The effects of videotape feedback on the standing broad jump performances of mildly and moderately
mentally retarded adults
by Laura Jean Sim
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE
in Physical Education
Montana State University
© Copyright by Laura Jean Sim (1980)
Abstract:
This study was conducted to examine the effects of videotape feedback on mentally retarded adults'
performance of a selected movement task. Videotape recordings of subjects' performances of the
standing broad jump were replayed to the subjects to provide them with feedback information
regarding their jumping performances.
Reviewed research and literature revealed that feedback plays a critical role in learning and that visual
feedback is the most conducive mode of feedback in motor learning. It was found that the motor
proficiency of the mentally retarded is substandard to that of the non-retarded population. Some
researchers have speculated that the consistent motor deficiencies found in the retarded may be a result
of their difficulties with interpreting and processing abstract forms of feedback due to their subaverage
cognitive level. Implications were made in some of the sources reviewed that videotape may help
enhance motor skill acquisition and mastery by the mentally retarded by presenting concrete visual
feedback about movement performance.
An assessment tool designed to evaluate the development of jumping patterns in young children was
utilized to assess the mentally retarded subjects' jumping skills before and after the administration of
the experimental treatment. Three groups of subjects were involved in the investigation, with one group
receiving no feedback, a group receiving verbal cues about their jumping performances and one group
receiving verbal cues while viewing a videotape recording of their standing broad jump performances.
Descriptive statistics were computed for qualitative and quantitative aspects of the initial and final
performances of the subjects. No significant difference was found between the three groups'
performances following the completion of the experimental treatment. No significant differences were
found between the pretreatment and posttreatment performances in any of the three groups.
It was concluded that videotape feedback, as administered in this study, has no significant effect on the
learning or mastery of a motor task by mentally retarded adults. It was suggested that factors such as
distractibility and inattentiveness of the subjects may have affected the results of this investigation. It
was also surmised that because the subjects were at a beginning level in performances of the standing
broad jump they may have lacked an appreciation of relevant aspects of the replayed performances, and
hence may have not recognized many of the errors in performance. 
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO COPY
In p resen t ing  t h i s  t h e s i s  in p a r t i a l  f u l f i l lm e n t  o f  the  
requirements  f o r  an advanced degree a t  Montana S t a t e  U n iv e r s i ty ,
I agree  t h a t  the  L ib rary  sh a l l  make i t  f r e e l y  a v a i l a b l e  f o r  
in spec t ion .  I f u r t h e r  agree  t h a t  permission f o r  ex ten s ive  copying 
o f  t h i s  t h e s i s  f o r  s c h o la r ly  purposes may be gran ted  by my major 
p ro f e s so r ,  o r ,  in h i s  absence ,  by the  D i r e c to r  o f  L i b r a r i e s .  I t  
i s  understood t h a t  any copying or  pub l i c a t i o n  o f  t h i s  t h e s i s  f o r  
f in an c ia l  gain sh a l l  not be allowed w i thou t  my w r i t t e n  permiss ion .
Date O '  U  CU i c j r -  \  \A.Sfo
<5
THE EFFECTS OF VIDEOTAPE FEEDBACK ON THE STANDING BROAD 
JUMP PERFORMANCES OF MILDLY AND MODERATELY 
MENTALLY RETARDED ADULTS
by
' LAURA JEAN SIM
A t h e s i s  submitted in p a r t i a l  f u l f i l lm e n t  
o f  the  requirements  f o r  the  degree
o f
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Physical  Education
Approved:
Chai rperson, t iraouate committee
Graduate Dean
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY 
Bozeman, Montana
August, 1980
■ -■  ■
TABLE. OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
VITA .  ..................................................................................................... i i
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................... .... . . i i i
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................   v
ABSTRACT............................................ ....  ...........................vi
I INTRODUCTION . , .  ........................... ............................................... ...  I
Sta tement of  Problems ..........................  . . .  4
Hypotheses,   5
D e l im i t a t i o n s ......................  , , ...................... .........................  5
D e f in i t io n s  6
Limita t ions  . , . .......................................................  7
Basic A s sump t io n s ........................... ....  , , . ........................... 8
II  REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................... . . . . . . . . .  9
Motor Learning.   IO
Motor Learning and the  Menta lly  Retarded, 14
Feedback and the  Mentally  Retarded. 19
Summary............................................ .... , . ...................... .... 23
I I I  METHODOLOGY.  ........................... .................................. .... 24
S u b j e c t s ...........................     24
S c h e d u l e . .................................................... .... i . ...................... 25
Ins t rumenta t ion  ................................................  . . . . . . .  27
Assessment Procedures . ..................................  28
Treatment Procedures.   ................................................................ 30
Analysis  o f  Data .....................................................................................34
Iv
Chapter . Page
IV RESULTS'............................................    36
Desc r ip t ive  S t a t i s t i c s ......................  , . . ......................  35
Hypotheses T e s t i n g ...........................................   35
■ Hypothesis I . . ....................................   37
Hypothesis 2 . , . ..........................   . ...............................  39.
V DISCUSSION............................................    41
Differences  Between the  Final Performances o f
the  Three G r o u p s ...................... ....................................... . . 4%
Differences  Between the  I n i t i a l  Performance and
Final Performance o f  Each Group, . , . ......................  42
Summary......................    45
VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................. 47
Summary , ................................... ........................................... ....  . . 47
Purpose.  . .........................................................      47
P r o c e d u r e s ............................................  . , . ......................  43
Resu l t s .  , .................. 48
Conclusions,  , ......................    49
Recommendations, . , . .............................    50
APPENDICES. ...................... ....  . . ........................................  52
Appendix A. L e t t e r  of  Correspondence and Subjec t
Consent F o rm ..................; ........................................................  53
Appendix B. Standing Broad Jump Procedures and
McClenaghan and Gallahue^s Assessment Tool . . . .  55
Appendix C, S tandard ized Verbal Feedback Cues . . .  60
BIBLIOGRAPHY 61
VLIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Means and Standard  Devia tions  o f  the  I n i t i a l  and 
Final P r o f i l e  Scores o f  Each Group, t '-Values and 
P r o b ab i l i t y  o f  the  In t ragroup  Comparisons o f  the
I n i t i a l  and Final Performance, 26
2 Means and Standard  Devia tions  of  the  I n i t i a l  and 
Final Dis tance Measurements o f  Each Group, t -  
Values and P ro b ab i l i t y  o f  the  In t ragroup  Comparisons
o f  the  I n i t i a l  and Final Performance.  . , . . 26
3 Degrees o f  Freedom, Sum o f  Squares ,  Mean Squares ,
F-Ratiq and F -P robab i l i t y  o f  th e  In te rgroup  Comr 
pari  son. o f  the  Final Performance P r o f i l e  Scores of
Each G r o u p ...................................................................................... ......  38
4 Degrees o f  Freedom, Sum of  Square's,  Mean Squares ,
F-Ratib and F -P robab i l i ty  o f  the  In te rgroup  Com­
par ison  o f  the  Final Performance Distance Measure­
ments of  Each G r o u p .........................................................................38
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to  examine the  e f f e c t s  o f  videotape fe ed ­
back on menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  a d u l t s '  performance o f  a s e l e c ted  movement 
ta sk .  Videotape record ings  o f  s u b j e c t s '  performances o f  the  standing 
broad jump were rep layed  to  the  sub jec t s  to  provide them with feedback 
in format ion regard ing  t h e i r  jumping performances.
Reviewed re sea rch  and l i t e r a t u r e  revea led  t h a t  feedback plays  a 
c r i t i c a l  ro l e  in l e a rn ing  and t h a t  v isua l  feedback i s  the  most con­
ducive mode o f  feedback in  motor l e a rn ing .  I t  was found t h a t  the  motor 
p ro f ic iency  o f  the  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  i s  substandard  to  t h a t  o f  the  non- 
r e ta rded  popu la t ion .  Some r e s ea rche r s  have specu la ted  t h a t  the  con­
s i s t e n t  motor d e f i c i e n c i e s  found in  the  r e t a rd ed  may be a r e s u l t  o f  
t h e i r  d i f f i c u l t i e s  with i n t e r p r e t i n g  and process ing  a b s t r a c t  forms of  
feedback due to  t h e i r  subaverage cogn i t iv e  l e v e l .  Impl ica t ions  were 
made in  some of  the  sources  reviewed t h a t  v ideo tape  may help  enhance 
motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  and mastery by the  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  by p re sen t  
ing concre te  v isua l  feedback about movement performance.
An assessment  tool designed to  eva lu a te  the  development o f  jumping 
p a t t e rn s  in  young c h i ld ren  was u t i l i z e d  to  a s s e s s  the  menta l ly  re ta rded  
s u b j e c t s '  jumping s k i l l s  be fo re  and a f t e r  the  adm in i s t r a t ion  of the  
experimental  t r e a tmen t .  Three groups o f  s ub je c t s  were involved in the  
i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,  with one group r e ce iv ing  no feedback, a group rece iv ing  
verbal cues about t h e i r  jumping performances and one group rece iv ing  
verbal cues whi le  viewing a v ideotape  reco rd ing  o f  t h e i r  s tanding  
broad jump performances.
Desc r ip t ive  s t a t i s t i c s  were computed f o r  q u a l i t a t i v e  and q u a n t i t a ­
t i v e  a spec ts  o f  the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  performances o f  the  s u b j e c t s .  No 
s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r e n c e  was found between the  th r e e  groups '  performances 
following the  completion of  the  exper imenta l  t r e a tmen t .  No s i g n i f i c a n t  
d i f f e r en ce s  were found between the  p re t re a tmen t  and po s t t r e a tmen t  pe r ­
formances in any o f  the  t h r e e  groups.
I t  was concluded t h a t  v ideotape  feedback, as admin is te red  in t h i s  
s tudy, has no s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t  on the  l e a rn ing  or  mastery o f  a motor 
ta sk  by menta lly  r e t a rd ed  a d u l t s .  I t  was suggested  t h a t  f a c t o r s  such 
as d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y  and i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s  o f  the  s ub je c t s  may have 
a f f e c t ed  the  r e s u l t s  o f  t h i s  i n v e s t i g a t i o n .  I t  was a l so  surmised t h a t  
because the  sub jec t s  were a t  a beginning leve l  in performances o f  the  
s tanding broad jump they may have lacked an app rec ia t ion  o f  r e l evan t  
aspects  o f  the  replayed performances , and.hence may have not recognized 
many of  the  e r r o r s  in performance.
vi
t
J
CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION
Documented r e s u l t s  from informal observa t ion  and o b je c t iv e  a s s e s s ­
ment have revealed  a c o n s i s t e n t l y  substandard level of  motor perform­
ance and physica l  f i t n e s s  in the  menta lly  r e ta rded  (Rar ick ,  Widdop and 
Broadhead, 1970; Rar ick ,  1973; Ross, 1969.) Unfor tuna te ly ,  l i t t l e  
research  has been done in a t tempt  to determine the  reasons why the  
re ta rd ed  have such d i f f i c u l t i e s  acqu ir ing  and mastering motor s k i l l s '
( Crat t y ,  1980; Rar ick ,  1973.) This lack o f  empirical  evidence combined 
with the  incomplete unders tanding of the  neuromuscular mechanisms 
underlying the  motor l e a rn ing  process compound the  problem o f  explaning 
the motor d e f i c i e n c i e s  o f  the  re ta rded  [Rar ick ,  1973.)
