evidence in d ic a te s they may be used as s to rag e p ro te in s to some e x te n t . These a re found mainly in th e embryo and the a leu rone la y e r , and a re thought to be h igh in n u t r i t io n a l va lue s in ce they a re r ic h in ly s in e and th reon ine (Shewry e t a l . , 1984). G lu t e l i n s f u n c t io n p r im a r i ly as s t r u c t u r a l p ro te in s and a re a s so c ia te d w ith membranes and m atrix p ro te in s (M iflin and Shewry, 1979; Shewry e t a l . , 1984), but they may have some m etabo lic ro le s as w e ll (Shewry e t a l . , 1984). As p ro te in con ten t in c re a s e s , amino a c id n itro g en a lso in c re a s e s , a lthough the change in in d iv id u a l amino a c id s i s n o t l i n e a r (Pomeranz, 1974). G enera lly , an in c re a se in p ro te in co in c id es w ith a r i s e in a l l amino a c id s excep t c y s tin e up to a p a r t ic u la r p ro te in l e v e l , a f t e r which most amino a c id le v e l s tend to decrease excep t g lu tam ic a c id , p ro lin e and p h e n y la la n in e , which in c r e a s e . L y s in e e x h ib i t s th e g re a te s t change a f t e r th e maximum p ro te in le v e l i s reached , d ecreasing n e a r ly 24% (Newman and McGuire, 1985). 9Other N u tr ie n ts . B arley i s an e x c e lle n t source o f many of the B- complex v i ta m in s , e s p e c i a l l y th ia m in , p y r id o x in e , r ib o f la v in and p an to th en ic a c id . B arley a lso con ta in s a high percen tage of n ia c in , but because i t i s complexed w ith c e r ta in p ro te in s , only about 10% o f th e n ia c in appears to be a v a ila b le , to m onogastrics (Hoppner e t a l . , 1968). Some b io t in and fo la c ln can be found in b a rley as w ell as some v itam in E. The b a rley k e rn e l . i t s e l f c o n ta in s no caro tene o r v itam ins A and D (NRC, 1979). B arley g en e ra lly has an ash con ten t o f 2 to 3% w ith h u l l - l e s s b a r le y s being th e low est in a sh . The m ineral c o n c e n t r a t io n o f a p a r t i c u la r b a rley i s in flu enced by s o i l type and c l im a tic c o n d itio n s , bu t accord ing to Owen e t a l . , 1977, th e p r in c ip a l m inera l elem ents o f b a rle y a re potassium and phosphorous* w ith sm alle r amounts o f c h lo r in e , magnesium, s u l f u r , sodium and calcium . Hulled b a r le y s con ta in more calcium and s i l i c a than th e h u l l - l e s s l i n e s , presumably because h u l ls co n ta in a g r e a te r co n cen tra tio n o f th e s e e lem en ts (C . W. Newman, unpublished d a t a ) . B eta -g lu can s . B eta-g lucan i s a g enera l term used to d e sc rib e compounds o f two or more beta-D -pyranose molecules hooked to g e th e r in a b e ta c o n f ig u ra tio n . (P reece and McKenzie, 1952; Bourne and P ie r c e , . 1972) B eta-g lucans a re no t a s in g le chemical e n t i t y , but r a th e r a fam ily o f sub stan ces which vary in m olecu lar s t ru c tu re and m olecular s iz e . (B athgate and D a lg lie sh , 1975). They a re a c o n s t i tu e n t of th e c e l l w a lls su rround ing the s ta rc h g ran u le s in the endosperm (Bathgate e t a l . , 1975) and a re p re sen t in s u b s ta n t ia l q u a n t i t ie s in b a r le y and 10 o a tSj w ith b a rley c o n ta in in g 2-10% b e t a - g lu c a n s , and o a t s 2-4% . (Bam forth, 1982). Rye con ta in s a sm a lle r percen tage o f b e ta -g lu can s , and corn and wheat even l e s s than ry e . (Preece and Mackenzie, 1952; L ance , 1984) . B e ta -g lu can s e x is t in mixed 1 ,3 :1 ,4 l in k ag e s , w ith approx im ately 70% 1,4 lin k ag e s and 30% 1,3 lin k ages (Bourne and P ie rc e , 1972). From re cen t s tu d ie s , i t appears th a t about 90% o f the w ater s o lu b le b e ta - g lu c a n s in b a r l e y e n d o sp e rm a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o f c e l l o t r i o s y l and c e l lo te t r a o s y l u n i ts connected w ith b e ta 1,3 l in k ag e s , w ith th e remainder c o n s is tin g o f b e ta 1 ,4 l in k a g e s . (Woodward e t a l . , 1983). The percen tage o f b e ta -g lu can s found in b a rley i s dependent upon g e n e tic s and th e environm ent. (Bourne and P ie rc e , 1972; C oles, 1979). B arley grown under h o t, dry co nd itio n s g en e ra lly has a h igh e r b e ta - g lucan con ten t w h ile th a t grown under wet c o nd itio n s co n ta in s a lower p e rc e n ta g e . (Bendelow, 1975). B eta-g lucan co n cen tra tio n appears to in c re a se du ring th e f i r s t s tag e s o f g e rm ina tion , however a t t h i s time t h e m o le c u la r w e ig h t o f th e b e ta - g lu c a n a p p a r e n t ly d e c r e a s e s , in d ic a t in g perhaps th a t enzyme a c t i v i t y i s in c re a s in g . (Bourne and P ie rc e , 1972; P re n tic e and Faber, 1981). The v a r ie ty o f t h e . b a rley a lso in f lu e n c e s the b e ta -g lu can c o n te n t , (P ren tice and F abe r, 1981) as does th e s tag e o f r ip e n e ss o f th e g ra in a t h a rv e s t and th e s to rag e method u sed . (Thomke, 1972; Hessleman and Thomke, 1982). The fo rm ation of b e ta -g lu can s in th e ke rne l occurs when b e ta - g lucan syn thases use the sugar n u c leo tid e u r id in e d iphosphate g lucose (UDPG) o r guanosine d iphosphate g lucose (GDPG) (Montague and Ikuma, 11 1978; Henry and S tone , 1982). The con cen tra tio n o f e i th e r UDPG o r GDPG a p p e a rs to d i c t a t e th e ty p e o f b e ta - g lu c a n fo rm ed . With h ig h c o n cen tra tio n s o f UDPG, b e ta 1 ,3 lin k ag e s a re p rev a len t (Peaud-Lenoel and Axelos, 1970;) w hile when GDPG i s used only b e ta 1,4 lin k ages a re formed (Montague and Ikuma, 1978). . B eta -g lucans a re degraded mainly by fou r enzymes p re sen t w ith in th e seed . E ndo -be ta -1 ,3 g lucanase i s formed de novo during germ ination (Lance, 1984; B ennett and C h r isp e e ls , 1972). E ndo -be ta -1 ,4 g lucanases a r e p r e s e n t i n v e ry sm a ll amounts and a r e m a in ly a c tiv e du ring g e rm ina tion . T he ir main a c t i v i t y occu rs in th e husk and p e r ic a r p d u r in g g e rm in a t io n (B allance and M eredith , 1974; B allance e t a l . , 1976). Endo-1,3 ;1 ,4 b e ta -g lu c a n a se s , a lso c a l le d endo -be ta -g lu canase , i s p r e s e n t . only in th e germ inating k e rn e l , and i s ab sen t in th e mature g ra in (Luchs in g e r e t a l . , 1958). B eta-g lucan s o lu b ila s e i s re sp o n s ib le fo r removing b e ta -g lu can s from th e c e l l w a lls o f th e endosperm, and i s p re sen t in s ig n i f ic a n t amounts in m ature , in ta c t g r a in s . I t s a c t i v i ty in c re a s e s du ring s te e p in g and germ ina tion (Bamforth and M artin , 1981). This s o lu b ila s e appears to be a major f a c to r in th e i n i t i a l r e le a s e o f th e b e ta -g lu can from th e c e l l w a lls , a p rocess which i s then continued by the a c t io n o f th e rem aining enzymes (N a rz is s , 1980). The combined a c t i v i t y o f a l l fou r enzymes i s capab le o f degrading th e e n t i r e b e ta - g lucan con ten t of the b a rley k e rn e l to o lig o sa cch a r id e s (Lance, 1984). These b e ta -g lu can a se s a re g e n e ra lly in a c t iv a te d a t tem pera tu res above 50C however, the endo -1 ,3 b e ta -g lu can ase may be s e n s i t iv e to tem pera tu res over 30C (Moffa and L uchsinger, 1970). The en do -b e ta -1 ,4 g lucanase appears to be s ta b le up to 6OC (Moffa and L uch singer, 1970). 12 All fo u r b e ta -g lu can a se s have optim al a c t i v i ty a t approxim ately pH 5 .(P reeee and Hogan, 1956; Bass e t a l . , 1953; Luchsinger e t a l . , 1958). The endo -be ta -g lucanase complex appears to become more s e n s i t iv e to h ea t a t h ig h e r m o is tu re con ten ts (Luchs in g e r e t a l . , 1958). B arley i s unique among the c e re a l g ra in s in th a t the endosperm c e l l w a l ls c om p le te ly e n c lo s e th e c e l l and th e reby make c e l l u la r co n ten ts r e s i s t a n t to p ro te o ly t ic and amyloI y t i c enzyme a c t i v i t y . (Lance, 1984). When th e se c e l l w a lls a re degraded, b e ta -g lu can s a re r e l e a s e d , and th e s e n o n - s ta r c h p o l y s a c c h a r i d e s c o n t r i b u t e t o n u t r i t io n a l problems in p o u ltry and p ig s as w ell as f i l t r a t i o n problems in the brewing in d u s try .(L an c e , 1984; Bam forth, 1982; Hessleman, 1983; Hesselman and Sman, 1986). These same b e ta -g lu can s may have marked bypocho les te ro lem ic e f f e c t s in p o u ltry and humans w ith lowered serum c h o l e s t e r o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . ( Q u re s h i , 1980; K irb y e t a l . , 1981; Andersson e t a l . , 1984; Newman and Newman, 1987). P ou ltry fed b a rley based d ie t s experience reduced weight g a in s , lowered feed in ta k e and s tic k y fe c e s (B u rn e tt , 1966; Laerdal e t a l . , I960; Hesselman, 1983), which have been a t t r ib u te d to the b e ta -g lu can co n ten t. Degraded, s o l ib u l iz e d b e ta - g lu c a n s a p p a r e n t ly cau se an in c r e a s e i n th e v is c o s i ty o f th e i n t e s t i n a l f lu id which r e s t r i c t s n u tr ie n t uptake and im pa irs w ater r e la t io n s h ip s in the g u t. (P ren tic e and F abe r, 1981). This in c re a sed i n t e s t i n a l v is c o s i ty i s a lso r e la te d to decreased feed ing performance of p ig s (Lance, 1984). However, i t should be noted th a t th e re may be f a c to r s o th e r than so lu b le b e ta - g lucans which c o n tr ib u te to reduced feed ing perform ance, such a s the 13 B eta-g lucans a re a lso im p l ic a te d in p rob lem s i n th e b rew ing in d u s t ry , such as reduced r a t e o f wort f i l t r a t i o n and haze fo rm ation (Bam forth, 1982). The a d d itio n o f enzymes to b a rley d ie ts has been shown to improve performance o f ch ickens and p ig s . Hesselman e t a l . (1982) found th a t by in c re a s in g le v e l s o f b e ta -g lu can ase in th e d i e t , l iv e weight was in c reased 10-26%, and feed e f f ic ie n c y by 4 .9 to 11%, and the dry m a tte r o f th e droppings was s ig n i f ic a n t ly in c re a sed . The s t ic k in e s s o f th e d roppings was found to be g re a t ly reduced and w eight g a in s in c re a sed w ith th e in c re a s in g a d d itio n o f Trichoderma v i r id e (an a c t iv e source of b e ta -g lu c a n a se ) to the d i e t , however t h i s improved grow th re s p o n se p la te au ed o f f a t a p a r t i c u la r le v e l (White e t a l . , 1980). The a d d itio n of enzyme to some■Japanese b a r le y s a lso produced improved weight g a in s and feed e f f ic ie n c y (H ijik u ro , 1983). I t has been shown th a t th e dry m a tte r o f ch icken e x c re ta d ecrea se s as v is c o s i ty o f the d ie t s in c re a s e s (Gohl e t a l . , 1978) Gain and feed e f f ic ie n c y of swine r a t i o s improve w ith the a d d itio n o f b e ta -g lu can ase enzymes to a b a rley -b ased d i e t (Thomke e t a l . , 1980; Newman and Pepper, 1984). A swine feed ing t r i a l comparing Compana (Cl 5438) and two h u l l - l e s s i s o l in e s w ith or w ithou t supplem ental b e ta -g lu canase showed mixed response in animal performance to the enzyme. There were no e f f e c t s in Compana and one h u l l - l e s s i s o l in e w hile th e waxy is o l in e was improved by th e enzyme supplement in term s of ga in (7.0%) and feed e f f ic ie n c y (9.6%) (C. W. Newman, pe rsona l communication). Newman and Newman (1987) rep o rted t h a t waxy covered and intact endosperm c e ll walls which protect the starch and protein from degredation by animal enzymes (Lance, 1984). 