A SURVEY OF PRACTICES AND POLICIES OF PHYSICAL PLANT OPERATION AND ADMINISTRATION IN EIGHTEEN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES AND ONE CANADIAN PROVINCE BY HAROLD C. BABCOCK Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Education degree in the Department of Education Montana State College June, I960 TABLE OF CONTENTS V5V? 'BKt Ccp'2- Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of Problem 2 Procedures 4 Limitations 4 Summary 5 II. SURVEY PLANNING AND TECHNIQUES 6 Nature and Extent of the Survey 6 Visitation Details 7 Oral Questionnaire 8 Summary 13 III. STATUS OF PLANT DIRECTOR AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL PLANT MANAGEMENT 14 Director's Relationship with Faculty 15 Factors that Determine Variations of Plant Operations and Work Limitations 16 Summary 19 IV. PHYSICAL PLANT EMPLOYEES AND THEIR WORK ORGANIZATIONS ... 20 Physical Plant Employees and Their Educational Status ... 20 Union and Civil Service Organization 22 Summary 25 V. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF DIRECTOR AND STAFF WITH FACULTY AND UPGRADING THE PLANT EMPLOYES 26 Physical Plant Staff Relationship with Faculty 26 Upgrading the Plant Employee 28 Summary 29 VI. LOCATION OF VARIOUS FACILITIES OF THE PHYSICAL PLANT .... 31 Location of Instructional and Recreation Facilities .... 31 Parking, Housing and Utility Areas 32 Summary 35 ii Chapter Page VII. CLASSROOM AND OFFICE FACILITIES 36 Nature of Classrooms Visited . .37 Office Facilities 39 Summary . 41 VIII. GROUND BEAUTIFICATION AND MAINTENANCE 42 Grounds Beautification 42 Necessary Factors in Grounds Maintenance 44 Summary 45 IX. HEATING, VENTILATION, AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 47 Heating Plants and Distribution Systems 47 Ventilation, Air Conditioning and Lighting 49 Summary . 50 X. SPECIAL BUILDINGS ON COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES ... 52 Fieldhouses and Gymnasiums 55 Summary 56 XI. CAMPUS POLICE FORCES AND TRAFFIC REGULATIONS 58 The Campus Police -arid Their Equipment 58 Traffic Regulations 60 Summary 61 XII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 63 Summary 63 Conclusions 69 BIBLIOGRAPHY 71 APPENDIX 73 Appendix A: School Investigation Worksheet Guide 74 Appendix B: Sample Letter 77 Appendix C: Tabulation of School and Town Sizes, the Plant Director’s Status and Organization of Em¬ ployees of 18 Colleges and Universities of the Northwest 79 Appendix D: Tabulation of Full-Time Police, Field House Facilities, Construction Cost Limits, and Heating Plants of 18 Colleges and Universi¬ ties of the Northwest 83 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1, Tabulation of School and Town Sizes, the Plant Director's Status and Organization of Employees of 18 Colleges and Universities of the Northwest 79 2, Tabulation of Full Time Police, Field House Facilities, Construction Cost Limits and Heating Plants of 18 Col¬ leges and Universities of the Northwest 83 3, Frequency of Union and Civil Service Organization in.18 Schools Visited 24 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Modern day college and university physical plant operations have become big business. It has become necessary to administer these exten¬ sive investments scientifically and carefully. Actual physical plant administration in rapidly growing colleges and universities has become a complex operation involving many and di¬ versified activities. Especially since World War II, physical plant facilities have constantly expanded to keep up with the great increase in college enrollment. In pre-war times the head janitor in many cases was the plant director and all business and planning functions of the de¬ partment were handled by the school administration. The new growth and expansion in education by necessity has brought many new areas of respon¬ sibility to the college physical plant such as financing, campus planning, construction, and landscaping. The importance of good, efficient mainte¬ nance of buildings and grounds at a minimum cost has been realized more and more by most college presidents. The need for a physical plant department with a competent director and staff capable of handling the various operations demanded of it is determined from the availability of outside services and the degree of economy and convenience which can be provided by physical plant depart- 1 ments. Not only the maintenance of property worth millions of dollars but also the safety and health of students and faculty alike are 1 American Council on Education, College and University Business Administration. Vol. 2, 1955- 2 dependent upon the competency of the plant administration. The physi¬ cal plant exists primarily to better the conditions v/hich surround the teaching and learning situations. This can be carried out many ways depending upon the philosophy of the plant director and the administra¬ tion of the school. Unfortunately very few schools offer extensive, formal training in physical plant administration, so the directors of plants usually 3 come into this work from some related field. Many have degrees in en¬ gineering, others are architects, and some are teachers. Ideally the plant director should be an expert in many different fields. Engineer¬ ing, architecture, landscaping, trades, labor management, and business administration are some of the fields with which he must be familiar. There is much disagreement among school administrators as to the re¬ quired background qualifications of the plant director. The indicated complexity of school plant problems with its need for better direction and the failure on the part of the writer to lo¬ cate adequate information led to the desire to investigate the nature of school plant problems - the objective of this investigation. Statement of Problem The problem was to locate information to answer questions con¬ cerning the physical plant director and physical plant operation. An¬ swers to the following kinds of questions were sought: 2 Linn, H. H., Helm, L. D., Grabarkiewicz, K. P., The School Cus¬ todian * s Housekeeping Handbook. Bureau of Publications Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1948. 3 Ibid., p. 39. 3 1. What are the various methods and materials used by physical plant departments in directing plant operations? 2. What is the physical plant director’s attitude toward the place of the physical plant in the over-all operation of the college? 3. What is the nature of the personnel employed in physical plants? 4. What are the relationships between physical plant employees and school faculties? 5. How are the various buildings integrated into the over-all campus plan? 6. What are the new developments in classroom and office plan¬ ning and design? 7. What practices are followed in grounds maintenance and beau¬ tification? 8* What are the common and unique practices in constructing and maintaining the mechanical parts of school plants? 9. What are the colleges and universities doing toward providing and regulating housing, recreation, and parking facilities for students and faculties? 10. How are police and traffic control departments staffed and operated? 11. What plant staff and college-wide efficiency measures are car¬ ried on by physical plants and what are their effects on the over-all school operations? 4 Procedures A search for literature coricerning college and university phys¬ ical plants was conducted. The search revealed that most of the litera¬ ture was in the form of current magazine articles, with some scattered sections in bound books. No complete books specifically devoted to col¬ lege and university physical plants were located. Since a very limited amount of literature was located, it was decided to use visitations to seek the answers to the questions sought. Limitations It was felt that the predominant number of schools should be state supported schools since that was the area the writer was most in¬ terested in. Two private schools were chosen for comparison. It was decided to visit schools of under 10,000 students with the major empha¬ sis ranging from 2,000 to 6,000 because that also was where the interest of the writer laid. It was felt that the schools chosen would represent a cross section of the schools in the area of the northwestern states. Two schools in Canada were chosen for comparison. Schools included in the survey were: 1. University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 2. Boise Jr. College... Boise, Idaho 3* Brigham Young University Provo, Utah 4. Calgary Technical School Calgary, Alberta, Canada 5. Colorado State College... Fort Collings, Colorado 6. University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado 7. Idaho State College Pocatello, Idaho 8. University of Idaho 9. Montana State College... 10. Montana State University 11. Oregon State College.... 12. University of Oregon.... 13. College of Puget Sound.. 14. Utah State University... 15. Washington State College 16. Weber College 17. Western Montana College. 18. University of Wyoming... .Moscow, Idaho .Bozeman, Montana .Missoula, Montana .Corvallis, Oregon .Eugene, Oregon .Tacoma, "Washington .Logan, Utah .Pullman, Washington .Ogden, Utah .Dillon, Montana .Laramie, Wyoming 6 CHAPTER II SURVEY PLANNING AND TECHNIQUES Once it was decided to make a survey of policies and practices there were several jobs in preliminary planning that seemed to stand out. The first was to determine the general nature and extent of the survey that was to be made involving chiefly the selection of the schools. Once this was done it was necessary to plan the visitation details which also involved the preparation of a questionnaire guide. Details of planning and techniques used are given in the following sec¬ tions* Nature and Extent of the Survey The information for this paper was gathered in two ways. First, a search was made for literature concerning the physical plant. The in¬ formation found was primarily in the form of magazine articles. Since there was a minimum of written information available, it was decided to make a series of visitations to gain first-hand information about the physical plant. The writer made his own arbitrary classification of school sizes. Schools over 7500 enrollment were classified as large schools, 2500 to 7500 were considered to be in the medium range, and schools under 2500 were considered as small schools. Selection of the schools to be visited v/as based on several fac¬ tors. There was a desire to place emphasis on schools with enrollments of under 4000 because that was where the writer's interest was concen¬ trated. However, it was felt that some large schools and some small schools should be included for contrast. 7 The schools were grouped according to climgtical conditions con¬ sidered to be somewhat similar to those of the Montana area with its somewhat seasonal extremes. Schools in a more moderate temperature zone were included for contrast. It was also felt that a study of some schools in a coastal area would be of value. The majority of the schools to be selected were state supported schools with one or two private schools included for comparison. Schools were also considered from the standpoint of ease of vis¬ itation and the economy of making these visitations. No schools from the deep south were included because of their extreme variance of con¬ ditions compared to the northern schools. A list of the colleges and universities meeting these require¬ ments was made and IS of those most nearly fitting all five of the fac¬ tors considered were selected for the visitations. Visitation Details Contacts were made with plant directors prior to the visitations (See sample letter in appendix). It was planned to have personal in¬ terviews with the plant directors and with other persons such as college presidents, deans, business managers, housing directors, athletic direc¬ tors, campus police, and a sampling of physical plant employees. Obser¬ vations were planned to be made in the company of the plant director or persons in charge of various areas of the physical plant. It was also planned to make these observations while the colleges and departments were in active session. Five trips were planned on the basis of a minimum of one day at 8 the smaller schools and three days at the larger schools. These visits were planned for the period between July, 1959 and March, I960. Actually the following visits were made: From July 24 through August 2, 1959, University of Y/yoming, University of Colorado, Colorado State College, and Brigham Young University. From October 24 through October 29, 1959, Washington State College and the University of Idaho. From January 10 through January 12, I960, Montana State College. From January 15 through January 20, I960, the University of Alberta and the Calgary Technical School. From January 22 through February 7, I960, Montana State University, University of Oregon, Oregon State College, College of Puget Sound, Boise Jr. College, Weber, College, Utah State University, Yfestern Montana College, and Idaho State College. A total of 41 days was spent in actual visitations which usually included early morning and late evening sessions. It was necessary to formulate a guide and a battery of questions to be asked of the plant superintendents. These v/ere to be used only as a guide and other questions were to be asked as occasions arose. Oral Questionnaire The School Investigation Worksheet Guide (see appendix) or Oral Questionnaire was made up of seven major sections. It was felt that each section had a bearing on the over-all operation of the physical plant. Statistical Information. The first four items as listed in the School Investigation Yvorksheet Guide refer to statistical information. They were: (l) school name, (2) school size, (3) school age, and (4) 9 school location. It was planned to secure this information from school catalogs and by interviewing plant directors. School size was not ob¬ tained from the registrars but was asked of plant directors. The same method of questioning was used to gather the city and town sizes. For items one through four no advanced questions were formulated. The fifth item in the guide was a request to list the school purposes. School catalogs were secured for this purpose, however, there proved