In reviewing va r ious  viewpoints regard ing  motor performance and 
the menta l ly  r e t a r d e d ,  Rarick  (1973) revea led  the  t r a d i t i o n a l  opinion 
t h a t  the  r a t e  of l e a rn ing  and the degree o f  complexity o f  motor s k i l l s  
t h a t  one could master  depended on an i n d i v i d u a l ' s  level  of  i n t e l l e -  
gence. Many educa tors  in the  pas t  assumed the  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  to be 
incapable  of  lea rn ing  or  mastering motor s k i l l s ,  and thus neg lec ted  to  
provide the  r e t a rd ed  with physical  education or movement exper iences .  
The in d i s pu tab le  evidence o f  bene f ic ia l  e f f e c t s  o f  a c t i v i t y  and general  
f i t n e s s  to  the  mental and physical  hea l th  of  normal ind iv idua l s  
(Astrand and Rodahl, 1977; Wi!more, 1976) app l ie s  to  the  excep t iona l  
popula tion  as well ( S h e r r i l l ,  1977.) The re cen t  l e g i s l a t i v e  t rends
2regard ing the r i g h t s  o f  the  handicapped have recognized the  important 
ro l e  physical  a c t i v i t y  plays  in the  remedia t ion o f  handicapped 
in d iv id u a l s ,  ev iden t  by the  f a c t  t h a t  Publ ic  Law.94-142, The Education 
fo r  All Handicapped Ch i ld r e n ' s  Act o f  1975, s p e c i f i c a l l y  mandates 
physical  educa t ion .  Recent r e s e a rch 'h a s  a l so  shed l i g h t  on the  r e l e ­
vance, o f  a c t i v i t y  f o r  the  handicapped by provid ing some evidence o f  the  
b ene f i t s  o f  p a r t i c i p a t i o n  in var ious  types  of.movement a c t i v i t i e s .  Levy 
(1974) contended t h a t  the  development of  motor s k i l l s  c on t r ibu ted  in  a 
p o s i t i v e  way to  voca t iona l  and soc ia l  adjustment o f  handicapped persons.  
Rarick (1973) c i t e d  numerous s tud ie s  which repo r ted  s i g n i f i c a n t  
improvements in motor performance of  r e t a rd ed  c h i ld ren  as a r e s u l t  o f  
s t r u c tu r e d  physica l  educa t ion  programs. C ra t ty  (.1980) be l ieved  t h a t  
with an improvement in  motor performance came a r e s u l t a n t  in c rease  in 
s e l f  confidence and a w i l l in gne s s  to  p a r t i c i p a t e . i n  movement a c t i v i t i e s ,  
al lowing more o p po r t u n i t i e s  f o r  the  handicapped to  develop t h e i r  motor 
s k i l l s  to  a degree comparable to  t h e i r  non-d isab led  peer s .
In l i g h t  o f  the  p o t e n t i a l  c o n t r ibu t ion s  movement exper iences  may 
make to an excep t iona l  i n d i v i d u a l ' s  well be ing ,  r e s e a rch e r s  involved 
in the  area  o f  motor l e a rn ing  and the  re t a rd ed  have expressed a need 
fo r  f u r t h e r  i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .  One area  t h a t  was sugges ted  by some 
re sea rche r s  to  be an impor tant cons ide ra t ion  in f u r t h e r  work was 
teaching  methods which may a id  and enhance motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  by 
the developmentalIy d i s ab led  (Levy, 1974; C r a t t y , 1980,)
3During the  l a s t  twen ty - f ive  y e a r s ,  re sea rch  concerned with the  
psychomotor domain has revea led  the  v i t a l  r o l e  feedback plays  in 
l e a rn ing .  S tud ies  have shown t h a t  knowledge o f  r e s u l t s  or in format ion 
regard ing performance i s  e s s e n t i a l  to  s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  and, in f a c t ,  
are  considered  the  most c r i t i c a l  f a c t o r s  in  the  l e a rn ing  process 
(Oxendine, 1972; DelRey, 1971; S inge r ,  1968.) In a dd i t ion  to  sub­
s t a n t i a t i n g  these  f i n d i n g s ,  o th e r  s t u d i e s  have in v e s t ig a t e d  the  
e f f e c t iv en e s s  o f  d i f f e r e n t  modes o f  feedback in provid ing  in format ion 
c ruc ia l  to  l e a r n in g ,  and have found v i sua l  feedback to  be the  most 
va luab le  in the  area  o f  motor l e a rn ing  (Adams, 1977; Knowles, 1973.)
Motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  i s  a thoughtfu l  process  t h a t  requ i re s  
comprehension and concep tu a l i z a t io n  o f  a t a sk  based on informat ion 
provided by feedback. Defic iency in s k i l l  development may r e s u l t  from 
d i f f i c u l t i e s  in i n t e r p r e t i n g  the  feedback and forming a mental image 
o f  the  movement (Oxendine, 1972.) I t  has been specu la ted  t h a t  one 
exp lana t ion  f o r  the  l e a rn ing  and performance d e f i c i e n c i e s  o f  the  r e t a r d s  
ed may be t h a t  they a re  unable to  pe rce ive  and p r o c e s s ' informat ion to a 
degree necessary  to  develop an in t e rn a l  image of  a c o r r e c t  movement 
and thus have no s tandard  on which to  base performance co r r e c t ion s  
(Baumeister,  1966.) The low cogn i t ive  and perceptual l e v e l s  of the  
menta lly  r e ta rd ed  may be such t h a t  movement e r r o r s  obvious to  non- 
re ta rded  ind iv idua l s  go unnoticed by the  r e t a rd ed .  A more tang ib le  
way of provid ing e r r o r  informat ion could p o t e n t i a l l y  in c re a se  the
4the  oppor tun i ty  f o r  the  developmenta lIy d isab led  to  recognize  m is takes ,  
while a t  the  same time r e l a y  comprehensive informat ion regard ing  
c o r r e c t  performance.  Videotape record ings  may be a va luab le  tool in 
accomplishing t h i s  by provid ing  concre te  feedback t h a t  al lows an 
ind iv idua l  to  view a performance and become aware o f  e r r o r s  i f  pointed 
out (C a n t r e l l , 1977; S inge r ,  1968.) Videotape rep lay  could conceivably  
a id  in  the  concep tu a l i z a t io n  o f  a p re sc r ibed  movement, a process  which 
may be l im i t ed  to  a c e r t a i n  degree by the  cogn i t iv e  leve l  o f  the  
menta lly  r e t a rd ed .
Considering the  p o te n t i a l  b e n e f i t s  o f  physical  a c t i v i t y  on the  
well being o f  the  r e t a r d e d ,  th e re  e x i s t s  a need fo r  the  development of 
techniques  t h a t  w i l l  enhance motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  and mastery by 
the  re t a rd ed .  Because feedback plays  a v i t a l  r o l e  in any lea rn ing  
p rocess ,  i n v e s t i g a t i o n  o f  f e a s i b l e  modes o f  feedback w i l l  a id  in the  
de te rmina t ion  of  e f f e c t i v e  methods o f  teach ing  motor s k i l l s  to  the  
developmental!; / d i s ab l ed .  This i n v e s t i g a t i o n  considered  the  use of 
videotape  record ings  as a feedback mode in  the  development o f  jumping 
s k i l l  by a group o f  men ta l ly  r e ta rded  a d u l t s .
Sta tement of the  Problems
The problems of  t h i s  study were to :  ( I )  Examine the  e f f e c t s  o f  
v ideo /verbal  feedback on the  performance o f  the  s tanding  broad jump by 
mildly  and moderately menta l ly  re ta rded  a d u l t s ;  (2) compare the  standing
5broad jump performances o f  a group re ce iv ing  v ideo /verba l  feedback, a 
group r e ce iv ing  only verbal feedback and a- group rece iv ing  no feedback ; 
and (3) determine the  r e l a t i o n s h i p  between v ideo /verba l  and verbal 
feedback and performance.
Hypotheses
The following null  hypotheses were formula ted: ( I )  There w i l l  be
no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  (p <  .05) in the  performance o f  the  standing 
broad jump between the  Control Group, the  Verbal Feedback Group and the 
Video/verbaI Feedback Group fo llowing the  exper imental  t r e a tmen t ;  and 
(2) th e re  w i l l  be no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r e n c e  (p <  .05) between the  i n i ­
t i a l  and f i n a l  performance o f  the  s tand ing  broad jump in any of the  
groups.
De l im ita t ions
This s tudy was de l im i ted  to  s ix te en  m ild ly  and moderately menta l ly  
r e ta rded  male and female a du l t s  p a r t i c i p a t i n g  in a weekly handicapped 
r e c r e a t io n  program a t  Montana S t a t e  Un ive r s i ty  in  Bozeman, Montana, I t  
was f u r t h e r  de l im i ted  to  s ix  t r ea tmen t  s e s s i o n s ,  conducted once weekly 
beginning on April 17, 1980 and cont inu ing  u n t i l  May 19, 1980, in which 
s tandard ized  verbal cues were given a lone  and in conjunct ion  with 
videotape record ings  in i n v e s t i g a t i n g  the  e f f e c t s  of  v ideotape  feedback 
on the s u b j e c t s '  performance o f  the  s tand ing  broad jump. Each s u b j e c t ' s
6performance of  the  s tand ing  broad jump p r i o r  to  r e ce iv ing  any 
experimental  t re a tmen t  was evaluated on April  10, 1980, and a f in a l  
assessment was made on June 5, 1980 fo l lowing the  completion of  the  
experimental  t r e a tmen t .
De f in i t ions
Developmentally D isab led- -  Developmentally d i s ab led  in  t h i s  study r e f e r s  
s p e c i f i c a l l y  to  the  menta l ly  r e t a r d e d ,  de f ined  by the  American 
Assoc ia t ion  on Mental Defic iency as i n d iv idua l s  having s i g n i f i -  
. c an t ly  subaverage I n t e l legence e x i s t i n g  concu r ren t ly  with 
maladaptive  behav io r s .  This cond i t ion  man ife s t s  i t s e l f  between 
b i r t h  and twenty^one years  o f  age (Chinn, Drew and Logan, 1975.) 
Mildly Mentally Retarded--  A mild ly  men ta l ly  r e t a rd ed  ind iv idua l  i s  one 
whose IQ i s  between 52 and 67 on the  S tan fo rd -B ine t  s c a le  who may 
become s e l f  suppo r t ive  w i th  proper t r a i n i n g  and who func t ions  
academically  a t  approximate ly  a f o u r t h  grade leve l  (C ra t ty ,  1974,) 
Moderately Mentally Re ta rded- - A moderately  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  ind iv idua l  
i s  defined as a person with an IQ between 36 and 51 on the  Stanford  
Bine t  s c a le  who i s  u sua l ly  able  to  master bas ic  soc ia l  and s e l f  
care  s k i l l s  and academically  func t ion s  a t  a level  comparable to  a 
f i r s t  grade c h i ld  (C r a t t y ,  1974.)