14 h u l l - l e s s i s o l in e s o f Compana had h ig h e r le v e l s o f b e ta -g lu can s and th a t th e response of b r o i l e r ch icks to b e ta -g lu canase was g re a te s t in th e waxy types compared to the normal s ta rc h b a r le y s . I t appears th a t t h e b re ak d ow n o f th e b e ta - g lu c a n s i n th e b a r le y w ith enzyme supp lem en ta tion a re th e major cause f o r the improvement, s in ce i t i s p r im a r i ly th e b e ta -g lu can s which a re re sp o n s ib le fo r the in c reased v is c o s i ty in th e i n t e s t i n a l f l u i d s , and hence the d ecrease in n u tr ie n t uptake (White e t a l . , 1981; P ren tic e and Faber, 1981). I t has a lso been suggested th a t i t i s th e m o lecu lar weight d i s t r ib u t io n o f the b e ta -g lu can s which a re p rim a rily re sp o n s ib le fo r in c re a s in g in t e s t i n a l f lu id v is c o s i ty (White e t a l . , 1981). The evidence seems to in d ic a te t h a t h y d ro ly s is o f b e ta -g lu can s in s o lu t io n reduces v is c o s i ty , and i t i s t h i s lowered v is c o s i ty which a llow s fo r g r e a te r n u tr ie n t a b so rp tio n , no t the a c tu a l h yd ro ly s is o f the b e ta -g lu can s (White e t a l . , 1981; Newman, e t a l . , 1985). G enera lly , fou r d i f f e r e n t methods o f a n a ly s is have been employed to e s tim a te the b e ta -g lu can con ten t o f a g r a in sam p le . A b so lu te v is c o s i ty o f an a lk a l in e b u ffe r e x tra c t can be determ ined by u sing a v iscom ete r. A sm all g la s s b a l l i s dropped through the sample, and i t s f a l l time reco rded w ith a s top watch. The v is c o s i ty ' value o f th e sample can be c a lc u la te d from th i s flow time r e l a t i v e to the flow time o f d i s t i l l e d w ater (Coon e t a l . , 1978). This v is c o s i ty has been shown to be d i r e c t ly p ro p o r tio n a l to the amount o f b e ta -g lu can s in the sample (White e t a l . , 1981; Smith e t a l . , 1980; A astrup , 1979)• However, i t should be no ted th a t o th e r sub stan ces p re sen t in the k e rn e l c o n tr ib u te to th e o v e r a l l v i s c o s i t y , such as m ix tu res o f araboxy lan , x y lan , 15 p e c t in , and araban (P reece and McKenzie, 1952), th u s t h i s i s no t a p re c ise a n a ly t ic a l method. R o ta t io n a l v is c om e try can a l s o be employed to determ ine the v is c o s i ty o f a sample. In th e method, the to rque req u ired to r o ta te a sp in d le a t a con stan t speed w hile immersed in th e sample l iq u id i s measured. The to rque i s p ro p o r tio n a l to the v is c o u s d rag on th e immersed s p in d le , and i s thu s p ro p o r tio n a l to th e v is c o s i ty o f th e s o lu t io n . I Determ ining b e ta -g lu can con ten t by flu o rescence invo lv es th e use o f C a lco flup r to complex w ith the b e ta -g lu c o s id ic b ond s , and th e n o b t a i n i n g f lu o r e s c e n c e s p e c t r a th ro u g h th e use o f s p e c i a l i z e d flu o rescen ce measurements. This i s p robably th e most ra p id and l e a s t la b o rio u s method fo r e s tim a tin g b e ta -g lu can c o n ten t, and i t has been shown to be h igh ly c o r re la te d to the b e ta -g lu can con ten t o f a sample as d e te rm in ed by o th e r a n a ly s i s o f th e same sam p le . However, th e C a lco fluo r may a lso b ind to o th e r b e ta -g lu c o s id ic lin k ag e s such a s those found in c e l lu lo s e (Jensen and A astrup , 1981). The fo u r th method o f b e ta -g lu can a n a ly s i s in v o lv e s en zym a tic p ro c e d u re s to h y d ro ly z e th e b e ta - g lu c a n s to o l ig o s a c c h a r id e s o r g lu co se . The enzymes used a re most o fte n p u r if ie d endo -be ta-g lucahase o r p a r t i a l l y p u r if ie d b a c te r ia l b e ta -g lu c an a se , along w ith e thanol and aqueous w ashings. The f i n a l g lucose re le a sed i s measured by a g lucose o x id a se t e s t (F o rre s t and W ainwright, 1977; P ren tic e e t a l . , 1980; Bamforth and M artin , 1981; Sman and Graham, 1987)• I B rook fie ld Engineering L a b o ra to r ie s , In c . 16 P rocessing P rocessing r e f e r s to any trea tm en t to which fe ed s o r m a te r ia ls u sed to p roduce f e e d s a r e s u b je c te d (H a rris and Crampton," 1973). G enera lly , fe ed s a re processed by m echan ica l, th e rm a l o r ch em ica l methods, o r by m ic rob ia l fe rm en ta tio n . P rocessing o f feed s se rv es a v a r ie ty o f pu rposes, i . e . , i t can a l t e r phy sica l c h a r a c te r i s t i c s o r p a r t i c l e s i z e , p re v e n t s p o i l a g e , im prove p a l a t a b i l i t y , d e to x ify a n t in u t r ie n t s and po ison s , o r can pu t th e feed in a form which i s convenien t fo r hand ling (Church, 1977)• A b r i e f review on some common p rocess ing p rocedures and th e i r e f f e c t on the n u t r i t i o n a l v a lu e o f feed s fo llow s . Heat Heat tre a tm en ts a f f e c t both p ro te in and c a rbohyd ra tes , and th e e f f e c t s a re in c re a sed w ith the p resence o f m o is tu re . P ro te in s a re denatu red to some e x te n t , which changes th e p ro te in s t r u c tu r e enough to improve u t i l i z a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y by young an im a ls (S u n d e , 19 7 3 ). However, ex cessiv e h e a t in th e p resence of carbohydrates r e s u l t s in a browning p rocess r e f e r r e d to as th e M ailla rd re a c t io n (A drian , 1974). Because o f t h i s r e a c t io n , ly s in e , and perhaps some o th e r amino a c id s become l e s s a v a ila b le to the animal (Church, 1977). H eating f i s h o r a n im a l p r o t e i n s a p p e a rs to n e g a t iv e ly in f lu e n c e g row th , w h ile c o n tro lle d h e a t tre a tm en t o f c e re a l g ra in s may s l ig h t ly improve p ro te in u t i l i z a t i o n by rum inan ts, but shows l i t t l e e f f e c t on n u t r i t io n a l va lue f o r m onogastrics ( S l in g e r , 1973)• 17 H ea t, e s p e c i a l l y in c om b in a tio n w ith m o is tu r e , r e s u l t s in g e l a t i n i z a t i o n o f s t a r c h e s (S unde , 1973) . Up to a p o in t, t h i s g e la t in iz a t io n has a fa v o rab le in f lu en c e on the n u t r i t io n a l value o f th e fe ed . However, i f ex ten s iv e ru p tu re of s ta rc h g ranu le s o ccu rs , growth and feed e f f ic ie n c y a re reduced (B oh sted t, 1967). Vitam ins and m in e ra ls may be s l ig h t ly n eg a tiv e ly a f fe c te d by h ea t tre a tm en t. Thiamin, p an to th en ic a c id , f o l i c a c id , b io t i n , and the f a t s o lu b le v itam in s a re e sp e c ia l ly s e n s i t iv e to h e a t , l i g h t or oxygen exposure (Kohler e t a l . , 1973)• Some evidence in d ic a te s th a t tra c e m in e ra ls may become l e s s a v a ila b le to th e animal upon h ea tin g due to c h e la tio n o f elem ents w ith in the feed (Church, 1977). G rinding and P e l le t in g . G rinding o f a feed a c ts to reduce p a r t i c le s iz e and in c r e a s e su rfa ce a re a a v a ila b le fo r enzymatic a c t i v i t y . This p ro cess is .w id e ly , accep ted a s a means to improve d i g e s t i b i l i t y , but s to rag e o f ground feed s r e s u l t s in problems w ith o x id a tio n o f n u t r ie n ts and in c reased r a te o f f a t r a n c id i ty (Church, 1977)• Some re p o r ts in d ic a te an in c re a se in th e inc idence of esophagogastic u lc e r s in swine fed f in e ly ground g ra in (Mahan e t a l . , 1966; Simonsson and B jo rk lund , 1978; Lawrence e t a l . , 1980). P igs fed b a rley p repared in th re e p a r t i c l e s iz e s have shown equal g a in s , bu t feed e f f ic ie n c y was reduced in p ig s fed the l a r g e s t p a r t i c l e s iz e (Simonsson, 1978). 18 P e l le t in g o f a feed has sev e ra l p hy sica l advantages such as d u s t re d u c tio n and ease o f hand ling and s to rag e (C u lliso n , 1982). P e l le t in g may a lso have some n u t r i t io n a l advantages by in c re a s in g the d en s ity of the d ie t which allow s fo r g re a te r consumption. P e l le t in g can a lso mask th e f la v o r o f u np a la tab le fe e d s , promoting g re a te r consumption. The h e a t invo lved in p e l le t in g may a lso d estroy the a c t i v i ty o f p a r t i c u la r to x in s (Church, 1977), but may have o th e r e f f e c t s a s w e ll. The n u t r i t io n a l e f f e c t o f p e l le t in g depends on th e in g re d ie n ts in the d i e t . G enera lly , d ie t s h igh in f ib e r show the g r e a te s t improvement .in an im a l p e rfo rm ance when p e l le te d , compared to t h e i r unp e l le te d co u n te rp a r ts (K rider e t a l . , 1982). I t i s no t known p re c is e ly how p e l le t in g improves feed conversion . Some s tu d ie s sugges t th a t energy d i g e s t i b i l i t y i s improved during th e p e l le t in g p ro cess due to a p a r t i a l g e la t in iz a t io n o f th e s ta rch o r a m od if ic a tio n o f th e f i b e r components of the fe ed , both o f which could enhance d i g e s t i b i l i t y (K rid er e t a l . , 1982). I t may be th a t p e l le t in g reduces bulk o f d ie t s h igh in f i b e r , enab ling the animal to consume g r e a te r q u a n t i t i e s . There i s no in d ic a t io n th a t p ro te in d ig e s t i b i l i t y i s improved by p e l le t in g (K rider e t a l . , 1982). R egrinding o f p e l l e t s does no t a l t e r the improved performance o f a p e l le te d d i e t . The in c reased g a in s and h ig h e r feed e f f ic ie n c y of a reground corn-soy-w heat bran p e l le te d d ie t remained con stan t compared to the p e l le te d d i e t , and were h igh e r than th a t of the o r ig in a l d i e t . I t appears th a t p o u ltry can consume reground , p e l le te d mash more e a s i ly than the o r ig in a l mash ( S l in g e r , 1973). 