to be very few schools that listed their purposes in the catalogs. One of the catalogs listed the following purposes: (l) to provide collegiate education in agriculture, engineering, home economics, applied art, com¬ mercial science, and applied science for the young men and women of the state in which the institution is located, (2) to train the State's fu¬ ture citizens to their highest usefulness in private life and public service, and (3) to carry the fruits of that research and University Service to all parts of the State. All catalogs were searched for listings of school purposes with very little results. It was felt that some school purposes could have been gathered through interviews with college presidents, however, such interviews proved very difficult to arrange. It was questionable wheth¬ er the time required couldn't be better spent on other aspects of the investigation. Next the plant directors were to be asked about their financial systems and how the schools were allotted money for operation. It was found that all state supported schools' financial systems were very similar in nature, receiving money through their state legislatures and being governed by various types of boards such as the Board of Educa¬ tion found in Montana. The private supported schools were also similar 10 in nature to each other in that they obtained their funds from private organizations or individuals. None of the schools visited seemed to have a surplus of money to operate their physical plants. Since the differences in financial systems were so slight, it was felt that they would have very little bearing on the purpose of this study,which was mostly to determine the nature of physical plant operations. Section No. 7 of the worksheet guide was divided into 11 sub¬ headings. The first of which had to do with the director's and employ¬ ees' attitudes toward school personnel and physical plant activities. The key questions formulated in advance appear under the follow¬ ing sub-headings. Attitudes of Director and Emrloyees. One of the objectives of the oral questions was to find the attitudes of the director and plant employees'toward the college. To determine the attitudes in general toward administration, faculty, and students the major questions form¬ ulated weres 1. What is meant by physical plant of college and universities? 2. Does the physical plant director have faculty status and what value does he see in it? 3. What are the directors' and staffs' relationship with facul¬ ty members and also with students? 4. What does the plant director consider the more important factors of plant operations and what are some of the plant's work limi¬ tations? 11 Cammis Layouts. The next objective of the questionnaire was to find out how the campuses were organized. Information was desired as to how the buildings were related physically one to the other. 1. Is there a space problem related to the campus? 2. Where are the various facilities of the campus located in re¬ lation to one another. 3. What is your opinion regarding where the different facilities should be located? Instructional Areas and Office Space. This section was devoted toward finding new ideas for classrooms, laboratories, and offices. 1. Is there anything new on your campus in the way of classroom, laboratory, or office design? 2. Do you feel that the latest designes of classrooms, laborator¬ ies, and offices have been designed to fit the functions for which they were planned? Grounds Care and Development. The objective of this portion of the questionnaire was to determine how campus grounds were maintained and kept beautiful and what techniques, equipment, and tools were re¬ quired . 1. What types of technque, tools, and equipment are used by the landscape department to assure you that you will continue to have beau¬ tiful grounds? 2. What is the scope of the work placed under your landscape department and personnel? Heating, Ventilation, and Lighting Systems. The main theme in this section was to determine the present practices and how satisfactory 12 they were. It was also intended to find out what improvements plant di¬ rectors could suggest for other plants as well as their own. 1. Is a central heating plant practical and why? 2. How extensive is the use of air conditioning in your area? 3. Is anything being done toward adopting new lighting systems? 4. What suggestions do you have for better mechanical and elec¬ trical construction and operation in your plant and in others? Special Buildings. This portion of the questionniare was devot¬ ed to the study of special buildings and anything unique about their de¬ sign and functions. 1. What buildings other than instructional and utility buildings are being built on your campus? 2. How are these buildings being designed or changed to meet their specific purposes? Traffic Control and Police Forces. In this section the writer was interested in determing how police forces were organized, their functions, and some of their problems. 1. Who is responsible for traffic control and the campus police force? 2. What are some of the campus policing problems and what are the procedures followed in solving them? 3. Vt/hat is the ideal size for the campus police force? 4. How do the campus policemen receive their authority to make arrests? Worker Organizations and Their Implications. This section of the study was to be devoted to determining what worker organizations were present on the campuses and what the implications were on the over-all 13 plant oporation. 1* VJhat worker organizations are present on this campus (civil service, unions, or private work organizations)? 2. How are your methods of operation and your finances affected by these organizations? 3. Is there satisfaction among the employees with their present organization? Summary All of the questions listed here were asked at each school vis¬ ited. As the interviews progressed and the opportunities arose, addi¬ tional questions were sometimes asked under each section for clarifica¬ tion. The answers to all of the questions were recorded and compiled. This information along with the information gathered from personal ob¬ servations is treated in the following chapters. The first data to be discussed has to do with the status of the plant director and the philosophy of the physical plant management. 14 CHAPTER III STATUS OF PLANT DIRECTOR AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL PLANT IvUil'JAGEivSNT During the interviews the physical plant directors were asked to define the physical plant. The responses of the directors revealed that they were generally agreed that the physical plant of a school is made up of all of the lands, buildings, and equipment that go together to help create a learning situation. There was evidence that instruction¬ al equipment was sometimes segregated by directors, administrations, and staffs from the broad category of physical plant. However, this was an extremely fine distinction to make. Yfliat were swimming pools, class¬ rooms, laboratories, study desks, and other equipment if they were not instructional equipment? Generally speaking, they were considered phys¬ ical plant. In this study the definition of physical plant used was: All physical facilities that surround and enhance the learning situa¬ tion. A consideration of all these physical facilities related to the learning process was found to be the responsibility of the plant direc¬ tors in their planning and operation. Considering the large scope and responsibility of the physical plant, the educational background of the plant director was a prime fac¬ tor. It was revealed that 15 of the 18 had college degrees, although their major fields of education varied from engineering to education (see Table 1 appendix). Generally the major educational fields of the plant directors interviewed included many courses related to physical plant operation but none had received training specifically designed for physical plant administrators. It was not determined generally among the plant directors interviewed which particular educational 15 qualifications best prepared the directors for their jobs. After surveying educational backgrounds of directors, a further attempt was made to determine the status of the plant director and the philosophy of physical plant management by asking these two questions: (l) What is the director’s relationship with faculty members? and (2) What are the factors of plant operations and work limitations? Treat¬ ment of the responses to the tv/o questions is given in the following sections: Director’s Relationship with Faculty Importance of Working with the Instructor. Nothing is more im¬ portant in the learning situation than the instructor himself. Respect of.the instructor and his ideas should be an integral part of plant plan- 1 ning. Why, then, did some plant directors try to divorce the physical plant from the faculty and staff of schools? One plant director visit¬ ed said that the less association between the plant director and the faculty, the easier it was for the plant director to do his work success¬ fully. However, the majority indicated that just the opposite was true. Most directors felt that to provide a service an attempt had to be made to understand the recipient of this service. The Plant Director as Part of the School Faculty. Of the IS schools visited, eight plant directors had faculty status and ten did not. Responses indicated that faculty status seemed to be more of an asset to 1 Linn, H. H., Helm, L. C., Grabarkiewicz, K. P., The School Cus¬ todian’s Housekeeping Handbook. Bureau of Publications Teachers Col¬ lege , Columbia University, New York, 1948. 16 the directors in small schools than those in large schools. The plant directors who had faculty status v/ere in a better position to understand faculty needs in relation to the physical plant. According to the sur¬ vey, it was clear that the primary purpose of the physical plant was to better conditions that surround the teaching and learning process. Yet it was found that some directors tended to build empires of plant oper¬ ations and expected the faculty to adjust their activities accordingly instead of altering the plant operation to fit faculty and instructional needs. Difficult Faculty Members. The general consensus of the 18 plant directors was that a small percentage of college faculties had the repu¬ tation of being difficult to work with and that it was impossible and un¬ wise to cater to every whim of each faculty member. It was indicated that a closer association with difficult faculty members helped bring about a mutual understanding of the problems at hand. Immediate Supervisor of Plant Director. As indicated in Table 1 (appendix), seven of the plant directors in the 18 schools visited were directly responsible to the president. In eight he was responsible to the business manager and in three he was responsible to the vice- president. There were good points in each supervisory plan but the suc¬ cess of each one of them.depended heavily upon the personalities involv¬ ed. It was obvious that the plant director and his supervisor had to work very closely in each case. Factors that Determine Variations of Plant Operations and Work Limitations Factors that Determine Variations of Plant Operations. There were several important factors that seemed to determine the ways in which a 17 physical plant was organized and operated. They were as follows: 1. The plant director's over-all educational background appeared to have a large influence on the method of operation of the plant. Di¬ rectors with degrees in one particular phase of engineering, for instance, usually had a strong supervisory capacity in that department of their plant, while directors not having the same training depended upon others in their departments for technical knowledge in that field. Therefore, the experience required of employees to supplement the director's back¬ ground varied from one plant to another. 2. School location and available local business concerns for services and facilities helped to determine what kinds of functions the physical plant was required to carry out. For example, some schools generated their own power and owned their own water supply systems where local facilities were not adequate or were too expensive. 3* The complete plant operation was affected in areas where there was union affiliation that definitely limited the amount of work and the types of work that could be done by the physical plant. This was report¬ ed in six out of the IB schools visited. Construction and maintenance costs varied considerably between union affiliated and non-union affili¬ ated schools. Union affiliated schools' costs were generally higher. 4. The age of the school plant and the history of the plant were found to affect the plant operations. Inspection of facilities indicated that habits formed by previous plant administrations left their mark on the hold-over employees. It was clearly evident that new buildings re¬ quire different types of maintenance and repair than older buildings. 5. The adequacy of shop space seemed to determine the functions that could be carried out. One plant visited sent all vehicular 18 maintenance to commericial concerns primarily because of the lack of garage space. 6. It was found that the extent of plant operations depended to a large degree upon the president's attitude toward the physical plant. Having final decision on budgets seemed to influence his attitudes as well as members of the plant staff. Visitations indicated that most college presidents took a very keen interest in the physical plant. 