Verbal Feedback— Verbal feedback in t h i s  study r e f e r s  to  spoken i n ­
formation in the  form of  s tandard ized  verbal cues regard ing  ways
I
7to  improve performance o f  the  s tand ing  broad jump. (See Appendix 
C f o r  the  s tanda rd ized  verbal cues used in t h i s  i n v e s t i g a t i o n . )  
Video/yerbal Feedback—■Video/verbal  feedback in t h i s  i n v e s t ig a t i o n  
r e f e r s  t o . t h e  use o f  v ideotape  record ings  o f  a s u b j e c t ' s  standing 
broad jump performance in combination with the  s tanda rd ized  verbal 
cues to provide in format ion  about t h a t  s u b j e c t ' s  performance.
L im i ta t ions
Because of  the  l im i t ed  number o f  menta l ly  r e ta rded  ind iv idua ls  
l i v in g  in  Bozeman, Montana, the  popu la t ion  o f  t h i s  study was very small 
and a random s e l e c t i o n  o f  sub jec t s  was not f e a s i b l e .  This study was 
a lso  l im i t ed  by the  f a c t  t h a t  the  sub je c t s  were a v a i l a b l e  f o r  t rea tment  
only one day per week. Another l im i t a t i o n  in  t h i s  i n v e s t i g a t i o n  was 
the  i n c o n s i s t e n t  a t tendance  by one s u b j e c t  in the  Video/verbal Feedback 
Group due to  a d i s c i p l i n a r y  s anc t ion  p re sc r ib ed  by the  i n d i v i d u a l ' s  
group home counse lo rs .  An add i t iona l  l im i t a t i o n  was the  wide var iance  
o f  a t t i t u d e s  o f  the  s ub je c t s  regard ing  the  jumping t a s k ,  as some enjoy­
ed the  t r ea tmen t  se s s ions  whi le  o the rs  were d i sd a in fu l  o f  having to  
Repeatedly perform the  s tand ing  broad jump. These a t t i t u d e s  may well 
have a f f e c t e d  the  s u b j e c t s '  r e cep t iveness  toward the  t r ea tmen t  they 
were rece iv ing  as well as t h e i r  mot iva t ion  in performing the standing 
broad jump. F in a l ly ,  d e sp i t e  the  p recau t ions  taken in the  grouping pro­
cedure ,  a pure ly  homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n  was impossible .
8Basic Assumptions
For the  purpose o f  t h i s  study i t  was assumed t h a t  the  sub jec t s  
would not perform or p r a c t i c e  the  s tand ing  broad jump any time o the r  
than during the  t r ea tmen t  s e s s i on s .  I t  was a l so  assumed t h a t  the  
sub jec t s  would not d i scu ss  t h e i r  p a r t i c u l a r  experimental  t rea tmen t  with 
o the r  s ub je c t s .
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Learning has- been def ined  as a s t a b l e  change in performance as a 
r e s u l t  o f  p r a c t i c e  (C r a t t y , 1968) and has been a major cons ide ra t ion  o f  
educato rs  and p sycho log is t s  th roughout t h i s  cen tury .  In the  e a r ly  
years  o f  i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,  ex tens ive  exper imenta t ion  with l abo ra to ry  animals 
led r e s ea rche r s  and t h e o r i s t s  to  conclude t h a t  the  l e a rn ing  process  was 
a s t imu lus - re sponse - re in fo rcemen t  paradigm (Adams, 1971.) Despite the  
many d ive r s e  l e a rn ing  th e o r i e s  t h a t  soon emerged, t h i s  i n t e r p r e t a t i o n  
t h a t  lea rn ing  was an open-loop process where re inforcement  served to 
s t reng then  the  connection between a given s t imulus  and the  des i red  
response formed the  b a s ic  foundation  f o r  a l l  the  t h e o r i e s .  In the  l a s t  
twenty y e a r s ,  however, a t t e n t i o n  has been concen tra ted  on human 
lea rn ing  processes  and consequently  more complex t h eo r i e s  regard ing  
le a rn ing  have emerged (Adams, 1971; Smith,  1968.) .
These newer t h e o r i e s  r e f u t e  the  no t ion  t h a t  l e a rn ing  occurs as a 
r e s u l t  o f  pass ive  responses  to  s t imu l i  and view the  l e a r n e r  as a dynamic 
a c to r  in the  lea rn ing  p rocess .  Smith (.1968) was an advocate of  a 
theory  known as behavioral  cybe rne t ic s  which regarded lea rn ing  as a 
c losed- loop  process  t h a t  depended on sensory  feedback generated  by an 
i n d i v i d u a l ' s  performance t h a t  served to  induce and d i r e c t  subsequent 
performances.  Adams (1971) supported t h i s  c losed- loop  theo ry ,  
s t r e s s i n g  t h a t  e r r o r  d e te c t io n  and c o r r e c t i o n  were keynote components
10
of human lea rn ing .  He contended t h a t  the  c l a s s i c  s t imulus - response  
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s  o f  l e a rn ing  emphasized an automat ic ,  non-congi t ive  
essence o f  lea rn ing  which f a i l e d  to  account f o r  the  f a c t  t h a t  human 
beings do not merely respond t o . s t im u l i  and re in fo rcement ,  but a c t u a l l y  
improve performance by d e te c t in g  and c o r r e c t in g  e r r o r s  made in move­
ment. Adams expla ined  the  shortcomings o f  c l a s s i c  l e a rn ing  t h e o r i e s ,  
s t a t i n g  "The cogn i t ive  domain i s  the  s t r i k i n g  d i f f e r en c e  between man 
and lower an imals ,  and i t  i s  hard to  see the  laws of human lea rn ing  
without i t . "  (Adams, 1971: 115.) Thus, newer i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s  o f  the  
l e a rn ing  p rocess ,  such as the  c losed- loop  theory  supported by Smith 
(1968) and Adams (1971) seem to  be more app l i c ab le  to  explanihg human 
l e a rn ing ,  and help provide  groundwork on which to  base i n v e s t ig a t i o n s  
of  human motor l e a rn ing  and performance.
Motor Learning
Like the  sub je c t  o f  l e a r n in g ,  the  to p ic  o f  motor l e a rn ing  lends 
i t s e l f  to  a v a r i e t y  o f  i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .  Lockhart  (1964) d iscussed  the  
confusion o f ten  genera ted  by the  use of  d i f f e r e n t  taxonomies to 
r e f e r  to  the. same phenomenon. 'Motor l e a r n i n g 1, 'psycho^motor l e a rn ing ,1 
'perceptuo-motor l e a r n in g '  and 'neuro-muscula r  l e a r n in g '  a l l  r e f e r  to  the  
same t h in g ,  Lockhart  r evea led ,  namely the  process by which pa t te rned  
motion i s  accomplished. Singer (1972: I )  helped c l a r i f y  the  concept of  
motor l e a rn ing  by de f in ing  i t  as " . . . l e a r n i n g  t h a t  i s  p r imar i ly
11
demonstrated through movement o r i en ted  b ehav io r . . , 1
Alley (1968) proposed t h a t  motor l e a rn ing  depended on th re e  i n t e r ­
r e l a t e d  and in te rdependen t  developmental s t ag e s .  The ex is t ence  of  bas ic  
motor p a t t e rn s  and s k i l l s  c o n s t i t u t e d  the  f i r s t  level and served as the  
foundation on which the  o th e r  two s tages  were b u i l t .  The subsequent 
l eve l s  o f  A l l e y ' s  motor l e a rn ing  model were an i n d i v i d u a l ' s  perceptual 
o rg an iza t ion  of  the  foundation  s k i l l s  and the  a b i l i t y  to  concep tua l ize  
movement p a t t e r n s .  Alley be l ieved  t h i s  f i n a l  s tage  o f  c oncep tua l iz a t ion  
to be most c r i t i c a l  in complex s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n ,
C ra t ty  (1968) d iscussed  motor l e a rn ing  as involv ing  cons tan t  
adap ta t ion  to  demands p resen ted  by a movement t a sk .  This a d ap ta t i o n ,  he 
f e l t ,  r e s u l t e d  from cogn i t iv e  i n t e r p r e t a t i o n  of  sensory inpu t  r e l a t i v e  
to the  t a sk  and depended p r im ar i ly  on percep tua l  p rocesses .  The 
a b i l i t y  to  grasp  an i n t e l l e c t u a l  and conceptual unders tanding of  a 
movement determined the  degree to which an ind iv idua l  s u c e s s f u l Iy 
mastered motor s k i l l s .
Smith (1968) and Adams (.1971) both  recognized the  c r i t i c a l  invo lve­
ment o f  cogn i t ion  in the  motor l e a rn ing  p rocess .  An important c on s t ru c t  
in the  c losed- loop  theory  which both Smith and Adams advocated was the  
ex is tence  of  an i n t e r n a l i z e d  conception o f  an optimal performance on 
which performers r e l i e d  to  d e te c t  and c o r r e c t  e r ro r s  in  a motor o u tp u t , 
In agreement with these  views regard ing  cogn i t ive  involvement in 
motor l e a r n in g ,  Oxendine (1972) considered  motor l e a rn ing  to be a
12
thoughtful  process  t h a t  requ i red  i n t e l l e c t u a l  as well as physical  
involvement. He s t r e s s e d  the  v i t a l  importance o f  concep tua l iz a t ion  in 
s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n ,  and f e l t  e f f i c i e n t  performance depended on ones '  
a b i l i t y  to  form an in t e rn a l  image o f  a movement t a sk .
C ra t ty  (.1968) f e l t  the  perceptua l  involvement in  motor learn ing  
depended on informat ion rece ived  by a performer regard ing  a performance.  
He contended t h a t  through t h i s  informat ion  a performer became aware of  
any e r r o r s  in  movement and was then able,  to  modify the  next performance 
accord ing ly .  C ra t ty  summarized f ind ing s  o f  s tud ie s  in the  a rea  o f  
informat ion feedback and i t s  imp l ica t ion s  to  l e a r n in g ,  and concluded 
t h a t  some form of feedback was e s s e n t i a l  to  motor l e a rn ing .
Documentation o f  the  e f f e c t s  of  feedback on motor l e a rn ing  and 
s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  has in d ic a ted  i t  to  be a c ru c ia l  v a r i a b l e  in the  
l e a rn ing  process (Adams, 1971; C ra t ty  1968; Robb, 1968; S inge r ,  1968; 
Smith,  1968.) Many concerned with motor l e a rn ing  and human performance 
have i d e n t i f i e d  feedback as one o f  the  c r i t i c a l  f a c t o r s  in s k i l l  a c ­
q u i s i t i o n  (Bilodeau and Bi lodeau,  1961; Knowles, 1973; Oxendine,  1972.)
Adams (.1971; and Goetz,  1973) has been a major c o n t r i b u to r  to 
feedback theory  in r e c en t  y e a r s .  He be l ieved  motor l e a rn ing  was problem 
a t i c  in n a tu re ,  a process  which involved an i n i t i a l  a t tempt  a t  s p e c i f i c  
movements, followed by i n t e g r a t i o n  and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n  o f  feedback about 
the movements and a mod i f ica t ion  of movements based on the feedback.
In Adams' view of l e a r n in g ,  feedback provided e r r o r  informat ion on which
a performer based any a l t e r a t i o n  in motor output during subsequent 
performances.  This concept o f  sys temat ic  e r r o r  process ing formed the 
crux of the  c losed- loop  l e a rn ing  theory  supported by Adams, who f i rmly  
maintained t h a t  without some form of  feedback on which to base the  
d e te c t ion  and co r r e c t io n  of movement e r r o r s ,  lea rn ing  could not occur.