19 Extru sion E x tru s io n i s a method o f cooking" in which lu b r ic a te d s ta rch y and (o r) p ro te in aceou s foods a re formed and cooked in a tube through a com b ina tion o f p re s su re , h ea t and mechanical sh ea r ( Smith ' and Ben- Gera, 1979)« The fo rc e s w ith in th e tube induce g e la t in iz a t io n o f th e s ta rc h e s and d en a tu ra tio n o f p ro te in s . The dough i s then expanded through exotherm ic re a c t io n s and i s formed by openings in the d ie to produce shapes such as ro p e s , s t r i p s o r tubes which a re then cut to th e le n g th d e s ired (Smith and Ben-Gera, 1979) . Ex tru sion te x tu r iz a t io n of food s and an im a l fe e d s i s w id e ly u sed to p roduce a v a r i e ty of convenience foods and snacks a s w ell as many dry p e t fe ed s (Chiang and Johnson, 1977) . H ig h - te m p e ra tu r e , s h o r t - t im e (HTST) e x tru s io n cooking i s th e method most commonly used in modern food p rocess ing p l a n t s . T h is method a llow s tem pera tu res to be kep t reasonably, low during cooking o f the dough, then e lev a ted to the d e s ired ■ tem pera tu res during th e l a s t few seconds o f cooking. Th is b r i e f tem peratu re in c re a se has been shown to be eq u iv a len t in s t e r i l i z i n g v a lue to lower tem pera tu res app lied fo r lo nge r tim es (Stumbo, 1973) • This p ro cess has advan tages over lo nge r cooking p ro cesses in th a t foods can be e f f e c t iv e ly s t e r i l i z e d w ithou t overcooking , d is c o lo ra t io n or n u t r i t io n a l damage (Smith and. Ben-Gera, 1979) . The a c tu a l e x t r u s io n equipment c o n s is ts o f sev e ra l p ie ce s o f machinery which may vary s l ig h t ly from p la n t to p la n t . G enera lly , th e equipment in c lu d e s a fe e d e r to a llow uniform and c o n tro lle d feed ing o f th e m a te r ia l , a p re co n d itio n e r which allow s p rocess ing of the food w ith 20 steam or o th e r l iq u id and the a c tu a l e x tru d e r which mixes the m a te r ia l in to a dough through the use o f a screw appara tu s and cooks i t the re q u ire d amount. The end p rocess may a lso in c lude a means of shaping and c u tt in g th e dough as d e s ire d , and d rye r to cool th e ex tru d a te and reduce m o is tu re to the d e s ired con ten t (Smith and Ben-Gera, 1979). The ex tru s io n p rocess i s a c tu a l ly a s e r ie s o f s te p s beginning w ith p re co n d itio n in g . In t h i s s te p , the raw in g re d ie n ts a r e m o is ten ed and ( o r ) h e a te d by th e a d d i t i o n o f w a te r o r l i v e steam . I f th e p re co n d itio n e r i s p re s su r iz e d , h igh d is c h a rg e te m p e ra tu re s can be ach ieved . Mixing o f th e in g re d ie n ts w ith the m o is tu re occurs through the a c t io n o f padd les a tta ch ed to r o ta t in g s h a f ts (H arper, 1986). This p reco nd itio n in g s te p does l i t t l e to rea rrange m o lecu lar s t r u c tu r e , but simply p rep a res th e in g re d ie n ts fo r the ex tru d e r by reduc ing the amount 1 o f cooking tim e req u ired in th e ex tru d e r (M ille r , 1985). During th e a c tu a l e x tru s io n p ro ce ss , c o n tin u a l i n c r e a s e s i n th e t e m p e ra tu r e , p re ssu re and m o is tu re cook and expand th e food to th e d e s ired bulk d e n s ity (M ille r , 1985). The h e a tin g , h yd ra tion and p re s su re of e x tru s io n cooking cause a re o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e t e r t i a r y s t ru c tu re of the food m o lecu les. L arger m olecules a re a ligned in such a way as to render them . s u sc e p tib le to c ro s s - l in k in g , form ing a bu lky , more porous product (H arper, 1986). Extruded foods u su a lly co n ta in v eg e tab le p ro te in and (o r) s ta r c h as a major in g re d ie n t (H arper, 1986). The e f f e c t o f e x tru s io n on these in g re d ie n ts should be exp lo red s e p a ra te ly , but t h i s may be d i f f i c u l t to accomplish s in ce n a tu ra l foods a r e m ix tu re s r a t h e r th a n s e p a r a te in g re d ie n ts . 21 E ffe c t o f E x tru sion on P ro te in . D efa tted soybean p ro te in i s o f te n used in ex truded p roduc ts to g ive a m ea t-lik e appearance and f la v o r . During the p re -p ro c e ss in g , l iq u id i s added to soy p ro te in to g ive a dry m a t te r o f 33—45$. The mass i s then heated to 80C to 90C in th e p re c o n d itio n e r , and i s then fu r th e r heated during the ex tru s io n p rocess (H arper, 1986). This h igh tem pera tu re , high m oistu re trea tm en t causes the p ro te in s t r u c tu r e to unfo ld and d is ru p ts d is u l f id e and hydrogen bonds, causing c ro s s - l in k ag e s o f th e bonds w ith in th e mass (Ramsen and C la rk , 1978). This forms a la y e re d , f ib ro u s s t ru c tu re which c re a te s more f l a t s u r f a c e s w i th in th e soybean p ro te in , a llow ing i t to be rehyd ra ted to about th re e tim es i t s w e igh t, form ing a m ea t-lik e product (Maurice and S ta n le y , 1978). The a c tu a l n u t r i t io n a l com positional value o f a p ro te in changes l i t t l e du ring the e x tru s io n p ro c e ss , however the d ig e s t i b i l i t y o f the p ro te in does change (B jo rck , 1983). E x tru sion w ith m ild h e a t trea tm en t u su a lly improves d ig e s t i b i l i t y by d e a c tiv a tin g p ro te a se in h ib i to r s and o th e r a n t i n u t r i t i o n a l sub s tan ces . With h igh tem pe ra tu res , p ro te in d i g e s t i b i l i t y w i l l o f te n d e c re a s e due to a red u ced b io lo g ic a l a v a i l a b i l i t y o f some amino a c id s . The su lp hu r-con ta in in g amino a c id s a re o x id iz ed , and th e i r su lphu r groups removed under h igh tem pera tu res , and ly s in e becomes l e s s a v a ila b le in th e presence o f reducing sugars through th e M ailla rd r e a c t io n (H u rre ll and C arpen te r, 1977). The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c y s tin e and ly s in e appear to be th e most n eg a tiv e ly a f fe c te d by e x tru s io n p ro c e ss in g , w ith th e a v a i l a b i l i ty o f a rg in in e , h is ta d in e , a s p a r t ic a c id and s e r in e a lso decreased to l e s s e r e x ten ts (Bjorck and Asp, 1983). 22 E ffe c t o f E x tru sion on S ta rc h . The tem pera tu re du ring th e ex tru s io n p rocess i s d i r e c t ly p ro p o r tio n a l to th e .amount o f s ta r c h g e la t in iz a t io n which occurs (Chiang and Johnson,' 1977). In c re a s in g th e m o is tu re con ten t a lso in c re a s e s g e la t in iz a t io n (Bjorck and Asp, 1983). Total g e la t in iz a t io n o f wheat f lo u r s ta rc h can be achieved a t tem pera tu res o f HO C and 24 to 27$ m o is tu re (B jo rc k and Asp, 19 8 3 ) . Maximum g e la t in iz a t io n u su a lly occurs w ith h ig h -tem p e ra tu re s even w ith low m o is tu re c o n te n ts , which makes th e s ta rc h more s u s c e p tib le to amylase h y d ro ly s is (B jorck and Asp, 1983). Heat t r e a tm e n t a ls o seems to i n h i b i t a lp h a -am y la s e in h ib i to r s which a re p re sen t in raw c e re a ls (Granum, 1979). T h e re fo re , e x tru s io n can in c re a se d ig e s t i b i l i t y o f s t a r c h in a p ro d u c t by in c re a s in g s u s c e p t ib i l i ty to alpha-amylase d ig e s t io n and d e a c tiv a t in g alpha-am ylase in h ib i to r s . The a c tu a l p hy s ica l s t ru c tu re of th e s ta rc h molecule i s changed du ring th e e x tru s io n p ro ce ss . The c r y s ta l l in e s t ru c tu re i s p a r t i a l ly o r completely d estroyed (Charboniere e t a l . , 1973), and thu s e x tru s io n g iv e s the s ta r c h m olecules new, fu n c tio n a l p ro p e r t ie s which inc lude an in c re a se in th e w ater so lu b le f r a c t io n and a concu rren t decrease in m olecu lar ,s iz e (Davidson e t a l . , 1984). E ffe c t o f E x tru sion on O ther C o n s ti tu en ts . The f a t con ten t o f ex truded p roducts may be lower than in unprocessed foods. The e x tra c ta b le f a t con ten t o f ex truded p a s ta was lower when compared to o th e r forms o f h ea t trea tm en t (F ab r ian i e t a l . , 1968). S im ila r r e s u l t s have been found fo r wheat and maize (D e lo rt-L ava l and M erc ie r, 1976). This may be due to m onoglycerides and f r e e f a t t y a c id s form ing complexes w ith amylose during e x tru s io n , making them le s s s u s c e p tib le to e x tra c tio n by c o n v e n t io n a l s o lv e n t m ethods (M e rc ie r , 1980) . The d ig e s t io n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f f a t s does no t appear to be impaired w ith the form ation o f th ese am y lo se -lip id complexes (Holm e t a l . , 1983) . The decrease in f a t con ten t may a lso be a r e s u l t o f steam d i s t i l l a t i o n or th e rm a l deg rada tion (B jorck and Asp, 1983). With in c re a s in g tem pera tu re during e x tru s io n , th e r a t i o o f u n sa tu ra ted to s a tu ra te d f a t t y a c id s appears to decrease (B jorck and Asp, 1983). I t appears th a t e x tru s io n does no t a c tu a l ly change the amount o f f a t in a p roduc t, a lthough i t may render i t l e s s s u s c e p tib le to conven tional a n a ly t ic a l methods o f e x tra c t io n . The d i g e s t i b i l i t y of th e f a t remains unchanged, a lthough th e r a t io o f s a tu ra te d to u n sa tu ra ted f a t s may change. L i t t l e i s w r i t te n on th e e f f e c t o f e x tru s io n on d ie ta ry f i b e r . (F ib e r i s d e fined by B jorck and Asp, 1983 and Theander and Sman, 1983 , a s the n o n -s ta rch po ly saccharid es and l ig n in which a re r e s i s t a n t to enzymes.) However, i t has been suggested th a t f ib e r d eg rada tion in th e colon in c re a s e s a s p a r t i c l e s iz e o f th e f ib e r d ecreases (Thomas and E lc h a z ly , 1 976) . The m echanical trea tm en t during e x tru s io n could decrease p a r t i c l e s iz e enough to in c re a se fe rm en ta tio n in the colon (B jorck and Asp, 1983). Some evidence suggests th a t ex tru s io n may in c re a s e th e w a te r - s o lu b le . f ib e r components a t th e expen se o f th e w a te r - in so lu b le components (Asp e t a l . , 1983) . S ince some v itam in s a re h igh ly s u s c e p tib le to damage by su ch mechanisms as h ea t and o x id a tio n , i t seems probab le t h a t the ex tru s io n p rocess could be d e tr im en ta l to v itam in re te n t io n and s t a b i l i t y . 23 24 Thiamin and r ib o f la v in s t a b i l i t y d u r in g e x t r u s io n cook ing o f c e re a l g ra in s has been most w idely s tu d ie d . The a v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s th a t th iam in i s the most h ea t s e n s i t iv e , w hile r ib o f la v in remains f a i r l y w ell in ta c t during e x tru s io n cooking (B eetner e t a l . , 1974; B eetner e t a l . , 1976; Harper e t a l . , 1977; Maga and S iz e r , 1978). N iacin , py ridox in and f o l i c ac id appear to be r e l a t iv e ly s ta b le during e x tru s io n cooking, a lthough l i t t l e d a ta i s a v a ila b le on th e f a te o f th e se v itam ins du ring e x tru s io n cooking (Jan sen , 1979). E x tru sion cooking appears to be l e s s d e tr im en ta l to v itam in C con ten t than more conven tional cooking methods (Lorenz e t a l . , 1980). A lso, the s t a b i l i t y o f v itam in C du ring s to rag e has been shown.to be much h ighe r in ex truded foods than in corresponding raw foods. This may be r e la te d to a reduced w ater a c t i v i t y d u r in g s to r a g e o f an ex truded product (Harper and Jan sen , 1981). Vitamin A and E le v e l s a c tu a l ly appear to in c re a se during th e e x tru s io n p ro ce ss , compared to raw m a te r ia l . However, i t may be th a t e x tru s io n simply improves the e x t r a c t a b i l i t y of th e se v itam in s , or. th a t compounds formed du ring e x tru s io n e f f e c t co lo rm e tric a ssay s (Harper e t a l . , 1977). 