7. In towns where schools of under 3000 students were located . there was a tendency toward control of physical plant work by local con¬ cerns. This happened primarily in the smaller towns visited and was done primarily through local work shops and contractor's associations. This local control attempted;to keep the physical plants from doing work they felt they should do. Physical Plant Work Limitations. In one state (Montana) covered in this study an attempt was being made to place a five hundred dollar limit on work to be done by the school plant. In another (Oregon) there was a ten thousand dollar limit. In most of the states surveyed there was no legal limit. In practice, very few of the schools visited attempt¬ ed major construction unless one would classify construction of cabinets and wardrobes and the hanging of light fixtures in existing structures as major construction. Typical plant wrork ranged from small interior jobs up to, and including, stainless steel sink construction on the one hand, and the hiring out of minor vehicular maintenance on the other hand. It was learned that as a general rule the plant director limited his work to remodeling and building accessory construction. This, of course, supplemented all types of strictly maintenance work. 19 Summary 1* In this study physical plant was defined as all physical fa¬ cilities that surround and enhance the learning situation. 2. Of the 18 schools visited 15 directors had college degrees either in engineering or education. 3. It was found that eight plant directors of the 18 had facul¬ ty status. 4. Physical plant could not be divorced from the faculty and it was generally felt by directors that faculty status helped bring these two groups closer together. 5. Seven of the plant directors out of the 18 schools visited were directly responsible to the president, eight to the business agent, and three to the vice-president. 6. Some of the factors that affected plant operation were: (l) the plant director's background, (2) the school, location, (3) unionization, (4) the age and history of the plant, (5) the adequacy of shop space, (6) the president's attitude toward physical plant, and (7) local control. 7. The majority of the schools visited had no financial limitaions on physical plant work that could be done. Unionization will be treated separately in the next chapter along with civil service organization. 20 CHAPTER IV PHYSICAL PLANT EMPLOYEES AND THEIR WORK ORGANIZATIONS In regard to physical plant employees, there were some important topics considered such as education of employees, reasons for working, wage levels, and the importance of certain employees in the plant. In regard to work organizations, the nature and effect of employees’ un¬ ion and civil service organizations were surveyed. Physical Plant Employees and Their Educational Status The educational status of physical plant employees varied in ac¬ cord with school sizes. The reasons men worked in plants and attitudes of employees toward their jobs were affected by wage scales and educa¬ tion of employees. Certain employees played a unique roll in the plant organization. Education of Plant Employees. It was evident from the answers to questions concerning the education of plant employees that the larger the school the more professional people there were on the physical plant staff. Architects, especially landscape architects, were commonly found in the larger plants. It was determined in the survey to be common prac¬ tice among the larger schools to employ mechanical engineers to supervise the heating plant departments. It was also found to be common practice to have graduates in business administration in the accounting depart¬ ments. In schools visited of under 3500 students it was quite rare to find personnel other than the director of physical plant and his assist¬ ant with college degrees. Work requiring degree trained personnel was 21 accomplished through hiring people outside the school plant. Reasons Men Work for Physical Plants. Among the reasons that men work in physical plants were: (l) The wages were good, 80 to 85$ of out¬ side scale plus fringe benefits. (2) They were dedicated individuals who loved their work. (3) They couldn't hold jobs for higher wages for commercial concerns. The directors of all of the larger plants indicat¬ ed that the better of the employees stayed with their jobs if the wage scale was within 80 to 85$ of the going rate in their locality* Interviews revealed that most plant employees were not college trained but were tradesmen or semi-tradesmen with many years of experi¬ ence in their respective fields. The attitudes of the tv/o different types of physical plant employees differed considerably. The profession¬ ally educated person tended to value his reputation and his job more while the tradesman was more inclined to move from job to job 7/ithcut giving adequate formal notice to his emnloyer. The Importance of the Custodian. According to the survey, the custodial force was revealed to be one of the most important groups on the campus. It is now understood, and this was not so a few years ago, that the health and the safety of the children depends highly upon the 1 custodian. He is not only considered to be a sanitary engineer and a safety engineer but also a friend with whom many students discuss per¬ sonal problems. All plant directors interviewed agreed that morally the custodian must be of the highest caliber. In half of the schools visit¬ ed custodial jobs were filled with students. This practice, of course, 1 Holloway, G. E., Custodians Take Their Workshop Seriously, School Equipment News. June 1957, pp. 56-57. 22 was very good from the student’s viewpoint but disrupts the operation of the physical plant according to the consensus of the supervisors." One of the best operations of this type was one in which vramen supervisors were employed. That plant director indicated that women do a much bet¬ ter job of supervising the students than do the men. The Secretary. It was evident throughout the visitations that a good secretary was a very valuable asset in any physical plant operation. It was generally agreed that few individuals were in a better position to help or hinder the function of the physical plant than the plant direc¬ tor’s secretary. The Handyman or House Mechanic. Visitations revealed the presence of the handyman in most schools except where there was strong unioniza¬ tion. In larger schools the tendency was to become more and more special¬ ized with plant employees and drift farther away from the "handyman or house mechanic" type of person. According to Platt, specialists were ex~ 2 tremely important, however, a good handyman still has his place. In one school visited with an enrollment of 2300 a handyman was recently assign¬ ed to take care of three dormitories. The director reported that this handyman is saving more money for the plant than any other person on the physical plant staff. Union and Civil Service Organization Half of the schools visited were covered by unionization or civil' service organizations. The nature and effect of these two organizations 2 Platt, B. H., Should Residence Halls or Unions Have Their Own Maintenance Staff, College and University Business. January, 1957, p. 467. 23 were considered in the survey. Effects of Unionization. Unionization had taken place in many of the schools visited. In only two cases of the schools visited had this affected the custodial force as well as the various trades. Much diffi¬ culty was being encountered when a school was required to work under a union contract. This was especially true in the smaller schools. Due to the nature of school work, it was indicated that maintenance costs doubled under a union situation. In one small school it was customary, prior to unionization, for the boiler men to care for the lawns around the plant in their spare time. This, of course, was no longer permitted under union control. After unionization the men had to waste their time or polish the boiler room floor when they were not tending the boiler* In another school visited electricians were sent from the physical plant to the dormitories to change single electrical switches. In this par¬ ticular school the tradesmen were paid full union scale. The dormitory director was faced with the dilemma of being able to hire work done by a town shop cheaper than through the physical plant. There were similar situations in all schools visited that were under union contracts but few were as serious as this one. Nature of Civil Service Organization. In four of the schools viS' ited it was learned that the plant directors who work under state civil service control have just as serious problems as those who work under union control. The wages were usually not comparable to the union scale and there was much difficulty in hiring and keeping men who could pro¬ duce high caliber work. Problems of Unionization and Civil Service. Table 3 indicates 24 the frequency of the different types of organizations found in the in¬ stitutions visited. TABLE 3. FREQUENCY OF UNION AND CIVIL SERVICE ORGANIZATION IN 18 SCHOOLS VISITED Type of Organization College or University Size Under 2500 2500 to 4000 4000 & Up Total Unionization 1 3 3 7 Civil Service 1 3 4 None 3 4 7 Table 3 shows that of the 18 schools visited the employees of sev¬ en have some union organization, four are covered by civil service, and seven are under no worker organization. Under both unions and civil service control there was a strict sick leave policy. The interviews indicated that this policy in some cases was good but that men tended to take advantage of it. The absence of a strict sick leave policy and allowing time off just when needed had proven to be quite successful. Under this system the plant directors indicated they could be more lenient toward those who really needed ex¬ tra sick leave time. Under both civil service and unionization the hiring and firing authority was described to be somewhat cumbersome. It was reported by the majority of plant directors that they felt it was easier to keep 25 borderline employees than to go through the formality of discharging them. This was true under both unionization and civil service. However, it was reported much more pronounced under civil service. Summary 1. In schools of over 3500 students it was common to find col¬ lege trained people on the physical plant staff besides the plant di¬ rector and his assistant, while in schools under 3500 it was not. 2. The ideal wage scale for the workmen, as reported, was 80 to 85$ of similar work wages in the locality. 3. It was commonly agreed by plant directors that the custodian was a very important force in physical plant operations. 4. A good secretary was also generally considered to be a val¬ uable asset to plant operation. 5. Even though work generally was reported as becoming more spe¬ cialized, there was still an important place for the handyman in some plants. 6. Of the schools visited, seven were unionized, four were cov¬ ered by civil service and seven had no workers’ organization. Unioniza¬ tion usually raised maintenance costs while civil service organizations presented directors with difficulties in hiring and keeping good men. Physical plant staff and faculty relationships as well as up¬ grading plant employee prestige was revealed as one of the major problems of plant directors. This will be discussed in the next chapter. 26 CHAPTER V INTERRELATIONSHIP OF DIRECTOR AND STAFF WITH FACULTY AND UPGRADING THE PLANT EMPLOYEE In interviews with the various plant directors, questions were asked as to what physical plant staffs’ and directors' attitudes were toward the following: (l) the school in general, (2) the administra¬ tion, (3) the faculty, (4) the students, and (5) the personal use of physical plant facilities. The answers to these questions are discus¬ sed in the following two sections which deal with the physical plant directors' and staffs' relations with faculty and the private use of plant facilities. Physical Plant Staff Relationship with Faculty Relationships between plant staff and faculty were generally in need of improvement. It was felt by plant directors that a mutual re¬ spect between these groups could be brought about. Mutual Respect. Although the answers weren't formally tabulat¬ ed, the consensus of the physical plant directors was, as substantiated by Taylor,^" that the director of the physical plant must strive for a closer understanding of college faculty toward plant employees and also of plant employees toward college faculty. It was also understood by plant directors that the feeling, good or bad, of one group toward the other in most schools were usually mutual. The plant directors felt, with little exception, that the instructor must realize that the 1 Taylor, G. L., Getting Along with Faculty, College and Universi¬ ty Business. March, 1957, pp. 28-30. 27 employee has a certain pride in his work and has put many years of learning into bringing himself to his present level of ability and that the employee has put as much time into his life^ work as the instruc¬ tor has put into his. It was reported that the plant employee resented very much being told how to do his work by anybody not authorized to do so. All too often employees felt that instructors have a narrow under¬ standing of practical work and knew nothing except what they had read in books. It was generally agreed by plant directors that this warped im¬ pression was far from true, and that plant employees could often learn from instructor’s advice. Indications were that the majority of college instructors have done manual labor at some time during their careers and that they understood the worker’s problems. Respect of one another's abilities was of prime importance in 2 faculty and physical plant relationships according to Holloway. Plant directors agreed that the physical plant staff cannot get along without faculty and faculty cannot get along without the plant. Interviews with plant directors indicated that the directors generally felt that the employee should always keep in mind that his purpose for being em¬ ployed was directly related to increasing the school’s ability to pro¬ vide for teaching and learning and that no other purpose was more im¬ portant for the existence of the physical plant. Policies of Staffs’ Personal Use of Plant Facilities. In the past in colleges and universities it has not been uncommon for faculty and plant employees to make personal use of plant facilities during 2 Holloway, G. E., Custodians Take Their Workshop Seriously, School Equipment News. June, 1957, pp. 56-57. 