The idea of  feedback as a means o f  providing e r r o r  informat ion has 
been supported and s u b s t a n t i a t e d  by o the rs  working in the  f i e l d  of 
human movement performance.  Robb (1968) d iscussed  the viewpoint t h a t  
feedback provided informat ion  necessary  to  make comparisons between 
a motor ou tpu t  and a s tanda rd  re fe rence .  Oxendine (1972) and Knowles 
(1973) both mainta ined  t h a t  not only did feedback serve to provide 
e r ro r  in fo rmat ion ,  but a l so  helped to  i d e n t i f y  c o r r e c t  and des i red  
motor ou tpu ts  to  a pe r fo rmer .
Feedback has been d i s s e c t ed  in to  c a tego r ie s  and labe led  according 
to the  manner in which in format ion  i s  a v a i l a b l e  to a pe r fo rmer . Feed­
back can be i n t r i n s i c  or e x t r i n s i c ,  with the  l a t t e r  comprised of 
v e r b a l , v i s u a l , t a c t i l e  or aud i to ry  inpu t  (Knowles, 1973; Robb, 1968.) 
I n v e s t i g a t o r s  have concerned themselves ex tens ive ly ,  with e x t r i n s i c  
feedback, studying va r ious  modes and a dm in i s t r a t iv e  opt ions  to  d e t e r ­
mine the  techniques  most conducive to motor l earn ing  and s k i l l  a c q u i s i ­
t ion .
Visual cues seem to  be the  most i n f l u e n t i a l  form of  feedback in 
motor l e a rn ing  (Adams, Gopher and L in te rn ,  1977; Dwyer and Arnold,
14
1976; S inge r ,  1968.) C ra t ty  (1968) f e l t  t h a t  v i s ion  provided the  most 
va luable  sensory inpu t  to  a performer because i t  i n t e g r a t e d  complex 
informat ion with l i t t l e  d i s t o r t i o n ,  and the  informat ion  was unambiguous. 
In i n v e s t i g a t i n g  v i sua l  feedback , r e s ea rche r s  have shown the  methods of 
model demonstrat ion ( .Cra t ty , 1968; S inge r ,  1968) and the  use o f  f i lm  
to  rep lay  performances (Neufeld and Neufeld,  1972; R o th s t e i n , 1980; 
S inge r ,  1968) to  be p a r t i c u l a r l y  e f f e c t i v e  in  provid ing  performers  with 
informat ion va luab le  to  motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n .  These modes a re  now 
being considered f o r  use with ind iv idua l s  who exper ience  d i f f i c u l t i e s  
with motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n ,  and the  e f f e c t iv en e s s  o f  model demonstra­
t i o n  and f i lm  in  teach ing  motor s k i l l s  to  the  r e t a rd ed  i s  an area  
of  i n t e r e s t  in p a r t i c u l a r  ( C r a t t y , 1968; C a n t r e l l ,  1977.)
Motor Learning and the  Mentally Retarded
Although ex ten s ive  re sea rch  has been conducted in  the  a rea  o f  motor 
lea rn ing  and s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n ,  few s tu d i e s  have d e a l t  with these  
parameters and the  men ta l ly  r e t a rd ed .  Because o f  the  l im i t ed  empirical  
evidence,  the  ques t ion  of  why the  developmentalIy d i sab led  have d i f f i c u l  
t i e s  master ing motor s k i l l s  remains unanswered (C r a t t y , 1972; C ra t ty ,  
1980; Rar ick, 1973.)
There has been c o n s i s t e n t  documentation of motor d e f i c i e n c i e s  in 
the  menta lly  r e t a rd ed  (C ra t ty ,  1980; Rar ick5 Widdop and Broadhead, 1970; 
Ross, 1969.) Ra r ick , Widdop and Broadhead (1970) i l l u s t r a t e d  t h i s  by
15
conducting a s tudy u t i l i z i n g  the  AAHPER Youth F i tnes s  Tes t  to  ob ta in  
data  on the  degree to  which re ta rded  ado lescen ts  performed below the  
e s t ab l i s h ed  norms of  the  nonre ta rded popu la t ion .  The components o f  the  
t e s t  were the  s o f t b a l l  throw, the th ree-hundred  yard  run/walk ,  the  
s tanding  broad jump, the  f i f t y  yard  dash ,  t h e . f l e x e d  arm hang, the  
s h u t t l e  run and s i  tup s .  In a s s e s s ing  fou r  thousand re t a rd ed  ado le s ­
cents  the  au thors  found t h e i r  ove ra l l  performance to  be i n f e r i o r  to  
e ig h ty - f i v e  pe rcen t  o f  t h e i r  nonre ta rded  peer s .
Explanat ion of  the  d e f i c i t s  ev iden t  in  the  motor performances o f  
the  menta lly  r e t a rd ed  remains e l u s i v e ,  Rartck (1973) in d i c a t ed  t h a t  the  
lack o f  unders tanding o f  the  neuromuscular mechanisms involved in the  
motor lea rn ing  process  pe rpe tua ted  the  i n a c c o u n t a b i l i t y  f o r  the  menta lly  
r e t a r d e d ' s  motor problems. C ra t ty  (1980) agreed,  contending t h a t  
because the  e f f e c t s  of  pe r iphe ra l  s t im u la t ion  and o th e r  sensory  exper­
iences on- the  nervous system were r e l a t i v e l y  unknown, compounded by i n ­
d iv idua l  d i f f e r en c e s  in neuro log ica l  and biochemical makeup, p in p o in t ­
ing s p e c i f i c  causes f o r  motor d e f i c i e n c i e s  was d i f f i c u l t .
I t  i s  apparen t  the  motor peoblems of  the  r e t a rd ed  escape explan­
a t ion  on a neuromuscular l e v e l .  Specu la t ion ,  none th e l e s s ,  has been 
made on po s s ib le  causes  f o r  the  performance d e f i c i e n c i e s .
Baumeis te r , .Hawkins and Holland (1966) f e l t  the  d i f f i c u l t i e s  ex­
perienced by the  r e t a rd ed  in  motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  stemmed from an i n ­
a b i l i t y  to  i d e n t i f y  and respond to c r i t i c a l  feedback regard ing  motor
16
performance.  This i n e f f i c i e n c y  in pe rce iv ing  e r ro r s  in performance 
r e s u l t e d  in the absence o f  a s tandard  on which to base modif ica t ion  of 
i n c o r r e c t  movement p a t t e r n s .
Morgan (1977) supported t h i s  view, main ta in ing  t h a t  the  menta lly  
re ta rded  did not p r o f i t  from feedback cues inhe ren t  in a motor ta sk  
because they could not recognize  e r r o r s  in the  movements. He a lso  
contended t h a t  in o rde r  f o r  any feedback to  be conducive to l e a rn ing ,  
a performer must unders tand  the  importance of  the  informat ion provided. 
The re t a rd ed  were most l i k e l y  unable ,  Morgan f e l t ,  to  grasp the  r e l e ­
vance of  most feedback cues regard ing  a motor performance.
C ra t ty  (1974) be l ieved  the  developmenta lIy d i s a b l e d ^  a b i l i t y  to 
lea rn  motor s k i l l s  was impeded by d i f f i c u l t i e s  in the  i n t e g r a t i o n  of 
sensory in format ion ,  He sugges ted an i n a b i l i t y  to  process cues i n d ig ­
enous to  a t a s k ,  o r  feedback provided by ou ts ide  s o u rc e s , hindered th e .
'
development and mastery of  motor s k i l l s  by the  r e t a rd ed .
Alley (.1968) regarded perceptual c a p a b i l i t y  to  be a product of 
i n t e l l e c t u a l  m a tu ra t ion ,  and f e l t  the  immature cogn i t iv e  level of  the  
menta lly  r e ta rded  l im i t ed  t h e i r  percep tua l  p o t e n t i a l .  One of  A l l ey ' s  
s t a t e d  p r e r e q u i s i t e s  to  motor l e a rn ing  was the  perceptual o rgan iza t ion  
of  movement p a t t e r n s ,  and he suggested t h a t  the  r e t a r d e d ^  l im i ted  
perceptual c a p a b i l i t i e s  accounted fo r  t h e i r  d i f f i c u l t i e s  in motor 
learn ing  and performance.
Oxendine (1972) contended t h a t  problems with s k i l l  development
17
were a r e s u l t  o f  an i n d i v i d u a l ' s  i n a b i l i t y  to  concep tua l ize  a movement 
t a sk .  He be l ieved  e f f i c i e n t  l e a rn e r s  were ab le  to  qu ick ly  grasp the 
concept o f  a movement and those  who had d i f f i c u l t y  forming an a b s t r a c t  
image o f  a motor p a t t e r n  were a t  a d i s t i n c t  d isadvantage  in motor 
l e a rn ing .
Cra t ty  (1974) suggested t h a t  q u a l i t i e s  such as i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s  and 
d i s t r a c t a b i I i t y  may account  f o r  some d i f f i c u l t i e s  in informat ion pro­
cess ing  by many menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  i n d iv id u a l s .  He f u r t h e r  specula ted  
t h a t  t h e i r  motor lea rn ing  problems may be perpe tua ted  by l e a rn ing  in  an 
i n s t r u c t i o n a l  environment in which t r a d i t i o n a l  t e chn iques ,  ch a rac te r iz ed  
by a perdominance of  verbal c u e s , were the  major modes of  d e l iv e r ing  
feedback. Cra t ty  be l ieved  t h a t  the  r e t a rd ed  were o f t en  incapable  of 
unders tanding ve rba l ized  performance informat ion  and t h a t  they perhaps 
experienced problems in  p rocess ing  o th e r  forms o f  informat ion as well 
because o f  t h e i r  low .cogn i t ive  c a p a b i l i t i e s .
Despite  the  substandard  motor p r o f i c i e n cy  o f  the  developmentalIy 
d i s ab l ed ,  physical  a c t i v i t y  i s  j u s t  as impor tant f o r  them as f o r  th e  
nonre ta rded,  Many p o s i t i v e  e f f e c t s  r e s u l t  from f r equen t  a c t i v i t y .  Bene­
f i t s  such as an inc rease  in c a rd iova scu la r  endurance,  muscular s t r eng th  
and endurance and f l e x i b i l i t y  as well as decreases  in r e s t i n g  blood p r e s ­
sure  and r e s t i n g  h e a r t  r a t e  have been c o n s i s t e n t l y  repor ted  (Astrand 
and Rodahl, 1977; Wilmore, 1976.) P a r t i c i p a t i o n  in phys ical  a c t i v i t y  has 
a lso  been shown to be a c r i t i c a l  f a c t o r  in weight r educ t ion  and contro l
i18
(Wilmore, 1976.)