25 MATERIALS AND METHODS B arleys Four d i f f e r e n t b a r le y s known to d i f f e r in t h e i r f i b e r con ten t were used in t h i s s tu d y ; H ector (Cl 15514), a normal covered feed b a rley (used as a c o n tro l ) and two h u l l - l e s s l i n e s , Washonupana and F ranube t. There were two samples o f F ranubet - one h a rv ested befo re snow fall (e a r ly ) and one h a rv ested from th e same f i e l d a f t e r being covered by two snows and ra in ed upon sev e ra l tim es ( l a t e ) . Washonupana i s a h u l l - l e s s , short-awned iso ty p e o f Compana b a r le y , (Cl 5438), which has waxy (100% am ylopectin) s ta r c h (Goering and E s lick 1976). Franubet i s a h u l l - l e s s iso ty p e o f covered B etzes (Cl 6398) th a t has a unique s ta rc h s t r u c tu r e which appears to be "cracked" o r " f ra c tu re d " upon exam ination w ith a low power m icroscope (Chung, 1982). A ll b a r le y s were grown a t th e Montana A g r ic u ltru a l Experiment S t a t i o n Farm w est o f th e MSU campus, Bozeman, Montana in 1985. Chemical A na ly sis . The fo llow ing i s a l i s t o f th e an a ly ses completed on th e b a rley s re sea rch ed . I M oisture | 2 . K je ldah l n itro g en 3• E ther e x tr a c t 4 . Acid d e te rg en t f ib e r 5 . S ta rch 6 . Ash . 7 . Calcium 8 . Phosphorous 9• Amino a c id p r o f i l e I 10. R e la tiv e v is c o s i ty I 11 . B eta-g lucan ( t o t a l , so lu b le and in so lu b le ) ' I ! 26 Proximate an a ly se s and ac id d e te rg en t f i b e r (ADF) were performed on each o f the b a r le y s accord ing to AOAC (1980) methods Calcium con ten t was determ ined using a m odified K ram er-T isdally method (C la rk -C o llip , 1925), and phosphorous con ten t was determ ined as d esc rib ed by F iske and Subbarow (1925). Amino ac id a n a ly s is o f b a r le y s and soybeans was done using a Beckman 120C au tom atic an a ly ze r (Spackman, S te in and Moore, 1958). A ll amino ac id a n a ly s is were conducted by AAA L ab o ra to r ie s , 6206 89th Avenue., SE, Mercer I s la n d , Washington 98040. The v is c o s i ty o f each b a rley was measured w ith the " f a l l in g b a l l" techn ique of. Bendelow (1977) as d esc ribed by Coon (1978). S ta rch was analyzed by th e method o f Sman and Hesselman (1984). . Sman and Graham's method (1987) was fo llow ed in the d e te rm ina tion o f b e ta -g lu can s in th e samples. Phy sica l Measurement Percen t plump was th e weight o f k e rn e ls on and above a 6/64 inch sc reen ; p e rcen t th in was th e weight o f k e rn e ls pass ing through the 5 .5 /6 4 inch sc re e n . Test weight was exp ressed as k g /h l . K ernel w eight was determ ined as 3Og seed per number of k e rn e ls counted x 1000, which was expressed as thousand k e rn e l weight in grams. A ll t e s t s o f p hy s ica l measurement were performed a t th e Cereal Q uality Laborato ry a t Montana S ta te U n iv e rs ity . T r ip l ic a te measures were performed on each sample. 27 Animal S tu d ie s Swine T r ia l S ix d ie t s were p repared u sing th re e of the b a r le y s p rev iou s ly d e sc rib ed ; H ector, Washonupana and l a t e F ranub e t. Each of th e b a r le y s was used to p repare a raw and an ex truded d ie t (Table I ) . The b a r le y s were ex truded w ith an Instapro® Extruder (T r ip le 11F11 Feeds, I n c .) a t Western S ta te s I n d u s t r ie s in Choteau, Montana. P r io r to e x tru s io n , th e b a r le y s were ground and blended w ith c racked , u nde fa tted soybeans in a 70/30 r a t i o o f b a rley to soybeans. This was necessary to f a c i l i t a t e e x tru s io n . A ll d ie t s were p repared w ith equal amounts o f m in e ra ls , v itam in s and a n t i b i o t i c , and met or exceeded th e requ irem en ts e s ta b lis h e d by NRC (1979)« The ex truded and raw b a r le y s were ground through a 4.76mm hammer-mill s c re en , blended w ith o th e r d ie t in g re d ie n ts in a v e r t i c l e m ixer. Proximate a n a ly s is , calcium , phosphorous, s ta rc h and b e ta -g lu can d e te rm in a tio n s were made on a l l d i e t s fo rm ulated using methods p rev io u s ly d e sc rib ed . A t o t a l o f 192 c ro ssb red p ig s (Duroc x Hampshire x Y orkshire) were s t r a t i f i e d by sex , i n i t i a l w eight and ancesto ry to each d ie t tre a tm en t and were p laced in s te e l w ire pens in an env ironm enta lly re g u la ted b u ild in g w ith p la s t i c coated w ire f lo o r s . The s ix d ie t tre a tm en ts were ass igned in fo u r r e p l i c a t e groups o f e ig h t p ig s per pen, making a t o t a l o f 32 p ig s per d i e t . Feed was a v a ila b le ad lib itum as a meal and w ater was provided w ith n ip p le w a te re rs . A ll p ig s were weighed a t the s t a r t o f th e t e s t and weekly fo r th re e weeks. The amount o f feed consumed was recorded w eekly. In d iv id u a l p ig average 28 d a ily g a in s (ADG) were computed fo r 0 -7 , 0-14 and 0-21 days. Pen group averages f o r average d a ily feed consumption (ADF) and feed to gain r a t i o s (F/G) were c a lc u la te d fo r th e same p e rio d s . Data were analyzed by a n a ly s is o f v a rian ce in a 2 x 3 x 4 f a c to r i a l arrangem ent: two p ro cess ing methods, th re e b a rle y s and fo u r r e p l ic a t io n s . Main e f f e c t s and a l l in te r a c t io n s were te s te d (SAS, 1985). In d iv id u a l means of ADG and group means fo r ADF and F/G were th e param eters used in th e an a ly se s . Chick T r ia l s Chick t r i a l I . The fo u r b a r le y s as d esc ribed in th e swine t r i a l p lu s th e e a r ly F ranube t, were prepared in raw and ex truded d ie ts balanced fo r p ro te in and m inera ls (Table 2 ) . The raw b a rley and ex truded barley -soybean m ix ture were th e same as fed in th e swine t r i a l . D ie ts were p repared as a meal and were fo rm u la ted a t a 20.0% p ro te in le v e l w ith supplem ental v itam in s and m ine ra ls to meet o r exceed NRC (1984). One day-old cockere l Hubbard b r o i l e r ch ick s from Fors Hatchery in Puya llup , Washington were housed in a b a t te ry - ty p e cage w ith th e rm o s ta t ic a l ly c o n tro lle d compartments (35 C) w ith w ire mesh f lo o r s . The la b o ra to ry room, lo c a ted in H errick H all on th e MSU campus, was tem pera tu re c o n tro lle d (26 .7 C) w ith con tinuous l ig h t in g . Chicks were number banded and allowed a 2-day adjustm ent period befo re the d a ta c o l le c t io n began. A fte r th e ad justm ent p e r io d , ch icks were s t r a t i f i e d by weight and random ly .assigned to tre a tm en t groups. A t o t a l o f 21 ch ick s were assigned to each d ie t f o r 21 days in th re e r e p l ic a t io n s w ith seven ch icks p e r cage per tre a tm en t g roup . Feed and 2 9 water were provided ad l ib itu m . D aily feed consumption was recorded and body w eigh ts were measured tw ice a week. Total feed consumption and feed to g a in r a t i o s were c a lc u la te d . Fecal dry m a tte r was measured on day fo u r te e n during the course of the feed ing t r i a l . Data were analyzed u sing an a ly se s o f va riance in a 2 x 4 x 3 f a c to r i a l a rrangem ent: two p rocess ing methods, fo u r b a r le y s and th re e r e p l ic a t io n s . Main e f f e c t s and a l l in te r a c t io n s were te s te d (SAS, 1985). Param eters t e s te d were pen averages f o r trea tm en t groups. Chick t r i a l 2 . The l a t e h a rv e s ted Franubet b a rle y was used to p repare 20? p ro te in d i e t s . D ie ts were p repared w ith ground raw and extruded b a rley w ith and w ithou t supplem ental b e ta -g lu can a se , and w ith and w ithou t supplem ental 1 - ly s in e (Table 3 ) . B e ta -g lu canase , Enzeco (R) b e ta -g lu can a se , 200 u n i t s /g , was supp lied by Enzyme Development C o rpo ra tion , K eyport, N. J . L -Iy sin e HCL (98? pure) was. supp lied by Sigma, #5626. Chick a llo tm en t, management and d a ta c o l le c t io n was as d esc rib ed in ch ick t r i a l 1 . Data were analyzed i n a 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 f a c to r i a l arrangem ent: two p rocess ing methods, two le v e l s o f b e ta - g lu canase , two le v e l s o f ly s in e , and th re e r e p l ic a t io n s . D iffe rences between means were determ ined u sing the genera l l in e a r model (SAS, 1985). 30 Table I . COMPOSITION OF PIG STARTER DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEYS, AS FED Rawa Extrudeda In g re d ie n ts b WSP HEC LFB WSP HEC LFB % Raw WSP Raw HEC Raw LFB Ext WSP Ext HEC Ext LFB Ext soybeans 56.00 24.00 56.00 24.00 56.00 24.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 Oat g ro a ts 9.35 9.35 9.35 9-35 9-35 9.35 K ray le tsb 6.75 6.75 6.75 6.75 6.75 6.75 S a lt .40 .40 .40 .40 .40 .40 Dicalcium phosphate I .55 1 .55 1 .55 1 .55 1.55 I .55 Limestone .80 .80 .80 .80 .80 .60 Trace m ineral mix0 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 Vitamin mixd .75 .75 .75 .75 .75 • 75 Antib io tic® .25 .25 •25 .25 .25 .25 F lavo r Supplementf .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 aWSP=Washonupana, HEC=Hector, LFB=Iate F ranube t: th e b a rley s were ex truded as a m ixture o f 70% ground b a rley and 30% cracked soybeans. bK ra ft Foods. cTrace m ineral mix con ta ined 20.0% z in c , 10.0% iro n , 5.5% magnesium, 1 .0% copper, .15% io d id e , .02% selenium . dVitamin mix con ta ined 500,000 IU v itam in A, 100,000 IU v itam in D, 1 ,500 IU v i tam in E , 400 mg m enadione sodium b e s u l f i t e , 700 mg r ib o f la v in , 5,000 mg n ia c in , 2 ,00 mg pan to th en ic a c id , 4 mg v itam in B12 , 50,000 mg c h o lin e , and 6.5 mg b io t in per .454 kg eA n tib io tic con ta ined 100 g c h lo ro te t r a c y c l in e , 100 g s u l f a methazine and 50 g p e n ic i l l in p e r 2.268 kg. f U ltrasw eet p ig n e c ta rR, A griam erica , Northbrook, 111. 31 Table 2. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEYS, AS FED, (CHICK TRIAL I) Rawa Extruded In g red ie n t" WSP HEC EFB LFB WSP HEC EFB LFB Raw b a rley 66.50 66.50 66.50 66.50 Ext b a rley 94.95 94.95 94.95 94.95 Ext soybeans 28.45 28.45 28.45 28.45 D ical phos 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 Limestone .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 Supplement .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 .60 S a lt .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 DL-methionine • 30 .30 .30 • 30 •30 • 30 •30 • 30 L -Iy s in e c .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 .25 aWSP=Washonupana, HEC=Hector, EFB=ea r ly F ranube t, LFB=Iate F ranube t, EXT=ex truded , FEB=Tull energy bean, D ical phos=dicalcium phosphate. ^Supplement: fu rn ish e s th e fo llow ing (per kg supplement) 4630 USPS v itam in A a c e ta te , 1323 ICU v itam in D31 3.97 USPS v itam in E, 6.6 ug v itam in B ^ . 