28 off-hours. Their reasoning had been that since they worked at the schools they should be allowed to use all equipment and facilities. Most of the plant directors interviewed felt that physical plant employ¬ ees were guardians of this equipment which was purchased for a purpose and they should see that it was used only for the purpose for which it was intended. This was considered reason enough for not using the equipment without considering the safety and the insurance risks involv¬ ed. All but two plant directors interviewed agreed that personal use of equipment should not be permitted. The directors’ reasoning was that if a minimum of work was permitted, where does one draw the line without causing more antagonism than would occur had it not been allowed to start in the first place? Upgrading the Plant Employee Where plant staff relations are so important it would seem that everything possible should be done to improve the prestige of the plant employee. To determine what practices were followed, a general inquiry was made regarding ways of upgrading employees. There has been a general campaign for many years among the schools visited of promoting the janitor to a custodian. Where this had been accomplished it had far reaching effects on the spirit and the prestige of this position. One plant director of the 18 visited had the same type of campaign to raise the social prestige of the other physical plant employees which he felt would give the employee a much stronger 3 Holloway, pp. cit., p. 27. 29 feeling of belonging and responsibility. He indicated that upgrading employees socially was a large contributing factor in creating high caliber 7;ork. In that particular school plant employees were invited to most faculty functions. Physical plant staffs’ relationship to the faculty can be com¬ pared to the problem of vocational technical departments versus aca¬ demic departments. In some schools vocational technical departments had been viewed as inferior to academic departments. This gap was re¬ ported as being rapidly bridged to the betterment of the over-all edu¬ cational system. The plant director mentioned in the preceding para¬ graph felt that a similar bridge between physical plant personnel and faculties was needed. It was generally agreed that the directors of physical plants have a long, hard task ahead to strengthen this rela¬ tionship but it was felt that it could be done. Summary Several points seemed to stand out regarding the relationships be¬ tween faculty and physical plant staffs. They are: 1. Plant directors were working toward improving mutual respect of physical plant staffs and school faculties. 2. All but two of the plant directors interviewed felt that no personal use should be made of physical plant equipment and facilities. 3. All plant directors were working to promote the janitor to custodian. However, only one was working intensively tov/ard increasing the prestige of all of the physical plant employees. 30 The efficiency of the physical plant organization depended to a large degree upon the location of the various facilities on the campus, A discussion of the location of the facilities in the schools visited is presented in Chapter 6, 31 CHAPTER VI LOCATION OF VARIOUS FACILITIES OF THE PHYSICAL PLANT One of the most distressing problems of campus planners was space. Most campuses were designed to accommodate much less than half of present enrollments."^ Due to the rapid expansion and crowded condi¬ tions, especially in the urban areas, visitations showed that campuses were crowded next to cemeteries, residential areas, and super-highways. As the larger of the schools visited had grown, the beauty spots were continually being replaced v/ith buildings that were placed so close to¬ gether that there was no area left for background planting to enhance the beauty of the buildings. Many buildings looked naked for the want of landscape plantings. Inhere buildings were placed around beautiful courts some years ago, the courts were now filled with more buildings so that there were buildings around buildings. Schools needed to spread out' to keep from creating asphalt jungles of college and university campuses. The physical plant facilities were divided into the two general areas: (l) instructional and recreational, and (2) parking, housing, and utility for discussion in the following sections. Location of Instructional and Recreational Facilities Instructional and Recreational Areas. The better planned campuses visited consisted of courtyards surrounded by academic buildings. These groups made up a school or a division of a university. In a central 1 Pryce, E. L., Future Campis Planning, College and University Business. July, 1954, p. 38. 32 area of the groups was usually located the administration, library, and the student union buildings which is common practice according to the 2 American Council on Education# The public gathering areas, such as au¬ ditoriums and little theaters, which were found to be located closer to the outside of the campuses, provided much better vehicular accessibil¬ ity. The better designed campuses had one side of the groups of build- 3 mgs open to accessible land for expansion. On the other three sides recreation, housing, parking, and utility areas were integrated into the over-all campus plan. Location of Instructional Machine Shops and Industrial Arts Buildings. Inspections of the 18 campuses showed that buildings re¬ quiring extensive truck deliveries, such as industrial arts buildings and machine shops, were much more convenient if located near the out¬ skirts of the academic areas. The better organized campuses discourag¬ ed truck traffic on the campus proper. Parking, Housing, and Utility Areas Campus Parking. One of the major problems in athletic areas was indicated to be vehicle parking. The most efficient parking lots viewed in the visitations were those organized so that there were several city streets accessible to them. Student unions, auditoriums, theaters, and other activity buildings also required extensive accessible parking 2 American Council on Education, College and University Business Administration. Vol. 2, 1955, pp. 19-34* 3 Pryce, op. cit., p. 31. 33 lots. The lots not large enough to accommodate peak crowds caused traf¬ fic congestion at important school functions. Adequate parking took much valuable land area of the campus un¬ less the campus ?/as scientifically planned. Parking lots generally were best kept on the periphery of the campus to keep dovm congestion within the campus proper.^" The larger campuses visited, those over 4000, were gradually working toward periphery parking. On one campus visited, one main campus road and several minor roads were being used as access roads for through traffic only, with no parking being permitted along these roads. Faculty lots were provided as close to buildings as possible. In all schools visited plant directors indicated that in future construc¬ tion, parking lots will be planned while the buildings are in the plan¬ ning stages rather than after the buildings have been completed. Many lawn areas in the majority of the schools visited had been lost because of the need for parking lots. Wherever periphery parking was used on the campuses visited, it seemed to cause much dissatisfaction among the students and the faculty as well because of the increased walking distances. By properly placing parking facilities, valuable campus land had been saved for other impor¬ tant purposes and a contribution had been made toward getting students and faculty out for that much needed fresh air and exercise. Married Student Housing. The married student is here to stay and 5 adequate facilities must be provided for him. It was not mandatory that 4 American Council on Education, on. cit.. p. 32. 5 Kretschmer, Vernon, Family Housing Facilities, College and Uni¬ versity Business. May, 1957, pp. 36-38. 34 these facilities be on the campus proper, however, it was desirable for maintenance and utility purposes. Wherever possible, according to the schools visited, married students’ housing had been located on the out¬ skirts of the campuses. These were in agreement with Kretschmer's point of view.^ Utility Areas. Writh very little exception, the plant directors visited desired that physical plant shops and utility areas of the campus be located on the' outskirts of the csmrus. The one exception was the heating plant which most plant directors felt was more efficiently uti¬ lized in a central location. Generally shops, warehouses, motor pools, and similar buildings were found to be located together. According to plant directors, this created a much easier and more economical control situation. Interviews indicated that a large, tightly fenced dead stor¬ age area was much needed for good plant operations. All schools visited had accumulated surpluses of dead storage which were usually very un¬ sightly and tempting for prowlers when left in open view. The physical plant offices where located within or adjacent to the maintenance area created a freer access for the v/orkers. In two of the schools visited the plant, office was located away from the plant area. The directors reported that some of the group- spirit that was so badly needed in good plant operations was lost in these situations. Directors of the large schools indicated that it was extremely difficult for a campus to grow satisfactorily without a master plan. One school visited had a large scale model to help guide its campus growth. This plan was followed as nearly as possible. However, they 6 Kretschmer, oja. cit.. p. 33. • . 35 found it necessary to review the plan at least once every three years so that it could be altered to meet new ideas and new concepts of edu¬ cation,^ Summary The preceding pages have brought out the highlights in the trends, of campus building organization as indicated in the visitations as: 1. Schools were spreading out to prevent creating congested areas on campuses. 2. The better designed campuses were designed with buildings grouped to house individual departments. 3. Divisions requiring extensive delivery Service were usually located toward the outside areas that required little truck traffic on the campus proper. 4. The larger campuses were gradually working toward periphery parking. 5. Housing was being built to accommodate the married student. Married student housing was being located generally on the outside bor¬ ders of the campuses. 6. In the schools visited utility areas were generally located on the outskirts of the campuses. Office and classroom facilities will be discussed in the following chapter. 7 Neutra, R. J., Alexander, R. E., Planning a Campus, College and University Business. January, 1959, pp. 33-38. 36 CHAPTER VII CLASSROOM.AND OFFICE FACILITIES Alvin C, Eurich, Vice-President of The Fund for the Advancement of Education, explains that the present general standard for class size goes back to at least the middle of the third century. In the Babylo¬ nian town of Talmus Baba Bathra in 20 A. D. the rule was established by Rabbi Raba, an authoritative sage of his era that, HTwenty-five stu¬ dents are to be enrolled in one class. If there are from twenty-five to forty, an assistant must be obtained. Above forty, two teachers are to be engaged.”^ With present day developments in technology and educa¬ tion, it was surprising that educators should follow a third century for¬ mula for classroom size. Scientific evidence as to the best class size 2 for present day instructional needs was badly needed. Not only was the classroom size in colleges often inadequate but also the importance attached to the instructor’s office was all too often given a secondary rating."^ In the visitations the writer was looking for something differ¬ ent from the average in classroom and office design because recent arti¬ cles written by architects seemed to indicate that school room design had experienced some changes and the expansion and growth of most col¬ leges would by necessity bring about the construction of new buildings. 1 Eurich. A. C., Maintaining and Improving the Quality of Instruc¬ tion, The Journal of Higher Education. May, 1956, p. 240. 2 Ibid., p. 240. 3 Hellerich, M. H., What Type of Office Will the College Teacher Require by.1965, College and University Business. October, 1959. pp. 37-38. 37 was assumed that at least some of the colleges visited would have new rooms of modern functional design and size to meet new teaching de¬ mands* Nature of Classrooms Visited New Classroom Size. It was found in the majority of institu¬ tions visited that nev; classrooms under construction and those recent¬ ly completed were planned to accommodate a greater number of students than ever before. The typical classrooms of the past which accommodated 25 to 50 students were being replaced by rooms that seated 100 to 300 students. Generally throughout the schools visited the new, larger sized rooms were a product of the most recent planning and construction. Lambert cautions that the presence of too many small classrooms introduces a certain extravagance into both planning and the operation 4 of a college plant. However, in most of the new buildings that were viewed there were some small conference type rooms seating 10 to 20 stu¬ dents. Classroom Design. Other than in size, only a few outstanding new features were found in classroom design. Two of these new features ?;ere noted in science laboratories. In one school visited the laboratory equipment used for food preservation training was particularly unique. Several large canning machines were in use to teach students about their use in canning factories. The machines represented those used by differ¬ ent companies to give better diversified training in their operation. .Than 4 Lambert, A. C., Don’t Plan Too Many Small Classrooms, College and University Business. April, 1954, pp# 45-47. 