These p o s i t i v e  e f f e c t s  of phys ical  a c t i v i t y  play j u s t  as v i t a l  a 
ro le  in the  hea l th  o f  the  menta l ly  r e ta rded  as f o r  t h e i r  nonre ta rded 
c oun te rp a r t s .  In a dd i t io n  to  these  b e n e f i t s ,  movement a c t i v i t i e s  are  
important in the  remedia t ion  of  many compounding handicapping condi­
t ions  o f ten  found in r e t a rd ed  in d iv id u a l s ,  Cra t ty  (1975) d iscussed  the 
use o f  trampoline  a c t i v i t i e s  to help develop leg and trunk s t r e n g th ,  
improve abnormal g a i t  p a t t e r n s  and a id  in e s t a b l i s h in g  balance and 
coo rd ina t ion .  S h e r r i l l  (1977) c i t e d  examples of a c t i v i t i e s  b ene f ic ia l  
in the  therapy of j o i n t  c o n t r a c tu r e s ,  o b e s i t y ,  looseness  of j o i n t s ,  
muscular weakness, balance  maladies and o th e r  p hy s i c a l Iy handicapping 
cond i t ions  t h a t  o f ten  e x i s t  in developmentalIy d isab led  persons.
Can t re l l  (1977) be l ieved  t h a t  p a r t i c i p a t i o n  in r e c r e a t io n a l  and 
l e i s u r e  t ime a c t i v i t i e s  helped round out the  l i f e s t y l e  o f  the  d i sab led .  
In r e a l i z i n g  the  problems faced by many re ta rded  ind iv idua l s  in l e a r n ­
ing and master ing  motor s k i l l s ,  Can t re l l  urged t h a t  spec ia l  e f f o r t s  be 
made and techniques  u t i l i z e d  to  teach them s k i l l s  necessary  f o r  pa r ­
t i c i p a t i o n  in physica l  a c t i v i t i e s .
C ra t ty  (1968) regarded motor l e a rn ing  in the re ta rded  to  be com­
parable  to  the  motor development of  ch i ld ren  in the  r e sp ec t  t h a t  deve l ­
opment could be enhanced by a v a r i e t y  o f  perceptuo-motor exper iences .  
These movement exper iences  helped inc rease  i n d iv id u a l s '  percep t ion  of 
t h e i r  bodies and t h e i r  s p a t i a l  r e l a t i o n s h i p  to the  environment,  a
19
r e l a t i o n s h i p ,  C ra t ty  main ta ined ,  t h a t  played a c r i t i c a l  r o l e  in d e c i ­
sions  made by performers regard ing  motor ou tpu ts .
In d i scuss ing  physica l  a c t i v i t y  and the  r e t a rd ed .  Levy (1974) 
ou t l in ed  a contemporary view t h a t  motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  served to  help 
the  menta l ly  r e ta rded  a d ju s t  to  vocat ional  and l e i s u r e  time s i t u a t i o n s  
by provid ing oppo r tu n i t i e s  f o r  fun and success fu l  exper iences .  Cra t ty  
(1980) supported t h i s  id ea ,  sugges t ing  t h a t  success fu l  movement exper­
iences con t r ibu ted  to  the  s e l f  esteem o f  d isab led  persons.
I t  i s  apparen t ,  then ,  t h a t  phys ica l  a c t i v i t y  i s  important to  the  
hea l th  o f  the  developmenta ll y . d isab led  no t  only because phys io log ica l  
b en e f i t s  acc rue ,  but a l so  because a c t i v i t y  appears to  have some p o s i t i v e  
e f f e c t s  on the  p sy cho log i c a l , s oc ia l  and emotional well being of  the  
r e ta rded  as we l l .  More o f t en  than no t ,  u n fo r tu n a t e ly ,  physical  a c t i v i ­
t i e s  conducive to  e l i c i t i n g  many of  the  b e n e f i t s ,  p a r t i c u l a r l y  physio­
log ica l  ones , r e qu i r e  some degree  o f  motor p ro f i c i en cy .  In l i g h t  o f  the  
g ene ra l ly  substandard  motor performance o f  the  menta l ly  r e t a rd e d ,  
techniques  must be found and u t i l i z e d  t h a t  w i l l  enhance motor lea rn ing  
and s k i l l  development in the  r e ta rded  (C a n t r e l l ,  1977.)
Feedback and the  Mentally  Retarded
Since feedback has been shown to  be e s s e n t i a l  to  l e a r n in g ,  and i t  
i s  proposed t h a t  the  menta l ly  r e ta rded  have d i f f i c u l t y  i n t e r p r e t i n g  
a b s t r a c t  forms of  in fo rmat ion ,  i t  becomes apparent  t h a t  modif ica t ion  in
20
the  p rov is ion  of  feedback is  necessary  in teaching the  re ta rded .
Some (Baumeister,  Hawkins and Holland,  1966; Horgan, 1977) have 
suggested t h a t  supplemental feedback, such as add i t iona l  v isua l  cues 
and physica l  manipula tion  o f  the  l e a r n e r ,  help the menta lly  re ta rded  to 
comprehend demands of  a movement t a sk .  Others (C r a t t y , 1974; C an t r e l l ,  
1977) contended t h a t  methods o f  provid ing more concre te  types of feed­
back have a g re a t  deal o f  p o ten t i a l  f o r  use with the developmenta lIy 
d i sab led .  Model demonst ra t ion and the  u t i l i z a t i o n  o f  f i lm  to i l l u ­
s t r a t e  o r  rep lay  movement t a sks  have been proposed as two v i ab le  modes 
of  p re sen t ing  i n t e r p r e t a b l e  informat ion conducive to  motor s k i l l  ac ­
q u i s i t i o n  ( C r a t t y , 1968; S inge r ,  1968.)
Videotape i s  one f i lm  medium t h a t  has been in v e s t ig a ted  as a means 
of provid ing t a ng ib l e  performance in format ion .  Rothstein (.1980) com­
mented t h a t  the  impor tant r o l e  t h a t  v i s ion  played in motor l e a rn ing ,  
combined with the  p opu la r i ty  of  t e l e v i s i o n ,  made videotape a p o t e n t i a l ­
ly  va luab le  i n s t r u c t i o n a l  t o o l .  C ra t ty  (.1968) maintained t h a t  i n f o r ­
mation d e l iv e red  in the  form of  a v ideotape  record ing was s t r a i g h t f o r ­
ward and unambiguous, and was a promising method o f  p re sen t ing  visual  
feedback to  a performer .  Ryan (1969) expla ined t h a t  the  b ene f i t s  of 
al lowing people to view t h e i r  own performances via  v ideotape  rep lay  lay 
in the f a c t  t h a t  e r r o r s  were e a s i l y  recognizab le  and mod if ica t ions  were 
more r e a d i l y  implemented as a r e s u l t .  Neufeld and Neufeld (1972) f e l t  
t h a t  v ideotape  record ings  were va luab le  in t h a t  they helped ind iv idua ls
I21
form a c l e a r  p i c t u r e  o f  the  elements requ i red  to perform a movement 
task  c o r r e c t l y .  Others ( DeRoo and Hara lson,  1971; Morgan, 1971;
Penman, 1969; Schweide r ,  1977; Wadsworth, 1973) have surmised t h a t  
v ideotape  record ings  provided concise  and i n t e r p r e t a b l e  feedback r e ­
garding performance.
Un fo r tuna te ly , v ideotape  i s  not a panacea in the  area  of motor 
lea rn ing  and s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n .  I n v e s t ig a to r s  have found t h a t  the  value 
of the  in format ion  a v a i l a b l e  to  a I e a rner  in a record ing of  the  i n d i v i ­
d u a l ' s  performance was con t ingen t  on a number of f a c t o r s .  Rothste in  
and Arnold (1976) analyzed f i f t y - tw o  re sea rch  s tud ie s  concerned with 
the use o f  v ideotape  as a tool in teaching  motor s k i l l s .  The parameters 
considered by Roths te in  and Arnold were age,  sex and s k i l l  level o f  the  
s u b j e c t s ; the  ta sk  being performed by the  sub je c t s ;  the  t rea tmen t  con­
d i t i o n s ;  and the  leng th  or number of  adm in is t r a t ion s  o f  the  t re a tmen t .  
The r e s u l t s  of t h e i r  a n a ly s i s  were t h a t  advanced beginners and more 
highly s k i l l e d  performers b e n e f i t t e d  more from exposure to videotape 
replays  than did beg inners .  The au thors  a l so  found t h a t  r e p e t e t i v e  
rep lay  o f  v ideotape  reco rd ings  was necessary  f o r  s i g n i f i c a n t  improve­
ments in  performance to  occur and t h a t  cues to  d i r e c t  a l e a r n e r ' s  a t ­
t en t ion  to  s p e c i f i c  a spec t s  o f  the  recorded performances were e s s e n t i a l  
to enhace l e a rn ing  and performance.
Morgan (19-71) cons idered  videotape  to  a very promising way to 
provide v isua l  c u e s . She d id ,  however, recognize  the  l im i t a t i o n s
22
of i t s  a p p l i c a b i l i t y  to  motor lea rn ing  and s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n ,  Morgan 
ind ica ted  t h a t  beginners  did not b e n e f i t  from viewing a videotape 
record ing o f  t h e i r  performances,  and con jec tu red  t h a t  beginners  did not 
have enough of  an e s t a b l i s h e d  concept of  the  p re sc r ibed  movement ta sk  
to app rec ia te  the  e r r o r  informat ion provided by the  rep lay .
DelRey (1971) d iscussed  the  predominance of  s tu d ie s  which showed 
t h a t  the  u t i l i z a t i o n  o f  v ideotape  record ings  had l i t t l e  e f f e c t  on motor 
s k i l l  development. She r evea led ,  however, t h a t  none o f  the  s tud ie s  
included d i r e c t i n g  a l e a r n e r ' s  a t t e n t i o n  to  s p e c i f i c  r e l e v an t  aspec ts  
of  the  replayed  performances.  DelRey s t r o ng ly  suggested t h a t  by focus ­
ing on c e r t a i n  f a c to r s  whi le  viewing a recorded performance,  a l e a r n e r  
could b e t t e r  recognize  and i n t e r p r e t  c r i t i c a l  informat ion .
I t  would appear t h a t  i t  i s  the  manner in which v ideotape  record ings  
a re  incorpora ted  i n to  a l e a rn ing  s i t u a t i o n  t h a t  determines i t s  e f f e c t i v e ­
ness .  As Rothste in  (1980: 60) concluded, " Videotape rep lay  has the  . 
p o ten t i a l  to  enhance the  l e a rn ing  and performance o f  motor s k i l l s  
provided the  c r i t i c a l  f a c t o r s  guiding i t s  e f f e c t i v e  use a re  adhered to 
by teachers  and coaches."
Despite the  numerous s tu d ie s  i n v e s t i g a t i n g  the  e f f e c t s  of videotape 
rep lay  on l e a rn ing ,  re sea rch  concerning i t s  use with the  handicapped 
remains so re ly  l ack ing .  The few who have examined v id eo tap e ' s  value 
in dealing  with except iona l  ind iv idua l s  have p r imar i ly  in v e s t ig a t e d  i t  
as a po te n t i a l  a id  in modifying maladaptive  and unde r s i r ab le  behaviors
23
(DeRoo and Hara lson, 1971; Nelson, Gibson and Cu t t ing ,  1973; Schweider, 
1977; Weisbord,  1976.) The s c a r c i t y  o f  evidence regard ing  e f f e c t s  of 
the  use o f  v ideotape  record ings  on. movement p a t t e r n s  and motor 
s k i l l  development by the  menta l ly  r e ta rded  l im i t s  the  progress  toward 
determining and implementing techniques  t h a t  w i l l  enhance t h e i r  motor 
lea rn ing  and performance.  I t  i s  impera t ive  t h a t  p rog res s ive  i n s t r u c t i o n  
a I approaches, be more thoroughly  in v e s t ig a t e d  i f  the  problem of  motor 
d e f i c i en c i e s  in the  menta l ly  r e ta rded  i s  ever  to  be e f f e c t i v e l y  d e a l t  
with (C a n t r e l l ,  1977.)