3*97 mg r ib o f la v in , 6 .6 mg d l-ca lc ium p an to th en a te , 298 mg cho line c h lo r id e , 20 mg n ia c in , 2.0 mg pyridox ine hyd ro ch lo rid e , .66 mg menadione sodium b i s u l f i t e , .66 mg th iam ine m onon itra te , 0.40 mg f o l i c a c id , 33 ug d - b io t in , 0.06 mg sodium s e le n i t e , 30 mg manganese s u l f a t e , 30 mg z in c ox id e , 30 mg iro n ca rbona te , 3 mg copper ox ide, .9 mg potassium io d id e , 66 g o x y te tra c y c lin e . cL -Iy sine=L -Iy sine HCL 32 Table 3- PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEYS, AS FED, (CHICK TRIAL 2) Raw F ranubeta In g red ien t I wZo enz wZo Iy s 2 wZo enz wZ Iys 3 wZ enz wZo Iy s 4 wZ enz wZ Iys Raw b a rley Ext soybeans Dicalcium phosphate Limestone Supplement*3 S a lt D-L-methionine B io tin L -Iy sin e B e ta -g lUcanasec C ornstarch In g red ien t 64.12 30.95 2.80 .60 .325 .50 .125 .01 .32 .25 64.12 64.12 30.95 30.95 2.80 2 .80 .60 .60 .325 .325 .50 .50 .125 .125 .01 .01 .52 .32 .05 .05 .20 Extruded F ranubeta 64.12 30.95 2.80 .60 .325 .50 .125 .01 .52 .05 5 wZo enz wZo Iy s 6 wZo enz wZ Iys 7 wZ enz wZo Iy s 8 wZ enz wZ Iy s Ext b a r le y 95.07 95.07 95.07 95.07 Dicalcium phosphate 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.80 Limestone .60 .60 .60 .60 Supplement .325 .325 •325 •325 S a l t .50 .50 .50 .50 D-L-methionine .125 .125 .125 .125 B io tin .01 .01 .01 .01 L -Iy s in ed .32 .52 .32 .52 B eta-g lucanase .05 .05 Cornstarch • 25 .05 .20 aWZo enz w/o Iys=W ithout b e ta -g lu c a n a se , w ithout 1 - ly s in e HCL w/o enz, w/ Iys=Without b e ta -g lu c a n a se , w ith I - ly s in e HCL wZ enz, wZo Iys=With b e ta g lu can se , w ithout 1 - ly s in e HCL wZ enz , wZ Iys=With b e ta -g lu can a se , w ith I - ly s in e HCL ^Supplement: see fo o tn o te s , ta b le 3* cEnzyme=beta-glucanase: Enzeco (R) b e ta -g lu c a n a se , 200 un itsZ g , Enzyme Development C o rpo ra tion , K eyport, N .J. dL - Iy s in e : Sigma, #5626. 33 RESULTS Barleys and D ie ts Table 4 shows p ro te in , f a t and f i b e r va lues o f th e raw b a rley s and o f th e e x tru d e d b a r le y - s o y b e a n m ix tu re s and ex trud ed soybeans. Extruded soybeans were added to th e raw b a rley d ie t s a t a le v e l o f 24$ o f the d ie t to make the raw and ex truded d ie ts s im ila r in chemical com position . As would be expected due to the a d d i t io n a l n u t r i e n t s c o n tr ib u te d by th e soybeans, th e ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res were h ig h e r in most o f the chemical components. Extruded b a r le y -s o y be an m ix tu res con tained approxim ately 21 .2$ p ro te in , Table 4 . PROTEIN, ETHER EXTRACT AND FIBER CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEANS, DRY MATTER In g re d ie n tb Treatment P ro te in E ther e x tr a c t ADFa $ Washonupana Raw 17.4 2 .8 3-0 Extruded 21.3 2.3 6.3 Hector Raw 17.0 1.8 5 .8 Extruded 22.0 2.1 7.1 Early Franubet Raw 17.2 2 .3 1 .5 Extruded 21.3 1.9 5.7 Late F ranubet Raw 16.4 2 .3 1 .5 Extruded 21 .7 2 .5 4 .9 Soybean Extruded 33-3 20.9 8.8 aADF = ac id d e te rg en t f i b e r . bRaw barleys were whole ground kernels and extruded barleys were 70/30 mixtures of ground barley and soybeans. 34 Table 5. ASH, CALCIUM, PHOSPHOROUS AND STARCH CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEANS, DRY MATTER In g re d ie n t0 Treatment Ash Caa Pa S tarch Washonupana Raw 2 .5 .02 .47 55.4 Extruded 3 .8 .51 .47 41.8 Hector Raw 2.2 .01 .35 51.9 Extruded 3.2 .11 .48 38.4 Early F ranubet Raw 2.2 .02 .49 60.9 Extruded 4 .9 .15 .55 39.1 Late Franubet Raw 2.2 .01 .52 63 .8 Extruded 3.5 .10 .58 38.9 Soybean Extruded 6 .4 .54 • 70 6.9 aCa=calclum, P=phosphorous. bRaw b a rle y s were whole ground k e rn e ls and extruded b a rle y s were 70/30 m ix tu res of ground b a rley and soybeans. 2.2% f a t and 6% acid d e te rg en t f i b e r . Raw b a rley s con tained approx im ately 17% p ro te in , 2 . 3% f a t and 3% acid d e te rg en t f i b e r . Ash, calc ium , phosphorous and s ta rc h con ten t o f th e raw b a r le y s , the ex truded barly -soybean m ix tu res and extruded soybeans a re shown in Table 5 . The ex truded barley -soybean m ix tures con ta ined approxim ately 3.9% a sh , .21% calc ium , .52% phosphorous and 40% s ta r c h . The raw b a rle y s con ta ined about 2.3% ash , . 02% calcium , .46% phosphorous and 58% s ta r c h . These d a ta a re c o n s is te n t between the raw and extruded m ix tu r e s , c o n s id e r in g th e added soybeans in the l a t t e r , w ith the excep tion o f the s ta rc h a n a ly s is . The lower s ta r c h value f o r th e ex truded m ix tu res i s no t re a d ily exp la in ed . H ydro lysis o f the s ta rc h du ring e x tru s io n may have re s u lte d in an erroneous a n a ly t ic a l v a lu e . TABLE 6 . AMINO ACID CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEAN, DRY MATTER Amino Acida In g r .b Tint. 0 ALA ARG ASP GLU GLY HIS ILE LEU LYS MET PHE PRO SER THR TYR VAL ____i . WSP Raw .51 .74 .84 3-78 .44 .33 .54 I .02 .49 .21 • 90 1 .49 .55 .48 .51 • 77 Ext • 75 I .22 1.64 4.20 .68 .49 .80 1 .44 .95 .26 1.15 1 .47 .85 .70 • 74 .95 HEC Raw .53 • 78 .85 4.08 .49 • 35 .58 1.10 .51 .20 I .00 1 .63 .61 .50 .55 .75 Ext .73 1 .18 1 .60 4.36 .66 .49 .81 1.45 .92 .26 1.19 1.59 .84 • 70 .73 • 95 EFB Raw .55 .82 .89 4.03 .48 .37 .58 1.11 .54 .22 .99 1.71 .60 .51 .57 .75 Ext .78 I .25 1.79 4.34 .73 .50 .82 1.48 .98 .27 1.19 1 .64 .85 .74 • 76 • 99 LFB Raw .53 • 75 .55 3.64 .46 • 33 .53 1.02 .51 .20 .90 1.58 .56 .47 .52 .61 Ext .77 I .26 1.73 4.23 • 73 .49 .80 1 .41 .99 .26 1.13 1.42 .88 .68 .75 .83 SB Ext II .24 2.25 3-42 5.28 I .20 .82 1.37 2.37 1.98 • 39 1 .68 I .59 I .45 1 .24 1 .21 1.18 aCys t in e /2 and tryp tophan were no t de term ined . ALA=a lan in e , ARG=arginine, ASP=aspartic a c id , a c id , GLUzglutamic a c id , GLY=glycine, H IS=B istid ine , ILE=Isoleucine, LEU=Ieucine, LYS=Iysine, MET = m e th io n in e , PHE= p h eny la lan in e , PRO=proline, SER= s e r in e , THR=th re o n in e , TYR=tyrosine, VAL=valine. bIn g r . = I n g r e d i e n t , WSP=Washonupana , HEC=Hector, EFB=early F ranube t, LFB=Iate F ranube t, SB=soybean; Raw b a rley s were whole ground k e rn e ls and extruded b a rley s were 70/30 m ix tures of' ground b a rley and soybeans. cTm t.=Treatment, Ext=Extruded. 36 Table 6 shows the amino ac id composition o f th e raw b a r l e y s , e x tru d e d b a r le y - s o y b e a n m ix tu re s and e x tru d e d so y b e a n s . T o ta l recovered amino a c id v a lu e s fo r the raw b a rley s a re s im ila r to those o f th e ex truded barley -soybean m ixture when the e f f e c t s o f the ex truded soybeans added to the raw b a rley s a re taken in to accoun t. For example, th e c a l c u l a t e d a la n in e c o n te n t o f the ex truded 30/70 m ix tures o f soybeans and Washonupana, H ecto r, e a r ly F ranubet and l a t e F ra n u b e t b a r le y s were .73» .7 4 , . 7 6 , and .74% , r e s p e c t iv e ly , whereas th e analyzed m ix tu res were com parab le b e in g . 7 5 , . 7 3 » .78 and . 77%, re s p e c t iv e ly . Table 7 . VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF RAW BARLEYS, EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES AND EXTRUDED SOYBEANS B eta-g lucana In g red ie n t" Treatment V isco s ity (cP) Total Soluble In so lu b le Washonupana Raw 2.65 5.00 -------%------- 2.70 2 .30 Extruded 3.02 3.14 2.14 I .00 Hector Raw 1.57 4.06 1.94 2 .12 Extruded 2.16 3.08 2.00 I .08 Early F ranubet Raw 1 .65 4.61 2.11 2 Cn O Extruded 2.67 3.12 2.01 I . i i Late F ranubet Raw 1 .34 5.30 2.00 3 .30 Extruded 2.76 3.07 1 .86 I .21 Soybean Extruded 1.20 .21 .16 .05 ^Percentage dry m a tte r . bRaw barleys were whole ground kernels and extruded barleys were 70/30 mixtures of ground barley and soybeans. 37 V isco s ity measurements and b e ta -g lu can con ten t can be seen in Table 7• Extruded barley -soybean m ix tu res had an average v is c o s i ty o f 2.70 cen tepo ise u n i t s , w hile raw b a rle y s averaged I .80 c e n te p o is e u n i t s . Extruded soybeans had a v is c o s i ty o f 1.20 cen tepo ise u n i t s . Raw b a rley s con tained a h ighe r pe rcen tage o f so lu b le and in s o lu b le b e ta -g lu can s compared to th e ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res . In a l l c a se s , e x tru s io n caused an apparen t in c re a se in th e s o lu b le b e t a - g lucans a t th e expense o f the in so lu b le . Comparing raw b a rley w ith ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res , th e p e rcen t o f so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s in c r e a s e d form 54 to 68%, 48 to 65%, 46 to 64% and 38 to 62%, r e s p e c t iv e ly , f o r th e Washonupana, H ecto r, e a r ly F ranube t and l a t e F ranubet b a r le y s . There was an average in c re a se o f so lu b le b e ta - g lucans in th e fo u r b a r le y s form 46.5 to 64.8%. E x tru sion d id not appear to have a c o n s is te n t e f f e c t on th e t o t a l amount o f b e ta - g lu can s . T o ta l q u a n t i ta t iv e amounts o f b e ta -g lu can s in raw and ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res (ad ju s ted to 100% b a r le y ) were h igh e r in H ecto r, about th e same in e a r ly Franubet and lower in Washonupana and l a t e F ranub e t. P hy sica l Measurements P hy sica l measurements o f b a rle y k e rn e ls can be seen in Table 8 . T est w eigh ts were s im ila r fo r th e h u l l - l e s s b a r le y s which were 4 .8 to 6 .4 k g /h l h eav ie r than H ecto r. Late F ranubet had th e h ig h e s t k e rn e l weight (42 .0 mg), w h ile H ector had th e low e s t (3 2 .3 mg). A w ide v a r ia t io n in plump and th in k e rn e l measurements was e x h ib ite d . Late F ranubet showed th e h ig h e s t percen tage o f plump k e rn e ls (68 . 8%), while 38 e a r ly F ranubet and Washonupana showed the lowest percen tage o f plump k e rn e ls (16.8$ and 17 .3$ , r e s p e c t iv e ly ) . The l a t t e r b a rley did. no t d i f f e r g re a t ly from th e Hector and e a r ly Franubet in t h i s re sp ec t.. The l a t e F fanubet had more m oistu re s in ce i t was ra in ed upon, to develop the g re a te r k e rn e l s iz e and thu s ex h ib ite d h eav ie r k e rn e l w eight, more plump and l e s s th in k e rn e ls th an th e e a r ly F ranube t, which had l i t t l e m o istu re during the growing season . The g re a te r p e rcen t of s ta rc h in th e l a t e F ranubet compared to th e e a r ly F ranubet (63 .8 v s . 60 .9$ , Table 5) su ppo rts the p h y s ica l measurements o f th ese two b a r le y s . P hysica l measurements o f th e 2-rowed Hector b a r le y s a re not ty p ic a l of b a r le y s o f th a t type (Newman and McGuire, 1985). This b a rle y was grown in a dry environment, thu s had l e s s chance to produce plump, heavy k e rn e ls . This i s a lso evidenced by th e low s ta rc h con ten t o f th e b a rley (Table 5 ) . The Washonupana b a r le y , a lthough grown in a d i f f e r e n t lo c a t io n , was a lso produced in an a r id environment. Thus th e e n v iro nm en ta l in f lu en c e s a re expressed in th e p hy s ica l and chem ical measurements o f th e se b a rley c u l t iv a r s . Table 8 . PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS OF BARLEY KERNELS Barley Test weight (k g /h l) K ernela weight (mg) Plump ■ k e rn e ls Thin k e rn e ls -jt - __ Washonupana 70.0 36.5 16.8 48.1 Hector 63.6 32.3 19.3 46.2 Early F ranubet 68 .4 ■ 32.9 17.3 47.1 Late Franubet 68.4 42.0 68.8 9.2 aThe v a lu es a re means o f d u p lic a te a n a ly s is . 