38 adjoining laboratory at the same school there were several huge walk- in freezers for food freezing experimentation. These rooms had obser¬ vation windows for observation of the foods while they were being fro¬ zen. Another unusual feature found in one of the science rooms visited was the use of an instructor's laboratory table with detachable sections. Several of these detachable sections permitted the instructor to have an assistant set up other demonstrations while he was giving a lecture and demonstration at the base table. These removable sections were on rol¬ lers and could be taken into separate workrooms for preparation. The only other particularly new feature noted in classroom design was the sloping floors of the large lecture rooms for better visibility of the instructor. In some cases the instructor's area was also elevated Interior Decoration. Interior decoration in the majority of new college rooms visited was well done from the standpoint of beauty and maintenance. In most cases colors were well chosen to be pleasing and cheerful and paints and surfaces were used that could be easily main¬ tained. Easy to care for floors such as terazzo and hard surfaced tile were prevalent in new buildings. It was noted in the utility and laboratory areas of most schools visited that color was not utilized from the standpoint of color-coding for the safety and comfort of workers and students in those areas. This safety color-coding advocated by leading paint companies is the use of cool, comfortable colors which meet worker eye areas around machinery and equipment and bright, significant colors where danger or alertness is nec essary. In a limited number of boiler rooms visited, examples of color¬ coding for different purposes existed, such as white insulation on 39 steam pipes for ease of cleaning, black for gas lines for identifica¬ tion, and red for dangerous switches and other areas of danger. Screen Projection and Television in the Classroom. From the ob¬ servations made, it v/as learned that an increasing amount of classroom instruction was given through the media of screen projection. Nearly all new rooms were being equipped with black-out curtains and facilities for conveniently storing projection equipment. Not only movie projec¬ tors but also slide projectors and opaque projectors were in common use at all of the schools visited. According to numerous recently printed articles, closed circuit television is being used in many colleges and the articles indicated that it appears to be extremely successful. Pharis relates that there was a high initial cost of installation with television, but the benefits de- 5 rived seemed to far outweigh the initial cost. Despite these favor¬ able reports on the use of television, the majority of schools visited had not yet incorporated closed circuit television in their instruction¬ al media. The general feeling of plant directors interviewed was that television would be used more if it were less costly. Office Facilities One college president indicated that it was extremely important that each instructor have a private office where he could do his crea¬ tive thinking and planning concerning his work. Observations were made and questions asked at each school visited concerning the nature and 5 Pharis, W. L. Jr., Expanded Use of Audio-Visual Aids, Educa¬ tional Business. November, 1958, pp. 43-48. 40 adequacy of the faculty offices. The importance of a good, private of¬ fice for each instructor was recognized and realized by most schools. Instructors1 Offices in Older Buildings. It was generally found, especially in the older buildings, that many faculty offices were in¬ adequate in location and size. Due to the large increases in staff mem¬ bers, areas unusable for anything else had been converted into faculty offices. They were located in abandoned classrooms, lobbies, waiting rooms, stairlandings, and in many other undesirable areas. Obviously it was extremely difficult to provide proper light, heat, and ventila¬ tion in such areas and in some offices these facilities were far from adequate according to the directors. The best arrangement observed by the writer in remodeling old buildings into usable office space was the converting of an abandoned student union building on one campus into an office building. Being a separate building from classrooms gave the offices a maxiumum of privacy and as a student union the building was centrally located which made it a convenient location. The lack of privacy of office space located along busy hallways was of major concern in many of the schools. One school corrected this by installing a partition creating an extra hallway in front of office areas. They were quite pleased with the results. Instructors' Offices in Newer Buildings. In the newer buildings in most schools visited, more well-planned private offices were being provided for faculty use. The new offices generally were large enough to accommodate a large desk and chair, bookcases, and at least two other chairs comfortably. Adequate lighting and heating were provided and the 41 interiors were generally pleasingly decorated and furnished. In the majority of schools it v/as indicated that the number of new offices was not nearly enough to keep up with the demand. Summary 1. Visitations indicated that the majority of new classrooms were being built to accommodate more students than ever before. However, a few small conference rooms were also included in new planning. 2. Other than in size, there were only a few new features noted in classroom design. The new features observed were more prevalent in laboratory equipment such as the unique canning and freezing department seen at one school. 3. Interior decoration was found generally up-to-date as far as beauty and maintenance were concerned, but color-coding xvas not general¬ ly utilized for the safety of students and workers. 4. Visual aids equipment such as movies and slide projection equipment were in common use at all schools surveyed, but as yet closed circuit television had not been used extensively because of considered initial high cost. 5. The importance of an adequate private office for each faculty member was generally realized in each school visited, but the office situation in many schools was far from adequate. Most schools were at¬ tempting to provide good offices for instructors in both old and new buildings. 42 CHAPTER VIII GROUNDS BEAUTIFICATION AND MAINTENANCE The landscape architect or the person doing his job is responsibile for two of the more important grounds functions on the campus. They are grounds beautification and grounds maintenance. Grounds Beautificaion During the visitations the major points discussed concerning grounds beautification were: (l) what is required of physical plant to assure beautiful grounds? and (2) what goes together to make up the campus landscape? Landscape Architects and Their Tools. Some of the most plain and inexpensive buildings visited were made to appear beautiful by proper landscape architecture. Physical plants employing landscape architects were extremely fortunate. It was evident from the visitations that more effort should be made in the majority of cases to provide the landscape architects with the tools 7/ith which to work. The landscape architects interviewed agreed that one of the most important of their tools was space. Much more planting area was considered necessary in front of and beside buildings, instead of the minimum space left after getting the buildings within a few paces of the streets. As indicated earlier, the most desirable position for buildings is around large courtyards. The courtyard provides the architect with the facility to present a visual 1 Pryce, E. L., Future Campus Planning, College and University Business. July, 1954, pp. 37-40. 43 delight from almost any position in the areas. The landscape architects indicated that they do this by hiding the less desirable views and fram¬ ing the more beautiful portions of the buildings with trees and shrubs. It was agreed by the landscape architects that good planting design did not necessarily require the most expensive plants and that sometimes the simplest of plants produced the best effects. The landscape archi¬ tects interviewed used the theory that beautification of grounds should be done with material that is indigenous to the region rather than by bringing in foreign materials that require extensive care to help them survive. Street Parking. Street parking was quite common among the schools visited. Vfhere car parking was in lots and not permitted along campus roads, more attractive grounds were evident. Roads were then made nar¬ rower and sidewalks wider in order to better handle the massive pedes¬ trian traffic. Access roads provided to all of the buildings for deliv¬ ery and maintenance purposes were routed to the service entries of the buildings where they did not adversely affect the fronts of the build- 2 mgs. Walks. According to the landscape architects interviewed, wide and plentiful sidewalks adequate for peak loads of traffic were deemed necessary to keep grounds attractive. In the majority of the campuses visited it was evident that planners made the mistake of placing the walks and trying to force pedestrians along unnatural routes. A better approach followed extensively by one school in particular was to study 2 Ibid.. pp. 37-40. 44 the natural flov; of traffic and as near as possible place the walks ac¬ cordingly. This created more walks and tended to detract from the sym¬ metry of the plot-plan of the campus but saved grass and other planted areas from unsightly damage. Landscaping planned around a natural trail incorporated the walks into the beauty of the over-all landscape plan. Necessary Factors in Grounds Maintenance Grounds maintenance, as used in this section, was directed toward creating beauty spots of college and university campuses. The practices in essential factors for grounds maintenance are discussed in the follow¬ ing sections. . ‘ ■ Irrigation Systems. One of the essential factors in grounds mainte nance is the irrigation system. Unfortunately all plant departments vis¬ ited still had to labor with some hoses and sprinklers to do lawn water¬ ing. The better financed schools were installing underground sprinkling systems. Plastic pipe was being used extensively for this purpose. Tim¬ er switches were also becoming more common. It was felt by the landscape architects interviewed that one of the biggest problems of grounds work was the expense of the large amount of hand labor required. It was felt that any time a job could be accomplished by an automatic system a saving would result in the long run because of the high cost of labor. Nearly all plant directors visited were aware of the possibility of saving money over a period of time through automatic irrigation systems and as funds become available they plan to change over. Water Availability. Of the schools visited, about half of them 45 were plagued with not having adequate water for their needs. Others were plagued with the high cost of water. Numerous schools were drill¬ ing wells or harnessing other water supplies for their own use. For those who cannot provide enough water, forms of ground cover other than grass were in use. One campus visited had to allow its lawns to brown up dur¬ ing part of the year because of lack of water. Flowers and Greenhouses. Schools in the United States can take a lesson from their neighbors from the north, the Canadians, when it comes to flowers and lawn beautification. One school visited in Canada gave much evidence of this and the plant director indicated that the flower program on that campus is common throughout Canada. Greenhouses and nurseries were found in the majority of the schools visited in Canada and the United States. These were used mostly for starting plants to be set out in the spring. However, some colleges even attempted to grow all of their cut flowers for social functions throughout the year. Planning the Landscaping. It was evident throughout the visita¬ tions that the more beautiful grounds areas received thorough planning prior to planting. Sections of the campus, and in some cases the complete campuses, were planned on paper well in advance of construction. Through well-planned landscaping, the colleges and universities were becoming the beauty spots that they should be. Summary 1. The survey revealed that one of the most important requirements is adequate space for planting areas. Campuses were becoming too crowded 46 in some cases to allow for proper landscape architecture. 2. The landscape architects interviewed indicated that the campus must be planned as a whole. Buildings, walks, parking areas, trees, and lawns should each be an integral part of a master plan and they should not be treated individually. 3. Properly placing parking lots permits the prohibition of street parking which in turn gives the landscape architect more possibili¬ ties for campus beautification. Heating, ventilation, and lighting systems in colleges and uni¬ versities are presented in Chapter 9. 47 CHAPTER IX HEATING, VENTILATION, AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Among the questions asked in the interviews were: (l) Is a cen¬ tral heating plant practical and if so why? (2) How extensive is the use of air conditioning? and (3) Is anything being done toward adopting new lighting systems? Responses to these questions led to the follow¬ ing information. Heating Plants and Distribution Systems Central Heating Plants and Types of Fuels. All of the 18 schools visited apparently found it practical to heat their buildings with central heating plants. It is to be noted (Table 2, appendix) that these plants used predominantly three different types of fuel. This is in agreement with King’s article on Smith College’s central boiler plant They were natural gas, coal, and oil. Gas was generally accepted to be the best because of its cleanliness and economy of operation. As gas became more and more available througout the area, its use was being adopt¬ ed by most schools. It was generally agreed that due to the tremendous investments in physical plants, gas should not be the only source of fuel as this source could be cut off. It was also reported that where schools were equipped to use more than one type of fuel, there was a constant threat to the suppliers to keep the cost of their product competitive. 