Summary
I t  has been shown t h a t  feedback plays  a c r i t i c a l  ro l e  in motor 
l e a rn ing ,  and t h a t  perceptual p rocesses  involved with i n t e r p r e t i n g  
feedback a re  important to  s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n .  I t  has been specula ted  
t h a t  the  i n a b i l i t y  to  pe rce ive  and i n t e r p r e t  e r r o r  in format ion  may be 
a major f a c t o r  underly ing the  motor d e f i c i e n c i e s  o f  the  menta lly  
re ta rded .  Since physica l  a c t i v i t y  i s  impor tan t  to  the  well being of 
the  r e t a rd ed ,  i t  becomes necessary  to  provide  them with feedback t h a t  
allows f o r  motor l e a rn ing  d e sp i t e  t h e i r  cogn i t iv e  and perceptual 
l im i t a t i o n s .  Videotape record ings  may be one way to  p re sen t  concrete  
in format ion t h a t  may be r e a d i l y  i n t e r p r e t e d  and processed by the 
developmentalIy d i s ab led .
CHAPTER I I I
METHODOLOGY
The purpose o f  t h i s  s tudy was to  i n v e s t i g a t e  the  e f f e c t s  of v ideo­
tape rep lay  on the s tanding  broad jump performances of  s ix te en  menta lly  
re ta rded  a d u l t s .  The method in which t h i s  was accomplished wil l  be 
presented  in the fo llowing o rder :  ( I )  Sub je c t s ;  (2) schedule ;  (3) i n ­
s t rumen ta t ion ;  (4) assessment p rocedures ;  (5) t rea tmen t  procedures ;  and 
(6) an a ly s i s  of da ta .
Subjects
The sub jec t s  in t h i s  s tudy were ten  male and s ix  female mildly  
and moderately menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  a du l t s  who were p a r t i c i p a n t s  in a 
weekly r e c r e a t io n  program f o r  excep t iona l  ind iv idua l s  a t  Montana S ta t e  
Un ive r s i ty ,  Bozeman, Montana, F i f te en  of  the  sub jec t s  l ived  in group 
homes adm in is t ra ted  by Reach I n c . , a n onp ro f i t  o rgan iza t ion  t h a t  
provides  community s e rv ic e s  to  the  developmenta lIy d isab led  adu l t s  of 
Bozeman. One sub je c t  l ived  semi- independent ly  in Bozeman.
The sub jec t s  ranged in age from n ine teen  to  f o r t y  years  of age. 
None of  the  sub jec t s  had any or thoped ic  impairments or  o the r  phy s ic a l Iy 
handicapping condi t ions  t h a t  would have i n h ib i t e d  t h e i r  performing the 
s tanding  broad jump. All sub jec t s  s igned a consent form p r i o r  to  the 
i n i t i a t i o n  of t h i s  s tudy. (See Appendix A.)
The sub jec t s  were d ivided in to  th r e e  g roups , One group was the
25
Control Group, the  second group was the  Verbal Feedback Group and the  
t h i r d  group was the  Video/verbal  Feedback Group. There was a wide range 
of  e x i s t i n g  leve l s  o f  motor p ro f i c i ency  w i th in  the  popu la t ion ,  so the 
following procedures were u t i l i z e d  in  the  grouping process to  help a t t a i n  
homogeneity between the  t h r e e  t r ea tmen t  groups; The s ub je c t s  were l i s t e d  
in rank o rder  according to  the  scores  from t h e i r  i n i t i a l  assessments .
This rank o rde r  was then s t r a t i f i e d  with th r e e  sub jec t s  per s t ra tum.  The 
th ree  sub jec t s  in  each s t ra tum were then randomly ass igned to  one o f  the  
th ree  t r ea tmen t  groups in  o rder  to  ensure  an even d i s t r i b u t i o n . according 
to the s u b j e c t s 1 jumping prof ic iency ,(Morgan,  1977.) The means of the  
i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  p r o f i l e  scores  f o r  each group a re  p resen ted  in Table 
I . ,  and r e f l e c t  a r e l a t i v e l y  homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n  of  the  sub jec ts  
based on t h e i r  i n i t i a l  p ro f i c i ency  a t  performing the  s tand ing  broad 
jump.
Schedule
This s tudy was conducted in  the  Physical  Education Curriculum Lab 
a t  Montana S t a t e  Un ive r s i ty ,  Bozeman, Montana, The da ta  f o r  t h i s  study 
were c o l l e c t e d  on April  10, 1980 and June 5,  1980. The experimental 
t rea tmen t  was admin is tered  on Thursday evenings between 6:00 p.m. and 
8:00 p.m. beginning April  17, 1980 and concluding May 19, 1980. T rea t ­
ment was not admin is te red  on Thursday, May .15, 1980 because some of the  
sub jec t s  were p a r t i c i p a t i n g  in the Montana Special  Olympics in Missoula,
26
Table I .  Means and Standard Devia tions  o f  the  I n i t i a l  and Final P r o f i l e  
Scores of  Each Group, t-Values  and P robab i l i ty  of the  I n t r a ­
group Comparisons o f  the  I n i t i a l  and Final Performance.
Control (N=5) Verbal (N=6) Video/verbal
X SD X SD X SD
INITIAL 4.67 1.21 4.60 1.14 4.60 1.52
FINAL 5.17 2.32 4.20 1.09 4.80 1.64
t - v a l ue - .89 1.63 - .53
PROB .42 .18 .62
* S ign i f i c ance  was t e s t e d  a t  the  .05 l e v e l ,  
tg = 2.57; p< .05
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations  o f  the  I n i t i a l  and Final Dis­
tance Measurements of  Each Group, t-Values  and P robab i l i t y  of 
the  In t ragroup  Comparisons o f  the  I n i t i a l  and Final Pe r f ­
ormance.
Control (N=5) Verbal
LOIl
Z
Video/verbal
X SD X SD X SD
INITIAL 26.70 8.63 27.04 11.76 32.76 17.30
FINAL 27.60 10.85 30.06 17.89 33.42 18.44
t - v a l ue - .30 - .96 - .22
PROB .77 .39 .84
* S ign i f ic ance  was t e s t ed  a t  the  .05 l e v e l ,  
t^  = 2 .57; p<.05
27
Montana.
Ins t rumenta t ion
The s tanding  broad jump i s  u t i l i z e d  in  numerous f i t n e s s  t e s t  
b a t t e r i e s  as a t e s t  of leg s t r e ng th  and power. I t  has a v a l i d i t y  co- 
e f f e c i e n t  g r e a t e r  than .90 and a r epo r ted  r e l i a b i l i t y  o f  .97 (Matthews, 
1973.) The procedures f o r  adm in is te r ing  and performing the  standing 
broad jump were those  desc r ibed  in the  MHPER Special  F i tnes s  Manual 
fo r  Mildly Mentally Retarded Persons (MHPER, 1976: 18.) These pro­
cedures are  p resen ted  in Appendix B.
The s tanding  broad jump was chosen as the  movement ta sk  in t h i s  
study because i t  was a r e l a t i v e l y  uncomplicated ta sk  which the  sub jec t s  
would be ab le  to  perform with some degree o f  s u c c e s s . Another concern
in the  s e l e c t i o n  o f  the  s tanding  broad jump f o r  use in  t h i s  study was
-
t h a t  a l l  o f  the  s ub je c t s  were known to  have immature jumping p a t t e r n s ,  
and hence th e re  was p o te n t i a l  f o r  improvement in a l l  the  s u b j e c t s '  
jumping p ro f i c i ency  during  t h i s  i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
The ins t ruments  used in t h i s  s tudy to  f i lm  and rep lay  the  s u b j e c t s '  
s tanding broad jump performances were a Sony 3/4 inch Videocamera, model 
AVC-3260, and a Sony V ideocasse t te  r e c o rd e r ,  model V0-2600. The rep lay  
of the  videotape  record ings  was viewed on a Sony T r i n i t r o n  Color 
Receiver /Moni tor,  model CVM-1250,
This study was mainly concerned with the  q u a l i t y  of jumping pe r ­
28
formance,  but i t  a l s o  considered  measurements o f  q u a n t i t a t i v e  ach ieve ­
ment. The o b je c t iv e  q u a n t i t a t i v e  measurement con s i s ted  o f  record ing  
the  d i s tance  jumped in each o f  the  f i v e  t r i a l s  in both the  i n i t i a l  and 
f in a l  assessment s e s s i o n s .  The mean d i s t a n ce  from each s e s s ion  c o n s t i ­
tu ted  the  eva lua t ion  c r i t e r i o n  of q u a n t i t a t i v e  performance.
The q u a l i t a t i v e  a spec t  of the  sub je c t s -  performances was evalua ted  
s u b je c t iv e ly  through use o f  an assessment tool developed by McClehaghan 
and Gallahue (McClenaghan and Gallahue,  1978: 104.) The tool i s  p r e ­
sented in  Appendix B, This tool i s  comprised o f  l i s t s  o f  performance 
t r a i t s  commonly occur ing a t  var ious  s tages  in the  development of  a 
mature jumping p a t t e r n .  I t  was designed f o r  use in a s s e s s ing  the  de­
velopment o f  c h i l d r e n ’s jumping p a t t e rn s  and was app l i c ab l e  to  the  
popula tion of t h i s  s tudy as a l l  o f  the  sub jec t s  performed the  s tanding  
broad jump a t  some po in t  below the  mature level on the  developmental 
s c a le .  This i n v e s t i g a t o r  assumed the  tool  to  have face  v a l i d i t y  as 
o the r  sources from the  f i e l d  of  motor development have s u b s t a n t i a t e d  
McClehaghan and Ga l lahue ’s breakdown and d e s c r i p t i o n s  o f  the  develop­
mental s tages  in jumping by revea l ing  c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s  common to  the 
various  performance l e v e l s  (Corbin,  1980; Wickstrom, 1977.)
Assessment Procedures
An i n i t i a l ,  ev a lu a t ion  of each s u b j e c t ’s jumping p a t t e r n  was,conduct 
ed on April  10, 1980 and a f i n a l  eva lua t ion  of the  p a t t e r n  of  each
29
sub jec t  was done on June 5, 1980. The assessment procedures cons is ted  
of  each sub je c t  performing f iv e  consecu t ive  s tanding  broad jumps a f t e r  
rece iv ing  the  fo llowing s tanda rd ized  verbal i n s t r u c t i o n s  from the  inves ­
t i g a t o r :  "When I ask you to  jump, I want you to jump as f a r  as you can. 