3 9 Animal S tud ies Chick T r ia l s P r o t e i n , f a t , a c id d e te r g e n t f i b e r , ca lc ium and phosphorous con ten t o f chick d ie t s fo r t r i a l I a re p resen ted in Table 9 . L i t t l e v a r ia t io n was e x h ib ite d in any o f th ese components between the d ie t s , w ith the fo llow ing ex cep tio n s . D ie ts prepared w ith H ector had s l ig h t ly h ig h e r l e v e l s o f a c id d e te rg en t f ib e r as expec ted , s in ce i t i s a covered b a r le y . Average p ro te in con ten t o f the fo u r raw d ie t s and fou r ex truded d ie t s were 19.65 and 19 .68$ , r e s p e c tiv e ly . This in d ic a te s comparable m ixing of ex truded soybeans w ith th e b a r l e y s p r i o r to e x tru s io n and w ith th e raw b a r le y s . For some unexplained reason , the e x tru d e d l a t e F ran u b e t d i e t s were h ig h e r in a s h , c a lc ium and phosphorous than a l l o th e r d i e t s . Table 9 . PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOY MIXTURES (EXT), AS FED, (CHICK TRIAL I) Components8 D ie tb PROT EE ADF ASH Ca P * ......... Raw WSP 19.7 7-2 3-7 6.7 .90 .94 Raw HEC 19.7 7 .2 5.3 6.7 .93 .89 Raw EFB 20.2 7.6 4.4 7.0 .99 .97 Raw LFB 19.0 6 .8 3 .8 6.9 .87 .96 Ext WSP 19.7 6.1 5.6 6 .8 .90 .92 Ext HEC 19.6 6.1 6 .0 6.4 .90 • 90 Ext EFB 19.6 7.0 4 .8 6.6 .89 .96 Ext LFB 19.8 5.6 5.2 7.7 1.10 1.16 a PROT=protein EEsether e x tra c t ADFsacid d e te rg en t f ib e r Cascalcium Psphosphorous. bE x tsex truded WSPsWashonupana HECsHector EFBsearly Franubet LFBslate F ranube t; Raw b a rle y s 1were whole ground k e rn e ls and extruded b a rley s were 70/30 m ix tu res o f ground b a rley and soybeans. 40 Table 10. STARCH AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURES (EXT) AS FED, (CHICK TRIAL I) Beta-g lucans D ie ta S tarch Total So lub le In so lu b le % Raw WSP 36.0 2.71 1.12 1.59 Raw HEC 33.3 2.50 • 94 1.57 Raw EFB 33-8 2.49 .88 1.53 Raw LFB 33-8 2.67 .81 1.87 Ext WSP 33-9 2.51 1.25 1.23 Ext HEC 34.8 2.61 1.27 1.34 Ext EFB 35.6 2.69 1.20 1.49 Ext LFB 33.4 2.60 1.07 1.52 aExt=ex truded WSP=Washonupana HEC=Hector EFB=ea r ly F ranubet LFB=Iate F ranub e t; Raw b a rle y s were whole ground k e rn e ls and extruded b a r le y s were 70/30 m ix tu res o f ground b a rley and soybeans. Table 10 shows s ta rc h and b e ta -g lu can con ten t o f chick d ie t s f o r ch ick t r i a l I . There was l i t t l e v a r ia t io n in th e se components between the d i e t s . However, the in c re ased percen tage o f so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s in th e ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res (Table 7) was ev id en t in th e d ie ts (Table 10). The average percen tage o f so lub le b e ta -g lu can s in the fo u r raw b a rley d ie t s was 3 6 .Ijl compared to 46.1% in th e d ie t s prepared w ith the ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu re . Table 11 p re sen ts th e p ro te in , f a t , ac id d e te rg en t f i b e r , a sh , calcium and phosphorous con ten t o f chick d ie t s f o r chick t r i a l 2 . Component l e v e l s were s im i l a r amongst a l l d i e t s . Again, a good comparable m ixture o f the raw and e x tru d ed so yb ean s and e x tru d e d b a r le y - s o y b e a n m ix tu re s was o b ta in e d as in d ic a te d by the s im ila r p ro te in l e v e l s o f a l l d i e t s . The raw barley d ie t s averaged 19.48% p ro te in compared to 19.0 fo r the ex truded barley -soybean m ixture d i e t s . 41 Table 11. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED LATE FRANUBET BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURE (EXT)1 AS FED, (CHICK TRIAL 2) Components8 D iet D PROT EE ADF ASH Ca P I Raw, w/o enz , w/o Iy s cd 19.7 7 .0 4.3 6 .8 .88 .93 Raw, w/o enz , w/ Iys 20.0 7.1 3 .8 6 .9 .93 .94 Raw, w/ e n z , w/o Iy s 16.9 7 .0 4.1 6 .8 .95 .92 Raw, w/ enz , w/ Iy s 19.3 7.7 3.9 6.6 .87 • 93 E x t, w/o enz , w/o Iys 18.9 7.1 4.5 6.6 .86 .92 Ext, w/o enz , w/ Iy s 19.2 7 .2 4.5 6.6 .89 • 95 Ext, w/ enz , w/o Iy s 18.6 7 .0 4.6 6.6 .88 .94 Ext, w/ enz , w/ Iy s 19.3 7.1 4.4 6.7 .88 • 94 aPROT=protein, EE=ether e x t r a c t , ADF=acid d e te rg en t f i b e r , Ca= calcium , P=phosphorous. tW o enz, w/o Iys=Witbout beta-glucanase, without 1-lysine HCL w/o enz, w/ Iys=Without beta-glucanse, with I-lysine HCL w/ enz, w/o Iys=With enzyme, without 1-lysine HCL w/ enz, w/ Iys=With enzyme, with 1-lysine HCL Ext=extruded. cEnzyme = b e ta -g lu c a n a se : Enzeco (R) b e ta -g lu c a n a se , 200 u n i t s /g , Enzyme Development C o rpo ra tion , K eyport, N .J. dL ysine : Sigma #5626. T ab le 12 p re sen ts the s ta rc h and b e ta -g lu can con ten t of ch ick d ie t s fo r ch ick t r i a l 2 . These components were s im ila r a c ro ss a l l d i e t s , w ith th e excep tion o f the in c re a se in percen tage of so lub le b e ta -g lu can s in the d ie t s prepared w ith the ex truded barley -soybean m ix tu res . The same e f f e c t of in c reased percen tage o f so lub le b e ta - g lucans in the d ie ts prepared from th e extruded barley -soybean m ix tu res i s e v id en c ed h e re as in d ie ts p repared in ch ick t r i a l I . I t i s in te r e s t in g to no te th a t the a d d itio n o f b e ta -g lu canase to the d ie ts 42 Table 12. STARCH AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF CHICK DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED LATE FRANUBET BARLEY-SOYBEAN MIXTURE (EXT) , AS FED, (CHICK TRIAL 2) Beta-g lucan D iet a S tarch Total So lub le In so lu b le . <1 _ Raw, wZo enz , wZo Iy s 32.4 2.50 1.21 1.25 Raw, wZo enz , wZ Iys 28.8 2.44 1.14 1.31 Raw, wZ enz , wZo Iy s 35.2 2.69 1.68 1.01 Raw, wZ enz , wZ Iys 30.3 2.39 c 1 .03 1.37 Ext, wZo enz , wZo Iys 32.9 2.50 1.45 1.05 Ext, wZo enz , wZ Iys 32,5 2.67 1.74 .95 Ext, wZ enz , wZo Iys 32.6 2.70 2.25 .46 Ext, wZ enz , wZ Iys 32.2 2.67 2.46 .21 aWZo enz , w/o Iys=W ithout b e ta -g lu c a n a se , w ithout 1 - ly s in e HCL w/o enz , w/ Iys=W ithout b e ta -g lu can se , w ith I - ly s in e HCL wZ enz , wZo Iys=Witb enzyme, w ithout 1 - ly s in e HCL wZ enz , wZ Iys=With enzyme, w ith 1 - ly s in e HCL E x ts e x t r u d e d ; Raw b a r le y s w ere whole ground k e rn e ls and ex truded b a rle y s were 70Z30 m ix tu res o f ground b a rley and soybeans. a lso in c re a sed th e percen tage o f so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s (54.6 to 63.7$) in much the same manner as d id the e x tru s io n p ro ce ss . Average weight ga in and feedZgain r a t io s fo r ch ick t r i a l I a re shown in Table 13. In a l l c a se s , th e weight ga in f o r ch ick s on ex truded barley -soybean d ie ts was s ig n i f ic a n t ly lower (p<.0001) th an fo r those on th e raw ba rley d i e t s . Chicks on the raw l a t e Franubet d ie t e x h ib ite d th e g re a te s t amount o f ga in (an average o f 614 gram s), while ch icks on the ex truded l a t e Franubet-soybean d ie t showed the poo rest weight ga in (395 grams) FeedZgain r a t i o s fo r a l l ex truded b a r le y - soybean d ie t s were s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ig h e r (p< .0001) than those fo r the raw b a rley d i e t s . Raw e a r ly Franubet ex h ib ited th e b e s t feedZgain r a t i o (1 .6 2 ) , while ex truded l a t e Franubet-so y showed the poo rest (2 .3 7 ) . 43 Table 13* COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEED/GAIN RATIO (CHICK TRIAL I) Average Average weight fe e d /g a in D ie ta n ga in (g) (p=)b r a t i o (p=) Raw WSP 20 524 1.89 Ext WSP 20 404 (.0001) 2 .28 (.0001) Raw HEC 21 566 ' 1.67 Ext HEC 20 429 (.0001) 2.12 (.0001) Raw EFB 22 582 1 .62 Ext EFB 22 413 (.0001) 2.16 (.0001) Raw LFB 21 614 1.64 Ext LFB 22 395 (.0001) 2.37 (.0001) aWSP=Washonupana, HEC=Hector, EFB=ea r ly F ranube t, LFB=Iate F ranube t. b (P=) = p ro b ab ility v a lu e s . Table 14. COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEED/GAIN RATIO (CHICK TRIAL 1) Average Average weight fe ed /g a in D ie ta n ga in (g) r a t i o Raw ba rley 84 572a 1.71* Extruded b a rley 84 41 Ob 2.23b abMeans in a column t h a t do n o t have a common l e t t e r in t h e i r s u p e r s c r ip ts d i f f e r s ig n i f ic a n t ly (p< .0001). 44 Table 14 p re sen ts a comparison o f raw vs ex truded b a rley fo r chick t r i a l I . Gains fo r ch icks on a l l raw d ie ts were s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ighe r (p<.0001) than g a in s fo r ch ick s on the ex truded d ie t s . Comparisons fo r fe e d /g a in r a t i o s a re a lso shown in Table 14. Chicks fed th e raw b a rley d ie t s a l l e x h ib ite d lower fe e d /g a in r a t i o s (p<.0001) th an ch icks fed ex truded barley -soybean d i e t s . Table 15. FOURTEEN DAY DRY MATTER CONTENT AND FAT CONTENT OF CHICK FECES FROM CHICKS FED RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN DIETS (EXT) (CHICK TRIAL I) D ie ta n Fecal dry m a tte r (p=)b Fecal f a t (p=) % Raw WSP 3 28.7 6.7 Ext WSP 3 33-7 (.2 3 ) 7.4 (.34 ) Raw HEC 3 29.8 5 .6 Ext HEC 3 33.5 (.3 7 ) 7 .2 (.0015) Raw EFB 3 30.7 4 .8 Ext EFB 3 28.2 (.5 4 ) 8.8 (.0075) Raw LFB 3 29.4 4 .5 Ext LFB 3 29.5 (.9 7 ) 8.5 (.23 ) aWSP=Washonupana, HEC=Hector, EFB=ea r ly F ranube t, LFB=Iate F ranube t. b (P=) = p robab ili t y v a lu e s . I t a p p ea red upon v i s u a l in s p e c t io n t h a t th e ch icks on th e ex truded d ie t s had very w et, s t ic k y fe c e s , much more so than the ch icks on the raw d i e t s . However, as shown in Table 15, th e re were no s ig n if ic a n t d if f e re n c e s (p> .20) between fe c a l dry m a tte r con ten t o f ch icks on ex truded d ie t s compared to those on the raw d i e t s . The fe c a l dry m a tte r o f ch ick s on the ex truded d ie t s averaged 31.2%, while the fe c a l dry m a tte r o f chick on th e raw d ie ts averaged 30%. 45 The f a t con ten t o f ch ick fe c e s i s a lso shown in Table 15. In a l l c a se s , the f e c a l f a t was h ig h e r in th e ch icks fed th e ex truded d i e t s , however in only th e H ec to r and e a r ly F ran u b e t d i e t s were th e s e d if f e r e n c e s s ig n if ic a n t (p<.0015 and .0076 , r e s p e c t iv e ly ) . The average fe c a l f a t o f ch ick s fed ex truded d ie t s was 8 .0$ , w hile the average fe c a l f a t o f ch icks fed th e raw d ie t s was 5 .5 $ . The in c reased f a t con ten t may have made th e fe c e s from the ch ick s fed ex truded b a r le y - soybean d ie t s appear to be more w et. Table 16. COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED LATE FRANUBET-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS SUPPLEMENTED WITH AND WITHOUT BETA-GLUCANASE AND LYSINE FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEED/GAIN RATIO, (CHICK TRIAL 2) D ie ta n Average weight ga in (p=) (g) b Average fe e d /g a in r a t i o (pr) I Raw, wZo enz wZo Iy s 20 521 1.62 2 Ext, wZo enz wZo Iys 19 349 (.0001) 2.23 (.0001) 3 Raw, wZo enz wZlys 20 516 1.60 4 Ext, wZo enz wZlys 18 307 (.0001) 2.41 (.0001) 5 Raw, wZenz wZo Iy s 18 569 1.53 6 Ext, wZenz wZo Iys 20 506 OO 1.77 (.0119) 7 Raw, wZenz wZlys 20 551 1 .62 8 Ext, wZenz wZlys 15 445 (.0001) 1.91 (.0035) aWZo enz w/o Iys=W ithout b e ta -g lu c a n a se , w ithout 1 - ly s in e HCL w/o enz w/Iys=Without b e ta -g lu can a se , w ith 1 - ly s in e HCL wZenz wZo Iys=With enzyme, w ithout 1 - ly s in e HCL wZenz wZlys=with enzyme, w ith I - ly s in e HCL. b (P=) = p ro b ab ility v a lu e s . 