1 King, G. W., Smith College Likes Its Central Boiler Plant, Educa¬ tional Business. October 1957, pp. 56-57. i . i \ 48 This was said to be a very definite advantage in some areas. Electricity in the Heating Plant. Because electric power was not generated in most plants, they were completely out of operation during an electric power failure. This, of course, was because the modern gas burners were operated with electricity. The larger plants' visited gen¬ erated at least enough power to operate the heating plant in case of out¬ side power failure. Two schools visited generated approximately 90$ of the power used on their campuses. Use of Central Heating Plants and Individual Buildings*Heating Plants. In the smallest of the schools visited there was some question as to whether it was most advantageous to have central high pressure heating plants or to have individual low pressure boilers in the var¬ ious buildings. It was reported that high pressure systems do require constant attention meaning more expensive manpov/er. It was also report¬ ed that low pressure systems required only two or three inspections a day but there were many chances for fire and explosion whereas in a high pressure system all of the boiler-caused fire danger potential was con¬ solidated in one building. Distribution Systems for Central Heating. In 13 of the 18 schools visited, distribution systems for central heating made use of tunnels. 2 For maintenance reasons the tunnels seemed far superior. Other utili¬ ties such as television cables and telephone cables, as well as the heat distribution lines, were worked into the tunnels. It was evident that tunnels varied in quality and size according to the amount of expense put 2 Pena, W. W., Thomas, J. B., An Architect Designs with Air Condi¬ tioning, Educational Business. March, 1959, pp. 46-48. 49 into their construction. The more expensive tunnels were cheaper in 3 maintenance which was substantiated by Pena who has pointed out that money spent for a central heating plant with a good tunnel type distri¬ bution system was money well spent. Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and Lighting It was desired to find out through visitations how common forced air ventilation was in colleges and universities and how extensive air conditioning was being used. It was evident that new types of lighting were extremely rare in the schools visited. Ventilation and Air Conditioning. V/indow type ventilation was no longer the only type of venting in today’s better buildings. All of the schools visited had some forced exhaust systems built in. There was some question of the feasibility of air conditioning among the plant di¬ rectors interviewed. However, it was believed that the time is coming soon when most of the population will demand it as brought out by Pena.^ In the schools visited, a limited number of small conditioning units were used-in the special offices and laboratories. Since many new banks, de¬ partment stores, and office buildings in the towns of the schools visit¬ ed were being cool-air equipped, it is quite possible that this influence will be extended throughout campuses especially since it was felt that it increased the personnel efficiency to a considerable degree. It was 3 Ibid.. p. 47. 4 . Ibid., p. 48. 50 believed by the majority of plant directors interviewed that making pro¬ visions for the future addition of air conditioning units in major buildings will undoubtedly save time and money in the long run. Requir¬ ed concealed ducts and conduits should be included in the original con¬ struction. Illumination. Two of the plant directors interviewed suggested that many of the special shaped fluorescent tubes developed in the past were unsatisfactory and created maintenance problems. Planners were said to be cautious toward adopting new ideas in lighting. Therefore, such advancementas as the new lighted ceilings were not receiving rapid acceptance. There was only one school visited that was using the light¬ ed ceiling and that was in its new library building. It was reported to be very good as to efficiency, economy of operation, and economy of installation. Perhaps as more plant directors become familiar with light¬ ed ceilings they will receive more wide-spread use. Summary 1. All 18 schools visited were found to have central heating plants. 2. Natural gas was found to be the most common fuel in use, how¬ ever, coal, oil, and hog fuel were also in use. 3. The necessity of generating electricity was generally recog¬ nized because of the possibility of inoperative heating plants through the loss of power. However, in practice very few schools were generating any electricity. 4. Of the 18 schools visited, 13 of them used tunnels for heat as well as for other utility distribution. 51 5. Air conditioning was seldom found to be used extensively in the schools visited. 6. Most schools visited were using standard fluorescent and in¬ candescent light fixtures while only one school was found to be using the new type lighted ceiling. Auditoriums, gymnasiums, field houses, and married student hous¬ ing are among the special buildings to be discussed next. 52 CHAPTER .X SPECIAL BUILDINGS ON COLLEGE' AND UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES Among the special buildings to which this paper refers are audi¬ toriums, dormitories, married student housing, fieldhouses, and gymna¬ siums. The writer wanted to learn what types of special buildings were being built and how well they functioned. Specific campuses and buildings have purposely not been mentioned. However, one building was so outstanding that it v/ill be discussed brief¬ ly. The first special buildings to be discussed are auditoriums and stu¬ dent housing as both were of major concern to the physical plant direc¬ tors, and the University of Alberta’s auditorium in particular since it was considered so outstanding. The University of Alberta’s Auditorium. The University of Alber¬ ta’ s auditorium was a twin to the one located on the Calgary Technical School’s campus at Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It was indicated in inter¬ views with the two Canadian physical plant directors that the auditor¬ iums v/ere dominion financed and controlled buildings and were construct¬ ed to bring culture to the west. Their success has been beyond all ex¬ pectations according to reports received. They v/ere of modern design and each one can house an audience of 2800. The fully carpeted lobbies eas¬ ily accommodated the 2800 during intermissions. The stage accommodated over 100 musicians at one sitting. There were showrooms capable of hous¬ ing 60 automobiles at one showing. Dressing rooms, fitting rooms, and lounge rooms were equipped for the most modern techniques of participant preparation for stage performances. The beauty of this building was sur¬ passed only by the functionalism of the auditorium itself. 53 Richard Neutra, world famous architect, in the publications called Jubilee Auditoriums published by the Canadian Public V/orks of Canada, stated that, "the accoustics of these auditoriums are rated with the best in the world". Neutra also expressed great praise for the buildings in general. Auditoriums in American Colleges and Universities. It was gen¬ erally agreed that among the schools visited the administrations felt that the auditorium was the least needed of all of the major facilities. None of the schools visited had adequate auditorium space for all of their students. Functions that called for the use of these facilities were usually held in fieldhouses and gymnasiums. Unbelievable as it is, for some programs the accoustical results had been outstanding. Dormitories. It was learned from the visitations that the new modern dormitories were not always the most popular with the students. Extra space, a homey atmosphere, and private wash basins were some of the features in the better old dormitories that the students found more appeal¬ ing. It was felt by at least two of the dormitory directors interviewed that the contemporary designed dormitories connote a feeling of coldness stressing the mechanical aspects of living and leaving out the human touch which they felt was so important. Rooms that house two people were by far the most popular. How¬ ever, two of the schools visited had experimented with group living ac¬ commodations. This was done for both men and women students. These types of dormitories have proven most successful according to the direc¬ tors in charge of them. Rooms for approximately six students were group¬ ed.1 around one kitchen. The groups did their own planning, purchasing, 54 and cooking. It was interesting to learn from the dormitory directors that the men involved appreciated this system nearly as well as the women. Dormitory furniture that had stood the. test of time v/as of good sturdy design. It was clearly evident that investment in good furni¬ ture was important. It was reported that men, especially, v/ere rough on furniture as well as on the buildings. The system of having students pay for the damage caused was prevalent in most schools and proved to be a great deterrent to the occurrence of damaging of facilities. Married Student Housing. One school in particular that was vis¬ ited indicated that schooling was for the single student primarily and, therefore, they did not provide adequate housing for the married person. This appeared to be a false premise, as the number of married students is growing and iwill continue to grow. It was evident that much of the present housing was old and inadequate. However, an attempt was being made in the majority of the schools visited to provide new, modern apartment buildings or small multiple dwellings for the married student. It was found that the rents were usually high, about 80 dollars per month for a two bedroom apartment. However, there were very few vacancies. 2 This is in agreement with Kretschmer. Approximately half of the apart¬ ments were furnished and the rest were not. Price did not seem to be the deciding factor as to whether they were occupied or not. Laundry facilities were provided in all apartments visited. In 1 Sharkan, W. M., Housing for Married Students, College and Uni¬ versity Business. August, 1954> p* 38. 2 Kretschmer, Vernon, Family Housing Facilities, College and Uni¬ versity Business. May, 1957, p. 38. 55 all cases this was done by providing one laundry room for several fami¬ lies. Charges were made by either flat rates or by the use of coin op¬ erated machines. Fieldhouses and Gymnasiums Fieldhouses and gymnasiums housed athletic departments, athlet¬ ic games, and many other activities on the campus. The cost of construc¬ tion of these facilities was a prime consideration for physical plant directors. It was desired to find out how prevalent fieldhouses were throughout the schools visited and what roles the fieldhouses and gymna¬ siums played on college campuses. Fieldhouses. Eight of the 18 schools visited had or were build¬ ing elaborate fieldhouses. They seemed to be a boon to the varsity ac¬ tivities and to outside activities brought onto the campuses. They housed such functions as ball games, track meets, rodeos, boxing matches, circuses,' and car shows. Seating capacity of the fieldhouses visited ranged from 3000 to 12,000. Interviews with plant directors divulged that the setups to change from one type of activity to another were maj¬ or operations and required much time and labor. The manpower required to accomplish these changes wras in all schools visited placed directly under the supervision of the personnel in' charge of the fieldhouses. Gymnasiums. The presence of a field house on a campus did not exclude the requirment of the gymnasium. Some varsity and nearly all other physical education activities were held in the gymnasium. Only three schools visited were without swimming pools and in the majority of them, a svjimming course was a requirement for graduation. All of the 56 plant directors visited generally agreed that the best filtering, water softening, and heating equipment were found to be sound investments for swimming pools. A tunnel with underwater windows around the pool as was found in one new pool visited (University of Oregon) seemed to be an ex¬ cellent added feature. It afforded picture taking under the water and gave the coach an added opportunity for superior instruction. Good but Low Cost Construction. All of the special buildings mentioned in this paper were to varying degrees required to be financial¬ ly self-sufficient. This presented one of the major problems concerning them. How could they be built good enough to last and still economically enough for them to partially pay for themselves or as indicated in some cases to pay for themselves completely? Summary Special buildings in this study consisted of auditoriums, dormi¬ tories, married student housing, field houses and gymnasiums. One of the finest facilities visited was an auditorium on the University of Al¬ berta^ campus at Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Generally findings were: 1. Auditoriums were felt to be the least needed of the major physical plant facilities. 2. Old dormitories were sometimes more popular than new ones be¬ cause in some cases they provided extra space, a homey atmosphere, and some private conveniences such as wash basins in each room. 3. It was found that housing was being provided for the married student for approximately BO dollars per month for the typical two bed¬ room apartment. 57 4. Eight of the 18 schools visited had fieldhouses. All had gymnasiums and 15 had pools. 5. One of the major problems with special buildings was financ¬ ing. The majority of the special buildings, as discussed in this chap¬ ter, presented traffic and parking problems because of audience partici¬ pation. The next chapter will be concerned with these problems and those connected with campus police forces. 58 CHAPTER XI CAMPUS POLICE FORCES AND TRAFFIC REGULATIONS The physical plants were responsible for nearly all traffic con¬ trol on the campuses visited. This responsibility included the enforce¬ ment of numerous traffic and police regulations. The two chief purposes of this section were to become familiar with campus police force prob¬ lems and to determine how they operated. The Campus Police and Their Equipment The sizes of police forces varied among the schools visited, as well as the sources of police authority and the equipment used by the of¬ ficers. Some of the important points of information sought were the na¬ ture of the relationship of physical plant to police forces, where the policeman received his authority, and the kinds of equipment used by the policemen. Size of Campus Police Forces. Visitations indicated that there was a large variation among the sizes of different campus police forces. The size of the campus police force was regulated according to need. One school of 6500 students had a highly trained force of 13 officers. Only eight miles away another school with an enrollment of 4000 students em¬ ployed only one full-time policeman. Most other schools in the medium size group had two or three full-time policemen (see Table 2 in the ap¬ pendix) . Two or three campus policemen seemed to be enough to do the job 1 American Council on Education, College and University Business Administration. Vol. 2, 1955, pp. 18-34. 