Keep your f e e t  tog e th e r  the  whole t ime. Put your toes  on the  white 
l i n e .  Ready? Jump." The i n i t i a l  f i v e  and f i n a l  f i v e  performances of 
each sub je c t  were recorded on v ideotape  to  ensure an accu ra te  q u a l i t a ­
t i v e  assessment by a llowing the  a s s e s so r s  to  view the  performances r e ­
peated ly .  (See Appendix B f o r  an exp lana t ion  of  the  scor ing  p rocedures . )
The i n v e s t i g a t o r  c o l l e c t e d  the  q u a n t i t a t i v e  da ta  by measuring and 
recording  the  d i s t a n ce s  of  each jump. Two female a s s i s t a n t s  conducted 
the q u a l i t a t i v e  assessment.  Both a s s i s t a n t s  had background in the  area  
of  fundamental motor p a t t e r n s  through t h e i r  exper iences  as phys ical  ed­
uca to r s .  Both had been employed as g radua te  teaching  a s s i t a n t s  of elem­
en ta ry  physica l  educa t ion  by Montana S t a t e  Un ive r s i ty ,  Bozeman, Montana, 
and taugh t  physica l  educa t ion  in the  Bozeman Public  School D i s t r i c t  fo r  
one y ea r .  Each a lso  had one yearns  exper ience  working with the  handi­
capped in. the  Bozeman pub l ic  schoo ls ,  c oncen t ra t ing  on the development 
of  fundamental movement p a t t e r n s  and motor s k i l l s  with menta l ly  r e ­
ta rded c h i ld ren .  Through t h e i r  exper iences  working with handicapped 
and nonhandicapped c h i l d r e n ,  both a s s i s t a n t s  became very f am i l i a r  with 
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s  o f  the  developmental s tages  in jumping.
The a s s i s t a n t s  were t r a in ed  in use o f  the  assessment tool by the
30
i n v e s t i g a t o r .  A r e l i a b i l i t y  c o e f f i c i e n t  o f  1.0 was e s t a b l i s h e d  f o r  the 
a s s i s t a n t s  through a p i l o t  study conducted between January 22, 1980 and 
February 5, 1980. The a s s i s t a n t s  made an i n i t i a l  assessment o f  the  p i l o t  
study sub jec t s  and conducted ano ther  assessment of  the  sub jec t s  two weeks 
l a t e r .  The sub jec t s  o f  the  p i l o t  s tudy were seven mild ly  and moderately  
menta lly  re ta rded  male and female high school s tuden ts  a t t end ing  
Bozeman Senior High School,  Bozeman, Montana. In add i t io n  to  e s t a b l i s h ­
ing the  r e l i a b i l i t y  o f  the  a s s i s t a n t s  in use o f  the  assessment t o o l ,  
another  purpose o f  the  p i l o t  study was to  determine the  c l a r i t y  of  the  
s tandard ized  verbal i n s t r u c t i o n s  and verbal feedback cues to  menta lly  
re ta rded  in d iv id u a l s .  The p i l o t  study f u r t h e r  e s t a b l i s h ed  a s tandard  
procedure f o r  the  d e l iv e ry  o f  feedback and allowed the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  and 
the  a s s i s t a n t s  to  become f am i l i a r  with u s in g . th e  video equipment and the  
assessment tool used in t h i s  s tudy.
Treatment Procedures
The experimental  t r e a tmen t  was admin is te red  to  the  sub jec t s  on an 
ind iv idua l  b a s i s . The p re sc r ibed  t r ea tmen ts  f o r  the  groups were:
Control Group: Each of  the  f i v e  sub je c t s  in the  Control Group was
given the  s tanda rd ized  i n s t r u c t i o n s  p r i o r  to  the  f i r s t  s tanding 
broad jump performance in each t r e a tmen t  s e s s ion .  Each sub jec t  
then performed ten  consecu t ive  jumps and received  no feedback what­
soever on how to  improve the  jumping p a t t e r n .  Following every jump,
31
the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  s a i d ,  "Nice job.  P lease  jump aga in . "  No o the r  
communication took p lace  between gny sub je c t  and the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  
during the t r e a tmen t  s e s s ions .
Verbal Feedback Group: Each of the  s ix  sub je c t s  in the  Verbal
Feedback Group was given the  s tandardized,  i n s t r u c t i o n s  p r i o r  to 
the  f i r s t  s tand ing  broad jump performance in each t r ea tmen t  s e s s ion .  
Each sub je c t  performed ten  jumps per  s e s s ion .  A f te r  each jump, 
a s ub je c t  rece ived  s tanda rd ized  verbal cues (see  Appendix C) from 
the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  t h a t  were app rop r i a t e  f o r  a spec t s  of  the  p e r f o r ­
mance t h a t  needed improvement. Following the  a dm in i s t r a t io n  o f  the  
verbal feedback cues ,  the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  s a i d ,  "Nice job .  P lease  
jump aga in ."  No v i sua l  cues were given any to  any of  the  s u b j e c t s ,  
and no communication o th e r  than the  s tanda rd ized  i n s t r u c t i o n s ,  
s tandard ized  verbal cues and the  r eque s t  to  r e p e a t  the  jumping ta sk  
took place  during the  t rea tmen t  s e s s ion s .
Video/verbal Feedback Group: Each o f  the  f i v e  sub je c t s  in the  Video/ 
verbal Group was given the  s tanda rd ized  i n s t r u c t i o n s  p r i o r  to  the  
f i r s t  s tanding  broad jump performance in each t rea tmen t  s e s s ion .
Each sub je c t  performed ten  jumps per s e s s ion .  Before the  f i r s t  
jump, each sub je c t  viewed a v ideotape  record ing  of a model perform­
ing a mature s tand ing  broad jump p a t t e r n .  The s u b je c t  then p e r ­
formed th re e  consecu t ive  jumps which were recorded on v ideo tape .  
Following the  t h r e e  jumps, the  v ideotape  record ing  was replayed  to
32
the  sub je c t  whi le  the  i n v e s t i g a to r  provided s tanda rd ized  verbal 
feedback cues t h a t  were app rop r ia te  f o r  apsec ts  o f  the  performances 
t h a t  needed mod i f ica t ion .  A f te r  the  adm in i s t r a t io n  of the  feedback, 
the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  s a i d ,  "Nice job .  P lease  jump th re e  more t imes ."  
This procedure o f  admin is te r ing  feedback following th re e  jumps was 
was done th r e e  t imes .  J u s t  p r i o r  to  the  t en th  and f i n a l  jump of 
each s e s s i o n ,  the  sub je c t  again viewed the  model performance.  No 
verbal or  v isua l  cues o the r  than the  s tanda rd ized  i n s t r u c t i o n s ,  
s tanda rd ized  verbal feedback cues and the  v ideo tape  rep lays  were 
provided.  .
The s tanda rd ized  verbal feedback cues (see  Appendix C) were develop­
ed by the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  based on WickstromtS (1977) d e s c r i p t i o n  of the 
components o f  a mature jumping p a t t e r n .  Wickstrom syn thes ized  numerous 
sources of  informat ion  regard ing  performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s  of an e f ­
f i c i e n t l y  executed s tand ing  broad jump, and found the  fo llowing f a c to r s  
to  be c ru c ia l  to optimal performance:
1. The deeper the  crouch, given t h a t  the  leg  f l e x io n  was not 
extreme, the  g r e a t e r  the  d i s t a nce  t h a t  could be covered.
2. The arms helped f a c i l i t a t e  and enhance the  jump by serv ing  to 
s h i f t . a  jumper 's  weight when the  arms were f i r s t  swung behind 
the body, then swung v igorous ly  forward to  a hyperextended 
po s i t ion  above the  head. The arms a lso  helped main ta in  the 
the momentum of  the  body in f l i g h t  by remaining hyperextended
33
with the elbows s t r a i g h t .
3. The optimal t a k eo f f  angle was approximately  f o r t y - f i v e  degrees .
4. The heels  were pu l led  o f f  the  f l o o r  and the  jump was i n i t i a t e d  
from the t o e s , followed in success ion  by the  ex tens ion  of the 
h ip s ,  then the  knees and then the  a n k l e s .
5. The ex tens ion  of  the  lower ex t remet ies  was done r a p id ly  to 
f a c i l i t a t e  the  jump. The knees and hips f lexed  soon a f t e r  
t a k e o f f ,  and the  knees extended again to  p o s i t i o n  the  f e e t  in 
f r o n t  o f  the  body in  p repa ra t ion  f o r  land ing .  The knees and 
hips f lexed  upon con tac t  with the  landing su r f a ce  to  absorb the  
impact o f  the  landing and . to  help d e c e l e r a t e  the  body smoothly.
The verbal feedback cues were developed with these  performance 
f a c to r s  in mind. The cues were a lso  worded simply in o rde r  to 
help p re sen t  the  feedback informat ion as c l e a r l y  and unders tandably  as 
po s s ib le  to the  men ta l ly  r e ta rd ed  s u b je c t s .
The procedure o f  r ep lay ing  the  v ideotape  reco rd ings  to  the  sub jec t s  
was e s t ab l i s h ed  by the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  based on C r a t t y t S (1968) ideas 
regard ing the most e f f e c t i v e  way to  p re sen t  v isua l  feedback by means of 
videotape rep lay .  C ra t ty  f e l t  t h a t  when l e a rn e r s  viewed a model as 
well as t h e i r  own performances , they had a c l e a r  s tandard  of  re fe rence  
on which to  base c o r r e c t io n s  in t h e i r  movements. He a l so  contended t h a t  
lea rn ing  was enhanced when p r a c t i c e  c lo s e ly  followed viewing of  e i t h e r  
a model o r . a  I e a r n e r ' s  own performance on a v ideotape  record ing .
34
With C r a t t y ' s  viewpoints  in c on s id e ra t i o n ,  the  i n v e s t i g a t o r  de s ign ­
ed the  v ideotape  feedback t r ea tmen t  procedure to  al low the  s ub je c t s  to  
view a model performance o f  the  s tanding  broad jump as well as t h e i r  
own performances , and to  provide an oppor tun i ty  f o r  p r a c t i c e  immediately 
following the rep lay  o f  the  performances . Each s u b j e c t  in the  Video/ 
verbal Feedback Group rece ived  the  v ideotape  feedback t rea tmen t  as 
fo llows: (a) View model performance; (b) perform th r e e  jumps; (c) view 
replay  of the  th r e e  jumps; (d) perform th re e  more jumps; (e) view rep lay  
of the  second s e t  of  t h r e e  jumps; ( f ) perform th r e e  more jumps; (g) view 
replay  of  the  t h i r d  s e t  o f  th r e e  jumps; (h) review model performance; 
and ( i ) perform the  t e n th  and f i n a l  jump.
Analysis of  Data
All o f  the  da ta  c o l l e c t e d  were analyzed by the  Sigma Seven Com­
pu te r  loca ted  in the  Computing Center a t  Montana S t a t e  Un ive r s i ty ,  
Bozeman, Montana. The hypotheses were t e s t e d  using the  fo l lowing SPSS 
programs:
t - t e s t— a subprogram used to  t e s t  the  s i g n i f i c a n c e  of  the  d i f f e r ­
ence between a p re t rea tmen t  and a po s t t r e a tmen t  
measurement of  a v a r i a b l e  wi th in  one group,
ONEWAY ana ly s i s  o f  v a r i a n c e - - a subprogram used to  t e s t  the  s i g n i ­
f ic ance  of  the  d i f f e r en c e  between two or  more groups when 
one v a r i a b l e  i s  being considered .