46 Data comparisons f o r ch ick t r i a l 2 a re shown in Table 16. In t h i s t r i a l , a l l d ie t s were made from l a t e F ranubet b a r le y , which was th e b a rley showing th e w idest v a r ia t io n in ga in s between raw and ex truded d ie t s in ch ick t r i a l I . In a l l comparisons, ch icks fed ex truded barley -soybean d ie t s e x h ib ite d s ig n i f ic a n t ly lower (p< .0001) g a in s th an ch icks fed raw b a rle y s (Table 16 ). The h ig h e s t g a in was e x h ib ite d by ch ick s fed raw b a rley w ith b e ta -g lu canase (enzyme), but w ithou t supplem ental ly s in e , but t h i s was no t s ig n i f ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t from g a in s e x h ib ite d by ch ick s fed any o f the raw b a rley d i e t s . The poo res t g a in was ex h ib ite d by th e ex truded d ie t w ithout supplem ental enzyme bu t w ith a d d it io n a l ly s in e ( d ie t 4 ) . This was s ig n i f ic a n t ly lower than g a in s on th e o th e r ex truded d i e t s . The second low est g a in f o r the ex truded d ie t s was shown by th e d i e t w ithout enzyme and w ithou t ly s in e ( d ie t 2) The th i r d low est g a in o f th e ex truded b a rley -soy d ie t was e x h ib ite d by th e d ie t w ith enzyme and w ith ly s in e added ( d ie t 8 ) . The ex truded d ie t w ith b e ta -g lu canase and w ithout supplem ental ly s in e ( d ie t 6) showed g a in s which were no t s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the raw b a rle y s w ithou t enzyme supplem entation ( d ie ts I and 3 , Table 16). The pooled means f o r ch ick t r i a l 2 a re shown in Table 17. Table 18 p re sen ts p -v a lu e s comparing th e v a rio u s d ie t components. As p rev io u s ly mentioned, a l l ex truded d ie t s r e s u l te d in a s ig n i f ic a n t ly lower (p<.0001) weight g a in fo r ch icks than th e raw d i e t s . The raw d ie t s w ith and w ithou t b e ta -g lu can ase and w ith and w ithou t ly s in e r e s u l te d in s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ighe r g a in s fo r ch icks th an t h e i r ex truded c o u n te rp a r ts . For a l l d i e t s , raw and ex truded , the a d d itio n o f b e ta - 47 Table I? . COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED LATE FRANUBET-SOYBEAN (EXT) BARLEY DIETS SUPPLEMENTED WITH AND WITHOUT BETA-GLUCANASE AND LYSINE FOR WEIGHT GAIN AND FEED/GAIN RATIO, (CHICK TRIAL 2) D ie ta n . Average weight ga in (g) Average fe ed /g a in r a t io Raw ba rley 78 539a 1 .59* Extruded b a rley 72 402" 2 .08b A ll d i e t s , w ith enzyme. 73 518a 1.71* A ll d i e t s , w ithout enzyme 77 423b 1.97b A ll d i e t s , w ith ly s in e 73 455a 1.89* A ll d i e t s , w ithou t ly s in e 77 486b 1.79b dbMeans in a column t h a t do n o t have a common l e t t e r in t h e i r s u p e r s c r ip ts d i f f e r s ig n i f ic a n t ly (p z .0001-.0017) glucanase s ig n i f ic a n t ly improved w eight g a in s w hile supplem ental ly s in e decreased weight g a in s in ex truded b a rley d ie ts bu t had no e f f e c t on w eight g a in o f chicks, fed raw b a rley d i e t s . Swine T r ia l ■ Table 19 p re sen ts th e p ro te in , f a t , ac id d e te rg en t f ib e r , a sh , calcium and phosphorous co n ten ts o f p ig d i e t s . T here was l i t t l e v a r ia t io n ex h ib ite d in any o f th ese components between th e d ie t s , w ith th e excep tion th a t a c id . d e te rg en t f i b e r was s l ig h t ly h ig h e r in th e Hector b a rle y d ie t s and th a t a sh , calcium and phosphorous were h ighe r in the ex truded l a t e F ranubet d i e t . This same d if fe re n c e was noted in ch ick d ie t s p repared in ch ick t r i a l I ., 48 Table 18. CONTRAST OF DIET COMPONENTS OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY- SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR GAIN (CHICK TRIAL 2) D iet component* P= Extruded vs raw b a rley .0001 Raw, w/o enz w/o Iy s vs e x t , w/o enz w/o Iy s .0001 Raw, w/o enz w/ Iy s vs e x t , w/o enz w/ Iy s .0001 Raw, w/ enz w/o Iy s vs e x t , w/ enz w/o Iy s .0014 Raw, w/ enz w/ Iy s vs e x t , w/ enz w/ Iy s .0001 A ll b a r le y s , w ith enzyme vs w ithou t enzyme .0001 A ll b a r le y s , w ith ly s in e vs w ithou t ly s in e .0017 Raw ba rley w ith enzyme vs raw b a rley w ithou t enzyme .0040 Ext b a rle y w ith enzyme vs ex t b a rley w ithout enzyme .0001 Raw b a rley w ith ly s in e v s raw b a rley w ithou t ly s in e .4133 Ext b a rle y w ith ly s in e vs ex t b a rle y w ithout ly s in e .0002 aw/o enz w/o Iys=Without beta-g lucanase, without 1 - ly s in e HCL w/o enz w/IyS=Without beta-g lucanase, w ith I - ly s in e HCL w/enz w/o Iys=With enzyme, without 1 - ly s in e HCL w/enz w/Iys=Wlth enzyme, with I - ly s in e HCL. T ab le 20 shows th e s ta rc h and b e ta -g lu can con ten t o f the p ig d ie t s . Again, l i t t l e v a r ia t io n was e x h ib ite d in s ta rc h o r t o t a l b e ta - g lu can s . However, as in th e b a rley and d ie t s fed in th e chick t r i a l s , the e x tru s io n p rocess in c re ased the p e rcen t of so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s in the d ie t s from 46.9 to 63 .1$ . 49 Table 19. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF PIG DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEY-SOYBEANS, AS FED Components5 D ie tb PROT EE ADF ASH Ca P 4 Raw Washonupana 19.5 6.6 4.2 6.4 .77 .76 Raw Hector 20.0 7 .4 5.7 6.3 .81 .68 Raw l a t e F ranubet 18.7 6 .8 3 .6 6 .0 .73 .73 Ext Washonupana 19.7 7-0 5.4 6 .3 .67 •71 Ext H ector 19.5 6.4 5.6 6.4 .79 .75 Ext l a t e F ranubet 19.6 6 .2 5.4 7 .5 1 .01 • 96 5PROT=Protein, EE=ether e x t r a c t , ADF=acid d e te rg en t f i b e r , Ca= calcium , P=phosphorous. bExt=extruded. Table 20 . STARCH AND BETA-GLUCAN CONTENT OF PIG DIETS PREPARED WITH RAW AND EXTRUDED (EXT) BARLEY-SOYBEAN, AS FED Beta-g lucan D ie t5 S tarch Total Soluble In so lu b le % Raw Washonupana 37.0 2.85 1 .42 1.42 Raw Hector 35.3 2.72 1 .30 1.43 Raw l a t e F ranubet 39.2 2.92 1.26 1.66 Ext Washonupana 35.9 2.58 1.55 1.02 Ext Hector 34.8 2.59 1.73 .85 Ext l a t e F ranubet 34.2 2.58 1.61 .97 5Ext=ex truded . Comparison o f average d a ily g a in s can be seen in Table 21. P igs fed th e raw Washonupana and raw Hector d ie ts appeared to have h ig h e r av e rag e d a i ly g a in s th a n p ig s fe d e x tru d e d d i e t s , however th ese d if fe re n c e s were no t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t . P ig s fed the ex truded 50 Table 21. COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR AVERAGE DAILY GAIN PER WEEK FOR PIG TRIALS Average D aily Gain D ie ta n 0-7d (p=)D 0-l4d (p=) 0-2Id (p=} •8 Raw WSP 32 59 181 313 Ext WSP 32 50 (.6 2 ) 145 (.1 9 ) 286 (.5 9 ) Raw HEC 32 73 200 350 Ext HEC 32 41 (.1 5 ) 150 (.10 ) 295 (.3 1 ) Raw LFB 32 64 177 300 Ext LFB 32 91 (.2 1 ) 200 (.4 2 ) 336 (.4 9 ) aWSP=Washonupana, HEC=Hector, LFB=Iate F ranube t. b (p=)= p robab ili t y v a lu e s . F ranub e t-soybean d ie t appeared to have h ighe r ga in s th an those on th e raw Franubet d i e t , bu t a g a in , th ese d if f e r e n c e s were no t s ig n i f i c a n t . The d if f e r e n c e s in g a in between p ig s fed raw and ex truded barley d ie t s became l e s s w ith in c re a s in g days on t e s t . Table 22 p re sen ts fe e d /g a in r a t i o s fo r p igs on th e raw and ex truded d i e t s . There were no s ig n i f ic a n t d if f e re n c e s in fe ed /g a in r a t i o s between raw and ex truded barley -soybean d i e t s . By day 14, th e fe e d /g a in r a t io s between ex truded and raw b a rley d ie t s were id e n t i c a l . Table 23 p re s en ts th e average feed consumption per p ig on a d a ily b a s is . No s ig n i f ic a n t d if f e re n c e was d e tec ted between consumption o f th e raw d ie t and i t s ex truded c o u n te rp a r t . Amount o f feed consumed per pig per day was s im ila r a c ro ss a l l d i e t s . 51 Table 22. COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR FEED/GAIN RATIOS PER WEEK FOR PIG TRIALS Feed/Gain r a t i o D ie ta n O-Td (p=)b 0-l4d (p=) 0-21d (p=) Raw WSP 4 5.4 2 .0 1.9 Ext WSP 4 9.7 ( .4 0 ) 2 .2 ( .3 5 ) 2 .0 (.8 6 ) Raw HEC 4 6 .9 2 .0 1.9 Ext HEC 4 5 .9 ( .8 4 ) 2 .0 (.78 ) 1.9 (.8 8 ) Raw LFB 4 4.1 1.9 1.9 Ext LFB 4 2 .0 ( .67 ) 1.9 ( .9 8 ) 1.8 (.7 4 ) aWSP=Washonupana, HEC=Hector, LFB=Iate F ranube t. b (p=) = p ro b ab ility v a lu e s . Table 23 . COMPARISON OF RAW AND EXTRUDED BARLEY-SOYBEAN (EXT) DIETS FOR FEED CONSUMPTION PER PIG PER DAY Feed Consumption D ie ta n Week I (p=)b Week 2 (p=) Week 3 (p=) ■6 Raw WSP 4 182 344 655 Ext WSP 4 188 ( .7 8 ) 396 ( .5 3 ) 649 (.9 4 ) Raw HEC 4 175 363 642 Ext HEC 4 175 (1 .0 ) 370 (.86 ) 597 (.61 ) Raw LFB 4 175 318 603 Ext LFB 4 208 (.4 3 ) 389 (.3 5 ) 662 (.5 0 ) aWSP=Washonupana, HEC=Hector, LFB=Iate F ranube t. b (p=) = p ro b ab ility v a lu e s . 52 DISCUSSION Chemical A nalysis On a ca lcu la ted , b a s is , th e ex truded barley-:soybean m ix tu res which were composed o f 70% raw b a rley (w ith an average f a t va lue o f 2.3%) p lu s 30% ex truded soybeans (w ith a f a t va lue o f 20.9%) should con ta in 7-8% f a t . However, chemical a n a ly s is o f f a t con ten t by the e th e r e x t r a c t methods showed th a t th e ex truded b a rley -soy m ix tu res con tained only 1 .9-2.5% f a t , which i s only 24-31% o f th e f a t expected (Table 4 ) . This may be a r e s u l t o f am y lose-fa t complexes formed du ring e x tru s io n which h in d e r th e e x tra c t io n o f f a t from the sample by normal chem ical methods (F a b r ia n i , 1968). This a lso su p po rts work done by D elo rt-L ava l and M ercier (1976) in which only 40-55% o f the l i p i d s p re sen t in raw m a te r ia ls could be e x tra c te d w ith e th e r a f t e r e x t r u s io n . The f a t recovery in ex truded wheat was 40% and o f corn was only 20% o f th e c a lc u la te d l i p i d con ten t in a study done by N ie rle e t a l . (1980). I t may be m o n g ly c e r id e s and f r e e f a t t y ac id s which combine w ith th e amylose (M erc ie r, 1980). Other ex p lan a tio n s o f th e reduced f a t con ten t a re a d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e f a t by steam d i s t i l l a t i o n o r th e rm a l d eg rad a tio n . However, N ie lsen (1976) f in d s th a t th e cond itio n s du ring th e ex tru s io n p rocess do no t a f f e c t l i p ip d s . I t i s in t e r e r s t in g to no te th a t in t h i s s tu d y , th e e x tru d e d Washonupana b a r l e y , w hich c o n ta in s s t r i c t l y amylopectin fo r s ta rc h a lso showed a reduced f a t co n ten t. Th is would in d ic a te th a t th e re may be f a c to r s o th e r than am y lo se-fa t complexes which a re reduc ing th e e x tra c ta b le f a t con ten t in . 