59 satisfactorily in most instances. The size of the force required seem¬ ed to be governed to a large extent by the adequacy and the cooperation of the local community police force. Most campuses visited were located on state property where local police had little or no authority. In al¬ most all areas visited there was good cooperation between the school forces and the local forces. However, it was generally felt that the local forces weren't big enough to handle the added load of state-owned schools. Police Authority. In two of the states visited campus police were commissioned through the state legislature, similar to the highway patrol. Six of the schools visited indicated that their police received their authority through the city police or sheriffs' offices. The ten other 2 schools had only citizen arrest authority as defined by Blackwell. Equipment for the Policeman. In five of the schools visited, po¬ licing was done by a plant employee devoting part of his time to police work. It was generally agreed among plant directors interviev/ed that a badge, a uniform, and the authority to make arrests were some of the more necessary tools required for the campus policeman. Sidearms were sometimes carried by the campus police but these cases were in the minp ority. Campus trouble requiring the use of a weapon occurred so seldom that most plant directors felt the availability of a weapon was not worth the risk involved. Police cars, where used in the schools visited, were radio-equipped on the same frequency as the local police station. With this arrangement much better efficiency and cooperation was worked 2 Blackwell, T. E., Law and Order on the Campus, College and Univer¬ sity Business. December, 1959, p. 24. 60 out with city officials. Traffic Regulations The schools visited varied somewhat as to the number of regula¬ tions published to control campus traffic and as to the types of cita¬ tions used. Rules for Control. It was indicated through interviews that reg¬ ulations that were limited in number and which were clear and concise were the most successful. The following were typical statements appearing on traffic regulation instructions used in the schools in the survey: 1. All cars parked on the campus, except visitors’ cars, must dis¬ play parking permits. 2. Permits are issued free of charge or for a small fee. 3. Vehicles must be parked in designated areas. 4. No vehicle shall be parked on campus streets overnight. 5. Maximum speed on the campus is twenty miles per hour. 6. The applicant for the parking permit will be responsible for the vehicle registered at all times. 7. Cars abandoned for any period of time will be disposed of un¬ der state laws. 8. No parking privileges are extended to students living within two blocks of the campus unless the students are physically handicapped. 9. Special parking spaces are provided for the physically handi¬ capped. 10. Special parking considerations are made for all faculty and staff members 61 Traffic Citations. Traffic citations were issued in all schools that had traffic regulations. It was generally felt by the plant direc¬ tors interviewed that citations were necessary to insure general safety and convenience for students and faculty members. Here again, simplici¬ ty seemed to be the best practice. Most citations showed the follow¬ ing information: 1. Name 2. License number 3. Permit number 4. Make of car 5. Time of violation 6. Nature of violation 7. Amount of fine imposed Traffic Control a Complex Problem. Traffic control was one of the most serious and important problems and functions of the physical plant. The safety of all personnel on the campus was directly dependent upon sa¬ tisfactory control. Much interest was shown to be taken by the plant di¬ rector and when needed more personnel were being assigned to this ever- important and expanding responsibility of the physical plant. Summary 1. The physical plants in the large majority of the schools vis¬ ited were responsible for campus police. 2. The size of police forces v/as determined-on the basis of local campus need. 3. Most campus policemen were found to have special police 62 authority. However, at tv;o schools visited their only legal power was that of any other citizen, the power of civil arrest. 4. Standard tools for police were the badge, the uniform, and the authority to make arrests. 5. Each school had its own set of traffic regulations. Hov/ever, most of the regulations themselves were quite common throughout the schools visited. 6. There was an average of four full-time police for the 13 schools that had full-time police in the schools visited. Among the schools visited traffic control was felt to be one of the most serious and important problems of the physical plant. The lives and safety of all of the students and faculty on the campus depends upon the proficiency of this organization. The next chapter has to do with an over-all summary of this paper and some conclusions 63 CHAPTER XII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS There was a desire on the part of the writer to determine the generally accepted policies and practices concerning present college and university physical plants, their administration and operation. The problem was to locate enough information for such a study. Since ade¬ quate literature on this subject was not available, a series of campus visitations were made in an attempt to gather information firsthand from various existing college plants. Eighteen schools, representing a cross- section of the northwest area, were chosen ranging in size from 350 to 10,000 in enrollment. Physical plants were surveyed and plant directors and other available school personnel were interviewed at each school vis¬ ited. Following is a summary of the more important findings of this in- vesitgation and general conclusions based on these findings: Summary Status of Plant Director and Philosophy of Physical Plant Manage- Ment. It was generally agreed by plant directors interviewed that the college physical plant consists of all grounds, buildings, and equipment that surround and enhance the teaching and learning situation. The physi¬ cal plant director and his staff, in each school, were directly responsi¬ ble for the planning and operations concerning the care and maintenance of these physical facilities. Of the 18 plant directors interviewed, 15 had college degrees, however, it was noted that no director had received training specifically designed for physical plant administration. 64 Of the 18 schools visited, eight plant directors were found to have faculty status and ten were not. There was no general agreement as to how important faculty status was for the plant director, but inter¬ views indicated that the instructor was considered the most important member of the teaching situation and a closer understanding between plant and faculty was desirable. Out of the 18 schools visited,seven of the plant directors were directly responsible to the president while eight were responsible to the business manager and three were responsible to the vice-president. It was obvious from the interviews that the success of any of these-, su¬ pervisory plans depended largely upon harmonious relations between the supervisor and plant director. Important factors that were found to determine variations of plant operation were: (l) the plant director's background, (2) the school's location, (3) unionization, (4) the age and history of the plant, (5) the adequacy of shop space, (6) the president’s attitude to¬ ward physical plant, and (7) the presence of local control. In the majority of schools visited, there was no financial limit as to the amount and types of work that could be done by physical plants, but generally no major construction was done by plant staffs. Physical Plant Employees and Their Work Organizations. Interviews revealed that college degrees were not common among plant staffs in small schools except for plant directors and their assistants. The larger schools were found to employ some college trained employees such as en¬ gineers, landscape architects, and accountants. The ideal wage rate for plant employees was generally found to be 80 to 85% of the local off-campus scale plus fringe benefits. 65 It was generally agreed by plant directors that the custodian was a very important member of the plant staff because both the health and safety of the students were dependent upon the custodian’s compe¬ tency, Interviews revealed that it was common for plants to employ stu¬ dent custodians, but the plant directors generally felt that it was dif¬ ficult to produce a desirable quality of work with student custodians. The plant director’s secretary was considered by the majority of directors to be an extremely valuable asset in plant organization. Although the handyman type of employee was not present in many of the schools visited because of specialization and unionization of workers, he was still being used to an advantage in some schools. It was found that 50% of the schools visited were either unionized or were under civil service control. Maintenance costs were shown to be higher under union organization. Civil service control did not increase costs directly but it was found to be difficult to hire and keep good em¬ ployees under this type of control. Interrelationship of Director and Staff with Faculty and Upgrading of Plant Employees. It was felt very strongly by the .plant directors interviewed that respect was much needed between plant employees and fac¬ ulty members. This relationship was improved in some cases by raising the social status of plant employees. The upgrading of plant employees such as promoting janitor to custodian had far reaching effects on the spirit and prestige of the person in this position. It- was indicated by plant directors that upgrading a worker socially was also a contributing fac¬ tor in creating a higher caliber of work. Location of Various Facilities of the Physical Plant. Campuses were spreading in order to prevent congestion. It was found that most 66 of the campuses visited v/ere originally designed to accommodate much less than their present enrollments. The better planned campuses visited con¬ sisted of a series of courtyards surrounded by academic or other types of buildings. Administration, library, and student union buildings were usually located in a central area and at least one side of the campus was left open for expansion. Shop buildings were generally located where there v/ere truck access routes. Campuses were gradually adopting the periphery parking lot plan v/ith only minor parking and traffic being allowed on the campus proper. On all but one of the campuses visited an attempt was being made to provide adequate housing for the married students. This was in the form of two-story apartments and single story dwellings. Utility areas were located on the outskirts of the campuses ex¬ cept for the heating plants which generally were located in more conven¬ ient central locations. Classroom and Office Facilities. In the majority of the institu¬ tions visited it was found that classrooms recently constructed were planned to accommodate more students per room thaii ever before, in some cases as many as 300 students. In other than increasing classroom size, very few new developments were noted in classroom design. An increasing amount of instruction was being done through the media of-screen projection and classrooms equipped with slides and black¬ out curtains were prevalent in all schools visited. The impact of closed circuit television had not had its effect as yet on the schools visited in this survey, the main reason being the large initial cost 67 Scientifically designed color systems were not evident in many of the schools visited. The importance of good private offices for instructors was realiz¬ ed in most schools visited but as yet the supply xvas not up to the demand. Grounds Beautification and Maintenance. It was evident from the visitations that some of the most plain and inexpensive buildings were made beautiful by proper landscape architecture. The landscape archi¬ tects, according to the plant directors, felt that they usually needed additional space between buildings for landscape planting. It was gen¬ erally agreed that concrete walks should be strategically placed to pre¬ vent traffic through grass areas. All schools visited still used watering hoses for irrigation. However, most of the schools had some automatic irrigation equipment and the directors indicated that they would have more of this equipment if financing permitted. Heating. Ventilation, and Lighting Systems in Colleges and Uni¬ versities. All 18 of the schools visited were heated from central heat¬ ing plants. The most common fuel was found to be natural gas, hov/ever, oil, coal, and hog fuel (sawdust and wood chips) were also found in.some schools. It v/as agreed by the majority of plant directors interviewed that there were definite advantages to being able to burn more than one type of fuel. Electricity was generated in only three of the schools visited. It was the consensus of the plant directors that it was wise to generate at least enough power to operate the heating plant in case of power fail¬ ure. In 17 of the 18 schools visited the heat distribution systems 68 made use of some tunnels. It was felt that they were much superior to "direct lay pipe." However, due to the extreme cost, some of the new distribution systems for buildings were "direct lay pipe" rather than the much better tunnel systems. Forced ventilation was common throughout the