53 ex truded p roduc t. I t appears th a t d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f th e l i p i d - i s n o t a f fe c te d by th e se complexes, as Holm e t . a l (1983) found almost complete d ig e s t io n o f th e se complexes in th e r a t . Davidson e t a l . (1984) found th a t s ta rc h e x tra c te d from ex truded wheat samples was c o n s id e ra b ly l e s s th a n t h a t e x t r a c t e d from an unprocessed wheat sample, and a t t r ib u te d t h i s e f f e c t to th e s t r u c tu r a l m od if ic a tio n o f the s ta rc h polymer du ring t h i s e x tru s io n p ro cess . In t h i s s tu d y , ex truded b a rle y s con ta ined an average o f H0% s t a r c h . A m ixture o f 70% b a r le y (w ith an average s ta rc h con ten t o f 58%) p lu s 30% ex truded soybeans (w ith a s ta rc h con ten t o f 6.9%) would be expected to c o n ta in 43% s ta r c h , so the ex truded b a rley s con tained only s l ig h t ly l e s s s t a r c h th a n e x p e c te d . T h is . may have been due to s t a r c h h y d ro ly s is . I t i s p o s s ib le th a t the e x tru s io n p rocess degrades and s o lu b i l iz e s the b e ta -g lu can s in th e b a r l e y . Asp e t a l . (1983 ) showed t h a t e x t r u s io n may in c r e a s e th e w a te r - s o lu b le f ib e r components a t th e expense o f th e w a te r - in so lu b le f i b e r components, w hich would le n d support to t h i s assum ption . Fadel e t a l . (1987) p re sen ted evidence th a t e x tru s io n in c re a s e s the p e rcen t o f so lub le b e ta -g lu can s w ith a correspond ing decrease in in so lu b le b e ta -g lu c an s . The da ta in t h i s study suppo rt t h i s f in d in g . Of th e t o t a l b e ta -g lu can con ten t in the raw b a r le y s , 47% were so lu b le , 65% were in so lu b le . Of the t o t a l b e ta - g lucan con ten t in th e extruded b a r le y s , 56% were s o lu b le , 36% were in so lu b le . In a l l c a se s , ex truded b a r le y s were h ig h e r in so lu b le b e ta - g lu c a n s and low e r in i n s o l u b l e b e t a - g l u c a n s th a n t h e i r raw c o u n te rp a r ts . The extruded b a rle y s a lso e x h ib ite d h ig h e r v is c o s i ty 54 read in g s than t h e i r raw c o u n te rp a r ts . This could p o ss ib ly be r e la te d to th e in c re a se in so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s during th e e x tru s io n p ro ce ss . Smith e t a l . (1980) found th a t th e v i s c o s i t y o f a sam ple i s due p r im a r i ly to th e so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s p re s e n t , w ith s ta rc h being a sm alle r c o n tr ib u tin g f a c to r to th e v is c o s i ty . R esu lts o f t h i s study would ag ree w ith t h i s work, s in ce th e ex truded b a r le y s , which con ta ined a h igh e r so lu b le b e ta - g lu c a n p e rc e n ta g e a l s o , p r e s e n te d a h ig h e r v is c o s i ty re ad in g . Chicks ' B arley -based d ie t s have b een . shown to reduce g a in s , lower feed in ta k e , produce poor feed e f f ic ie n c y and cause s t ic k y fe c e s when fed to p o u ltry (L a e rd a l, I960; B u rn e tt , 1968; Hesselman, 1983). Data from ch ick t r i a l I showed th a t th e ex truded barley -soybean d ie t s produced lower weight g a in s and. h ig h e r fe e d /g a in r a t i o s than the raw b a rley d i e t s . I t i s p o s s ib le th a t the in c re a se in so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s o f th e ex truded d i e t s a re a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y re sp o n s ib le f o r t h i s reduced c h ick p e r fo rm an c e , s in c e s o lu b le b e ta -g lu can s have been shown to in c re a se th e v is c o s i ty o f th e i n t e s t i n a l f lu i d s , th e reby im p a ir in g n u tr ie n t uptake and w ater r e la t io n s h ip s in th e gut o f ch icks (P ren tic e and Faber, 1981). I t has been shown th a t ch ick s fed b a rley d ie t s w ithout supplem ental b e ta -g lu canase g e n e ra lly show h ighe r f a t con ten t in th e f e c e s . I t may be th a t d ie ta ry f a t s in th e i n te s t in e a re being seques te red by b e ta -g lu can s and th e reby sec re ted in g r e a te r amounts. In t h i s s tu dy , th e fe c e s o f ch ick s fed ex truded d ie t s were, in. a l l 55 ca se s , h ig h e r in f a t than ch ick s on th e raw d i e t s , but only in th e Hector and e a r ly F ranubet d ie t s were these d if f e r e n c e s s ig n i f ic a n t . However, i t should be noted th a t sample s iz e was l im i t e d in t h i s comparison. I t i s no t known whether ch ick s , l i k e „ r a t s (Holm e t a l . , 1983) a re ab le to completely d ig e s t am y lo se -lip id complexes form ed du ring e x tru s io n , and th e in c re a se in ex c re ted f a t may be a r e s u l t o f a decreased lip id -am y lo se complex d ig e s t io n in th e c h ic k and h e n c e , in c re a sed f e c a l f a t e x c re tio n . Even though v is u a l in sp e c tio n in d ic a te d th a t th e fe c e s o f th e ch ick s fed th e ex truded d i e t s were much w e tte r than fe c e s from ch icks fed th e raw d i e t s , the dry m a tte r d a ta (Table 15) showed th a t t h i s was no t the c a se . The wet appearance o f the fe c e s may have been due to the in c re a se in f e c a l f a t , but may a lso be due to unknown f a c to r s . This needs f u r th e r in v e s t ig a t io n . The r e s u l t s o f ch ick t r i a l 2 a lso showed a n eg a tiv e ga in response to ex truded barley -soybean d i e t s . Even w ith th e a d d itio n o f b e ta - g lu can a se , ch ick s fed ex truded d ie t s d id no t perform as w ell as ch icks fed raw d i e t s w ithou t supplem ental b e ta -g lu can a se . This would lend . s u p p o r t . to th e a ssum p tio n t h a t th e e x t ru s io n p rocess i s somehow a f fe c t in g th e b e ta -g lu can m olecules w ith in th e feed and exace rba ting th e e f f e c t s o f b e ta -g lu can s on th e ch ick d ig e s t iv e t r a c t . I t i s a lso p o ss ib le th a t h ea t damage to a l l o r some n u t r i e n ts occurred du ring e x tru s io n . The l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s th a t ly s in e and perhaps, some o th e r amino ac id s become l e s s a v a ila b le during e x tru s io n cooking as a r e s u l t o f the M ailla rd r e a c t io n , low ering th e b io lo g ic a l value o f th e p ro te in (B jorck and Asp, 1983). The lo s s o f a v a ila b le ly s in e has been shown to range 56 from 32 to 80%, w ith a p o s i t iv e c o r r e la t io n between th e tem peratu re o f e x t r u s i o n and ly s in e l o s s (B jo rc k and A sp, 19 8 3 ) . A rg in in e , tryp tophan , c y s te in e and h i s t id in e a v a i l a b i l i t y a l s o a p p ea r to be n eg a tiv e ly a f fe c te d b y .th e M ailla rd re a c t io n during e x tru s io n cooking, but no t to as g re a t an e x ten t a s ly s in e (B u rre ll and C arpen te r, 1977). In t h i s s tu d y , ly s in e was added to th e d ie ts in an a ttem p t to overcome any n e g a t iv e i n f l u e n c e s o f th e H a l l i a r d r e a c t i o n on l y s i n e a v a i l a b i l i t y . However, in ch ick t r i a l 2 , th e a d d itio n o f ly s in e appeared to be d e tr im en ta l to weight g a in s in both th e raw and ex truded d i e t s . I t i s no t known why t h i s o c cu rred , but i t may. be due to a d e fic ien cy in o th e r amino a c id s , o r an unexpected excess in ly s in e a v a i l a b i l i t y in th e e x tru s io n p ro c e ss . E ith e r way, an imbalance of e s s e n t ia l amino a c id s may have decreased the b io lo g ic a l value o f th e p ro te in in th e d i e t s , le ad in g to a lowered performance o f th e c h ic k s . Swine A ll p ig d a ta in d ic a te d no s ig n i f ic a n t d if fe re n c e in g a in s o r feed consumption between th e ex truded and raw d i e t s . I t was hypothesized th a t the g e la t in iz a t io n o f s ta rc h by the e x tru s io n p rocess would improve th e feed ing value o f th e b a r le y , but i n . t h i s t r i a l , t h i s d id no t appear to be the c ase . In o ld e r p ig s (age 6 weeks to s la u g h te r ) , e x tru s io n has been shown to improve the feed ing value of b a r le y . In a study conducted a t th e Montana A g r ic u ltu ra l Experiment S ta t io n , growing and f in is h in g p ig s weighing 20kg i n i t i a l l y gained eq u a lly as w ell on raw and ex truded d i e t s , however, th e .fe e d e f f ic ie n c y o f th e p ig s fed ex truded b a rley was improved by 10% over those fed raw b a rley (C. W. Newman, pe rsona l communication). I t may b e . th a t th e th re e week p e riod fo llow ing weaning i s no t s u f f i c i e n t to r e a l iz e any changes in. w eight ga in o r feed consumption th a t could be induced by an ex truded d i e t . I t was a p p a re n t t h a t e x tru s io n d id no t improve or decrease th e feed v a lue o f th ese b a r le y s f o r p ig s weaned a t th re e weeks Of age. 57 58 CONCLUSIONS The r e s u l t s o f the d a ta g a th ered in t h i s study in d ic a te th a t th e e x t r u s io n p ro c e s s does have an e f f e c t on some .o f th e n u t r i t io n a l components o f a b a rley -based d i e t . E x tru sion appears to in c re a se th e so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s a t the expense o f th e in so lu b le b e ta -g lu c a n s , and a lso appears to have a n ega tiv e e f f e c t on the e x t r a c t a b i l i t y o f f a t from a sample, perhaps due to th e fo rm ation o f am y lo se -lip id complexes. E x tru sion o f a b a rley -based d ie t was shown to be d e tr im en ta l to th e chick d ig e s t iv e system when compared to raw b a rley -based d i e t s . Chicks fed ex tru d ed -b a rley d ie t s e x h ib ite d s ig n i f ic a n t ly lower w eight g a in s and s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ighe r fe e d /g a in r a t i o s th an ch icks fed raw b a rley -based d i e t s . E x tru sion p rocess ing had no apparen t e f f e c t . on th e n u t r i t io n a l q u a li ty o f b a rley -b ased d ie t s f o r young p ig s . Average d a ily g a in , fe e d /g a in r a t i o s and feed consumption were no t s ig n i f ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t between p ig s fed ex truded d ie t s and tho se fed raw d i e t s . . Th is study in troduced many a re a s which need f u r th e r in v e s t ig a t io n . Young p ig s do no t e x h ib i t any d if fe re n c e s between raw and ex truded d i e t s , w hile b r o i l e r ch icks appear to be h igh ly s e n s i t iv e to changes caused by e x tru s io n . The e f f e c t o f e x t r u s io n p ro c e s s in g on th e n u t r i t io n o f o th e r sp ec ie s need to be f u r th e r exp lo red . The e f f e c t o f e x tru s io n p ro cess ing on • b e ta - g lu c a n s a ls o n eed s fu r th e r in v e s t ig a t io n . While th e re i s an apparen t in c re a se in b e ta - glucan s o lu b i l i ty w ith e x tru s io n , o th e r unknown f a c to r s may be involved which c o n tr ib u te to t h i s apparen t in c reased s o lu b i l i t y . I t i s a lso -L 59 , assumed th a t i t i s the so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s which cause problems f o r ch icks in b a rley -b ased d i e t s . The e f f e c t s o f in so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s a re unknown, bu t a re assumed to be n e g l i g i b l e . I t may be t h a t in so lu b le b e ta -g lu can s do have an e f f e c t on th e ” d ig e s t iv e , system , and a lso c o n tr ib u te to poor performance o f ch icks fed b a rley -b ased d i e t s . This i s an o th e r a re a which i s wide open to in v e s t ig a t io n . This study o f b a r le y , e x t r u s i o n , c h ic k s and p ig s l e f t many q u e s tio n s unanswered. I t d id , however, c o n tr ib u te a l i t t l e more to our knowledge o f n u t r i t io n and i t ' s im portance to animal l i f e . 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