schools visited. However, air conditioning was not. It was felt that the costs were ex¬ cessive for the benefits derived, but that provisions should be made for future installation in the better buildings. Even though there were new systems being developed in illumina¬ tion, the plants visited had very few in use. One new library did have a lighted ceiling which was receiving favorable acceptance. Campus Police Forces and Traffic Regulations. In the 18 schools visited there were a total of 57 police officers. The schools ranged from no full-time officers to 14 full-time officers. It was generally understood that the police force was one of the most important groups at¬ tached to the physical plant. The sizes of the forces seemed to depend primarily upon needs at the various schools. In some areas more police were needed than in others because of the inadequacy of the local city police forces. Some campus police were deputized by the city administra¬ tions, some by the county, and some received their power from the state legislatures. It was generally agreed that the most important tools for the police were the badge, uniform, and the authority to make arrests. According to police and plant directors interviewed, police regulations and citations should be kept as simple and brief as possible to be effec¬ tive . ... Special Buildings on College and University Campuses. The special buildings covered in this study were auditoriums, dormitories, married 69 student housing fieldhouses, and gymnasiums. Though some fine auditoriums were observed, especially in Canada, it was generally agreed that auditoriums were the least needed of the major campus buildings. New dormitories were not always the most popular. It was reveal¬ ed that many students would rather live in the older buildings because of certain qualities such as more room, wash basins in the rooms, and a greater feeling of hominess that prevailed. Some schools in the survey had experimented with group living accommodations which had proven quite satisfactory for both men and women. The most predominant type of college housing that was being built for the married student was in the form of two-story apartments and single story duplexes. Average rents were 75 to 85 dollars. All of the schools visited had gymnasiums while only eight had fieldhouses. One of the biggest problems with the fieldhouse was found to be the expense of changing the set-ups from one activity to another. All but three of the schools visited had swimming pools. Conclusions The following conclusions were made from the findings of the survey 1. To be successful the college and university physical plant di¬ rector should give full consideration in his operations and planning to all the physical materials that surround and enhance the teaching and learning situation, 2, The trend in the expanding college physical plant is for the plant directors to have college degrees and work in the capacity of 70 administrators of their departments. A formal educational program es¬ pecially designed for physical plant administration would help prepare more qualified plant directors. 3. Faculty status is not absolutely necessary for plant direc¬ tors but a closer understanding between physical plant staffs and fac¬ ulty members is desirable for smooth operation. 4. Raising the social prestige of all plant employees whenever possible helps to produce a higher quality of work. 5. Campuses are in danger of becoming too congested as they con¬ tinue to grow, and only through scientific planning and the careful use of space can this be prevented. Well-planned campuses make the opera¬ tions of the physical plant easier and more efficient. 6. The majority of colleges, if those visited are typical, do not seem to be keeping pace with the demands of expanding enrollment in terms of classrooms, offices, housing, and general campus design. 7. Successful physical plant operations depend not only upon a competent administrator and staff, but also upon the provision of an adequate amount of good equipment for the maintenance of grounds and buildings. Initial installation costs of superior systems for facili¬ ties such as irrigation, heating, and ventilation are investments which will pay dividends in terms of efficiency in physical plant operations. 8. Some type of police force is a necessary part of any campus organization and is usually a responsibility of the physical plant. BIBLIOGRAPHY 72 BIBLIOGRAPHY American Council on Education, College and University Business Adminis¬ tration. Vol. 3., 1955. Blackwell, T. E., Law and Order on the Campus, College and University Business. December, 1959* Eurich, A. C., Maintaining and Improving the Quality of Instruction, The Journal of Higher Education. May, 1956. Hellerich, M. H., What Type of Office Will the College Teacher Require by 1965, College and University Business. October, 1959. Holloway, G. E., Custodians Take Their Workshop Seriously, School Equip¬ ment News. June, 1957. King, G. W., Smith College Likes Its Central Boiler Plant, Educational Business. May, 1957. Kretschmer, Vernon, Family Housing Facilities, College and University Business. May, 1957. Lambert, A. C., Don't Plan Too Many Small Classrooms, College and Uni¬ versity Business. April, 1954. Linn, H. H., Helm, L. C., Grabarkiewicz, K. P., The School Custodian's Housekeeping Handbook. Bureau of Publications Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1946. Neutra, R. J., Alexander, R. E., Planning a Campus, College and Universi¬ ty Business. January, 1959. Pena, W. V., Thomas, J. B., An Architect Designs with Air Conditioning, Educational Business. March, 1959. Pharis, W. L. Jr., Expaned Use of Audio-Visual Aids, Educational Busi¬ ness, November, 1956. Platt, B. H., Should Residence Halls or Unions Have Their Own Maintenance Staff, College and University Business. January, 1957. Pryce, E. L., Future Campus Planning, College and University Business. July, 1954. Sharkan, W. M., Housing for Married Students, College and University Business, August, 1954. Taylor, G. L., Getting Along with Faculty, College and University Busi¬ ness. March, 1957. APPENDIX Appendix A School Investigation Worksheet Guide 75 SCHOOL INVESTIGATION WORKSHEET GUIDE 1 • School name 2, School size 3• School age 4. School location A. Size of closest city B. Area from which students come 5. School purposes 6. Financial systems (nature and adequacy as it concerns physical plant) A. Origin B. : Status C. Procedures 7. Physical plant (mechanics and operation) A. Directors’ and employees’ attitudes toward: 1. School in general 2. Administration 3. Faculty 4. Students 5. Personal use of physical plant facilities B. Campus layout 1. Traffic 2. Convenience 3. Practicality C. Instructional areas (design and use) 1* Classrooms 2. Laboratories D. Office space and utilization E. Grounds care and development 1. Walks 76 2. Irrigation systems 3. Lawns and trees F. Heating and ventilation G. Lighting systems H. Special buildings 1. Gymnasiums 2. Auditoriums 3. Dormitories 4. Married student housing 5. Others I. Traffic control J. Special problems 1. Supervisory problems of labor 2. Organization of workers 3. Relations with trade unions K. Physical plant superintendent and faculty v/orking relationship Appendix B Sample Letter 78 SAMPLE LETTER Northern Montana College Havre, Montana July 3, 1959 John J. Doe Director of Physical Plant College or University Anywhere, Western U, S. A. Dear Sir: In the near future I plan to be in your area making a study of college and university physical plants. I would like very much to in¬ clude your school in this study. If you approve this visit, I would like to spend some time with you or your assistant and physical plant department heads at your con¬ venience. I would also like to visit the various buildings and other physical plant facilities on your campus. I will appreciate it very much if you will consent to this vis¬ itation. Enclosed is.a self addressed envelope. Please reply as soon as possible. Thank you. Very truly yours, Harold C. Babcock Supt. Physical Plant Northern Montana College Havre, Montana Enclosure HCB/mw Appendix C Tabulation of School and Town Sizes, the Plant Director's Status and Organization of Employees of 18 Colleges and Universities of the Northwest TA BL E 1 . TA BU LA TI ON OF SC HO OL AN D TO W N SI Z E S, TH E PL AN T D IR EC TO R’ S ST AT US AN D OR GA NI ZA TI ON OF EM PL OY EE S OF 18 CO LL EG ES AN D U N IV ER SI TI ES OF TH E NO RT HW ES T G W O © 1 ♦HO) © © 1 +> o © oj o •H •H N iH > > •H G, rH G rH G G G G E •H © © © •H © © O O CO W > CO C G > CO c •H •H hD ♦H o O •H o c G S'S o G: o s Go Go © 1 •H 1 W G © o - © o P P P P c w G -P © C p c G •H © CO © O CO *H © *H © © G G co bo -P *H > TO G TO TO G G P © © G O 'TO fn *PH •H •H © C G G © © © © w o © © © iH © © •H © w E G © o © © O £U © TO co ;s G als G G G •H •H G G G G G > > PQ G w G •p cO CQ P - CO G o - W W ra CO CO p p o © © © © o © o cH © ^ G O •H cd Q Cn s a tuo W) bfl bfl W TO G G C c — C •H G •H G c •H •H G O G O o G G o o © © •H •H © © ■g fe © p © p p © © G © C © © C G © rid •H © •H © o •H •H bfl G O no G bO G G bfl •H © Q PQ £ TO w c W TO W TO w £ G W O o o o o O o o O o o o o o O o G © •V o o •V o o u g N o *v o •s O *H o in o m o rH EH CO cn cn C\i rH cv m rH o o o O © O o O o o m o X3 N O m O o o •s o © *H ITS cv vO in o o m CO CO m rH o C\f vO »—i cv © © TO TO © ra G o G CO © ,G •s © G o © o •H O o •s TO p rH TO TO o c G 1—1 Go iH © © rH o O • >i • O G G G rH O p © G © O O © O © •s P G P © O © P rH TO rH p © is! © > bOr-j rH <© P o rH O © TO o •H o G O G O © M o TO o G © O O o w m G O G PQ p-t © bo • P o G © O © G P u p *>s O G >> O *H © CO p O P P © • © >H W EH © P TO © © •H P G M G rH O bfl •H © p bfl © w W G •-3 © S © >> O TO © ra G CO © M JH G © © > G O © rH G O rH © © © 43 © rH 42 •H © 42 G rH © rH o rH i—1 > > rH w o bO G bD © o o > O 13 o •H > N r-f c c P rH P rH £H •H PM o o o •H © •H © © © •H •H ♦H > CO > CO P P ro W c p p •H •H O o bO S'S r© s© t© o o s 55 CQ p i - Q) o © p> © p p p p P -P w c © p M © ra © CO © O cd •H © -p © P -p © W bD W bD CO bD -P •H > © c x> CP P X5 © © © © © © O TS f-t c © *H © •H p p P p p p ® © © •H bfl © © XI © •H © •H 3 •H © ^ i PM w CP CO CQ CQ © -P © W +3 - CO p O -P -P O fH © w CO © 3 o o o © © o © P O S2! 55 55 fH rH 55 rH O P4 bo bD c m XJ bo bD bD c P P P © rM *; c •H •H •H P •H © c p p O P P P o o o © © © •H © bD © o fe © © © p © © rH -p c. p p © P Q •H © © •H •H •H © 1 O © P © bD bD bD P bD P DQ © •H © Q PQ C W fi s XI w p H O S X3 r*i o O O o O o o o P © o O O o O o o o o o o o o ^ NJ •V •V to O *H o C\i vO o o iT\ o EH CO rH rH CNi LTA rH Pi i—1 O O © o o O o O o o Xi N o o o o O O o O *H o to CT\ o to cJ o CO CO •si- O'N to vO P o a ■p © w bD p c •s P 3 P •H p P O ^ o C Q rH 3 rH O ^ O *H ♦H g-S 3 -p P p rH bD © bD © 4Q p 'S -p 6 P O P © © P © S © © O X) © o w. o > P © P o © © -p o W M N S W ts P O bDO O bDjr> o O o o 3 © o 1-3 s PQ o W EH CM © © CM XJ o -P •p >» © O p © © +3 ■p © 43 p “I*3 P *H © CM O © *H O -P -p CO © CO W •p © P o co -P W ♦H •H bo P CO bD *H C © P © © w o © © © © © W o © p P © bD P fc-g P rH P rH P bD bD © CO P* © © 3 rH 3 *H O rH © © © bD rH K*’ > X3 •P O p p bD O > P rH P rH CP •§ J§ rH •H *H HH P O P c© © O •H O o c c O o P P O -P O PD t© S o P> O TA B LE 1 . (C on tin ue d) 82 O rg an iz at io n o f E m pl oy ee s N on e N on e U ni on U ni on w u - © o -p -p fn -P w w © c G w O cd ‘H w bD © © W 4-5 -P «H > © © rO © G O TJ U © c •H •H G © © © © •H © m W •H bD ^ e a W S © © w H O bD G ro G CQ bD •H © C o O G Q « w a S W o o o o o o c © o o O o g N •s •s o O *H cv ir\ m rH EH CO rH CO CA cv iH O © o o o ^3 N o o O o O *H ITv o co co NO cv 'sf c o -p bD © bD •» C G ^ C n C *H •> © © «H o © X! G -P •H e •H 6 W c ra O C e P -p PH © © -P PH O © >* © pH ? Td J=) PH S G s£: o bD •H © o P-. O Q © -P © © G -P © «H co -P O G PH >> G O O -P O © © S © -P bD •H -p bD bD bD •H G © w bD © © G © W «H bo C PH rH G rH G 6 © © •H pH G PH © rH © o pH > X o © o -P O > rH *H w o X> O CO o •H f=J O C © © © G O ^ P3 Appendix D Tabulation of Full Time Police, Field House Facilities Construction Cost Limits and Heating Plants of 18 Colleges and Universities of the Northwest T A B L E 2. T A B U L A T I ON OF F U L L T I M E P OL IC E, F I E L D H O U SE F A CI LI TI ES , CO NS TR UC TI ON CO ST L I M I T S A N D H E A T I N G P L A N T S OF 18 CO LL EG ES A N D U N I V E R SI TI ES OF T H E N O R T H W E ST 84 1 W © o O O o O o © © >H s S S3 a £ p © o © -P PL. a © Oi l 1 © •* o rH rv W w w W © © m o © © © © © © © © © W (xj t=) o o o O o o O • © © -P HQ w © o3 >1 rH P CO CQ © © G W © a w o © s rH rH rH © rH rH © rH © rH ra • © © © ra © © G © G © pH -p C G P P G G *H G *H G OH w c C P t=> G G Q G « C be c •H Q s g 5 •H rH © © © © w © w W © © -P © © © © © © © P © O >H >H rH >H >H rH -p w o O • W © © © © © © © -P -P p P G G c G G W *H o O O O o O O S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 s o ►q © w w ^ © O -H W -p W w •H O O © O O © o TD r—1 i—1 *H © O •H © S £H H S3 >H S3 © s •H © © EH © G G O cv o O r—1 *H rH rH s £H ITv -4- O P-. © ■ ©— T3 © © •V C o c w © o 'S © o c •H O O TD -p rH X3 T3 O p •> t—1 G> «s rH © rv © P c o • • O G G G rH O o -p © •s «S G © O O © O © G P © •H C -P © p © -p rH X3 rH +3 O rH w > -P O rH O © TD © 6 «© ♦H o G O G O O M o T3 o G © O O O o W PQ CG o CH PQ PQ «M © bD 0 O G >» © o G -H o ■P © ^ f>> O *H © CO o P O -P -P © • © rH © EH © P X3 © © •H •H -P P bo G rH O bD •H © P bD © © © ^ •“3 © G © >> o 'V © W G CO © bJ3 ^ P © rH © F> G O © rH G O © © © ,0 © rH -G *H © x: G rH © rH rH > > rH © o bD G bo © O O > O ■ss rH •H •H <35 •H O •H ^3 rH CO rH O •H O O P O G © O G 'V o JID p) PQ PQ O O S3 M TA B LE 2 . (C on tin ue d) 85 TA BL E 2. (C on ti nu ed ) 86 1 u u (D H >H © o -p © o o • m © © © © ■p P G c G G W »H O o O O n S3 O *H O i-q S SH S5 a © W CO 0 © O *H P © © •H © o O © T3 rH i—1 *H © O •H © PH IP rH IS S © E •H © © E-t © c G O o O «H *H rH rH rH S PS O (P OH G O P •s bD p © bo G 13 G ^ c C *H •s 3 © *H c © -G •v G p •H 6 o E © G O C E O •H rH © © © >s p rH rG rH S G t- © G bD •H © O CH O Q r-4 © P © © P © cd co bo p O © G f-r G rH O >> O P O © rH S © P bD •H P t© O bD •H G © CO bO © O G © W *H bfl fn C rH G rH G E © © •H t—1 U © rH © O rH > XI O © P O rH *H W o W o •H O G © © © G O PD G3