35
Desc r ip t ive  s t a t i s t i c s  were computed f o r  a l l  raw scores  obta ined 
in a sse ss ing  the s u b j e c t s . The s t a t i s t i c s  were then sub jec ted  to t e s t s  
of  s ign i f i c a n ce  using the  SPSS program desc r ibed .  Both hypotheses were 
t e s t ed  a t  the  .05 level  of  s ig n i f i c a n c e .
Hypothesis I  was t e s t e d  by sub jec t ing  the  da ta  from the  f i n a l  p e r ­
formance assessment to  a t e s t  of  s ig n i f i c a n c e  t h a t  would reveal the  
d i f f e r en c e  between the  t h r e e  t rea tmen t  groups * performance o f  the  s t and ­
ing broad jump fo l lowing the  experimental t r e a tm en t .p e r io d .  Hypothesis 
2 was t e s t e d  by s u b je c t ing  the  da ta  from the  i n t i a l  performance eva lua­
t ion  and the f i n a l  performance eva lua t ion  to  a t e s t  of  s i g n i f i c a n c e  t h a t  
would reveal  the  d i f f e r e n c e  between each g roup 's  i n i t i a l  performance and 
f in a l  performance o f  the  s tanding  broad jump.
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The purpose o f  t h i s  study was to i n v e s t i g a t e  the  e f f e c t s  of  video­
tape feedback on the  s tand ing  broad jump performances o f  r e ta rd ed  
a du l t s .  A s u b j e c t i v e  eva lua t ion  o f  the  s u b j e c t s 1 jumping p a t t e r n s  and 
and o b je c t iv e  measurement o f  the  d i s t a n ce s  jumped preceeded and suc­
ceeded the  a dm in i s t r a t io n  o f  the  exper imental  t r e a tmen t .  The assessment 
scores  were s t a t i s t i c a l l y  analyzed and the  fo llowing comparisons were 
made: ( I )  a comparison of the  f i n a l  performances o f  a l l  t h r e e  ex­
perimental  groups; and (2) a comparison of  the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  
performances o f  each group. The r e s u l t s  a re  p resen ted  in the  following 
order :  ( I )  d e s c r i p t i v e  s t a t i s t i c s ;  and (2) hypotheses t e s t i n g .
Desc r ip t ive  S t a t i s t i c s
The means and s tandard  dev ia t ion s  o f  the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  perform­
ance p r o f i l e  s co res  f o r  each group a re  p re sen ted  in Table I .  The means 
and s tandard  d ev ia t i o n s  o f  the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  d i s t a n ce  measurements 
f o r  each group a re  p resen ted  in Table 2.
Hypotheses Tes ting
Two hypotheses were t e s t e d . i n  t h i s  s tudy .  The r e s u l t s  w i l l  be 
presented fo r  each hypothesis  in the  fo llowing manner: . (a) s ta tement  
of hypothes is ;  (b) d e s c r ip t i o n  and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n  o f  the  method of
s t a t i s t i c a l  a n a l y s i s ;  (c) r e s u l t s  of the  s t a t i s t i c a l  a n a ly s i s ;  and (d) 
behavioral  i n t e r p r e t a t i o n  o f  the  t e s t  s t a t i s t i c .
HYPOTHESIS I
There w i l l  be no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  (p <  .05) in the  perfom- 
ance o f  the  s tand ing  broad jump between the  Control Group, the  
Verbal Feedback Group and the  Video/verbal Feedback.Group fo llow­
ing a dm in i s t r a t io n  o f  the  experimental  t rea tmen t .
This hypothes is  was t e s t e d  by sub jec t ing  the  raw data  to  a ONEWAY 
ana ly s i s  o f  v a r i ance .  The s t a t i s t i c a l  an a ly s i s  u s ing .a  ONEWAY analy­
s i s  of va r iance  revea led  the  d i f f e r en ce s  between the f i n a l  s tanding 
broad jump performances o f  the  th ree  groups.  An F-probabiI i t y  g r e a t e r  
than .05 would r e s u l t  in  acceptance o f  the  null  h ypo the s i s , with the 
subsequent conclus ion  being t h a t  no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  in  the  . 
s u b j e c t s '  performance o f  the  s tanding broad jump occurred as a r e s u l t  
of the  verbal o r  v ideo /ve rba l  feedback t rea tmen t .
The r e s u l t s  o f  th e  ONEWAY ana ly s i s  o f  va r iance  between the  p r o f i l e  
scores  o f  the  t h r e e  groups a re  presented  in Table 3. The r e s u l t s  of 
the  ONEWAY an a ly s i s  o f  va r iance  between the  d i s t ance  measurements of. 
the  t h r e e  groups a re  provided in Table 4. No s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  
between the  f i n a l  performance p r o f i l e s  or the  f i n a l  performance d i s ­
tance measurements was found. The null  hypothesis  was accep ted ,  ; 
and i t  was concluded t h a t  the  adm in i s t r a t io n  o f  the  verbal f e ed -
38
Table 3. Degrees of Freedom, Sum o f  Squa re s , Mean Squares , F-Ratio 
and P r o b ab i l i t y  of the  In te rgroup  Comparison of the  Final 
Performance P r o f i l e  Scores of  Each Group.
SOURCE DF SS MS F PROB
Between Groups 2 2.566 1.238 .393 .683
Within Groups 13 42.434 3.264
Total 15 45.000
* S ign i f ic ance  was t e s t e d  a t  the  .05 l e v e l .  
f 2,13 = 3,80; p< ,05
Table 4. Degrees of Freedom, Sum o f  Squares ,  Mean Squares ,  F-Ratio 
and P r o b ab i l i t y  of the  In te rg roup  Comparison of the  Final 
Performance Distance Measurements of  Each Group.
SOURCE DF SS MS F PROB
Between Groups 2 92.500 46,250 .186 .832
Within Groups 13 3228.855 248.373
Total 15 3321.355
* S ign i f ic ance  was t e s t e d  a t  the .05 l e v e l .  
f 2,13 = 3.80; p <05
39
back had no s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t  on the  s t and ing .b road  jump performances 
o f  the  mild ly  and moderately menta lly  r e t a rd ed  a d u l t  s u b je c t s .
HYPOTHESIS 2
There wi l l  be no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r e n c e  (p <  .05) between the 
i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  performances o f  the  s tand ing  broad jump in 
any o f  the  t h r e e  groups.
This hypothesis  was t e s t e d  by s u b je c t ing  the  raw data  to  a Paired 
t - t e s t .  The s t a t i s t i c a l  an a ly s i s  using a Paired  t - t e s t  revealed  the 
d i f f e r en ce s  between the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  s tand ing  broad jump perform­
ances of each group. A t - p ro b ab j I i t y  g r e a t e r  than .05 would r e s u l t  in 
acceptance of  the  null  hypo thes i s ,  with the  subsequent conclusion being 
t h a t  no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  in any of  the  groups '  s tand ing  broad 
jump performances occurred as a r e s u l t  o f  t h e i r  r e s p ec t iv e  experimental 
t rea tmen t .
The r e s u l t s  o f  the  Paired  t - t e s t  between the  i n i t i a l  and f in a l  mean 
p r o f i l e  scores  a re  p re sen ted  f o r  each group in  Table I , The r e s u l t s  o f  
the  Paired  t - t e s t  be tween.the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  mean d i s tance  measure­
ments a re  given f o r  each group in Table 2. No s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r ence  
between the i n i t i a l  mean p r o f i l e  score  and the  f i n a l  performance mean 
p r o f i l e  score  was found in any of the  groups.  No s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r ence  
between the  i n i t i a l  performance mean d i s t a n ce  measurement and the  f ina l  
performance mean d i s t a n ce  measurement was found in any of  the  groups.
40
The null  hypothesis  was accepted ,  and i t  was concluded t h a t  the  absence 
of feedback, the  adm in i s t r a t io n  of verbal feedback and the  adm in is t r a ­
t ion  o f  v ideo /verba l  feedback had no s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t s  on the  s tand­
ing broad jump performances o f  the  mild ly  and modera tely  menta lly  
re ta rded  su b je c t s .
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The purpose o f  t h i s  study was to  examine the  e f f e c t s  o f  videotape  
feedback on the  s tand ing  broad jump performances of  m i ld ly  and mod­
e r a t e l y  menta lly  r e t a rd ed  a du l t s .  Videotape feedback was presented  by 
rep lay ing  v ideotape  record ings  of sub jec ts^  performances while  provid­
ing verbal cues concu r ren t ly .
D ifferences  Between the  Final Performances o f  the  Three Groups .
Result s  of the  ONEWAY ana ly s i s  o f  va r iance  revea led  no s i g n i f i c a n t  
d i f f e r en c e  between the  mean p r o f i l e  scores  of  the  f i n a l  performances of  
the  Control Group, the  Verbal Feedback Group and the  Video/verbal 
Feedback Group. I t  vtas hypothesized t h a t  no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  
between the  t h r e e  groups would be found fo llowing the  completion of 
the  experimental  t r e a tmen t .
Result s  o f  the  ONEWAY ana ly s i s  o f  va r iance  revea led  no s i g n i f i c a n t  
d i f f e r en ce  between the  mean d i s t ance  measurements from the  f i n a l  pe r ­
formances of the  Control Group, the  Verbal Feedback Group and the 
Video/verbal Feedback Group. I t  was hypothesized t h a t  ho s i g n i f i c a n t  
d i f f e r en c e  between the  th r e e  groups would be found following the  com­
p le t ion  of the  experimental  t rea tmen t .
42
Differences  Between the  I n i t i a l  and Final Performances o f  Each Group
The r e s u l t s  of  the  t - t e s t  revea led  no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  
between the  i n t i a l  mean p r o f i l e  score  and the  f i n a l  mean p r o f i l e  
score in any o f  the  th r e e  g roups . The r e s u l t s  a lso  revealed  t h a t  
no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  ex i s t ed  between "the i n i t i a l  mean d i s tance  
measurement and the f i n a l  mean d i s t a n ce  measurement in any o f  the  th ree  
groups . I t  was hypothesized t h a t  no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  would be 
found as a r e s u l t  o f  any of  the  experimental  cond i t ions .
The r e s u l t s  of  t h i s  study revea led  t h a t  e x t r i n s i c  verbal and v i s ­
ual cues did  not p o s i t i v e l y  e f f e c t  the  motor learn ing  of the  s ub je c t s .  
Knowles (1973) found s im i l a r  r e s u l t s  when she inve s t ig a ted  the  e f f e c t s  
of e x t r i n s i c  feedback on the  l e a rn ing  o r  two gross motor s k i l l s  by 
moderately and mild ly  men ta l ly  r e ta rd ed  males.  She d iscovered  t h a t  
providing feedback regard ing  the  outcome of  a performance following 
completion o f  the  performance y ie lded  no s i g n i f i c a n t  b e n e f i t s .  In 
Knowles' s tudy ,  the  s ub je c t s  in one t r ea tmen t  group were informed of 
the  r e s u l t s  of  t h e i r  performances in terms of numerical scores  in ad­
d i t i o n  to  r e ce iv ing  verbal cues oh how to  improve the  q u a l i t y  o f  the 
performance.  ' Sub jec ts  in ano ther  group received  only, verbal cues r e ­
garding how to improve t h e i r  movements while sub jec ts  in a t h i r d  group 
received  no feedback whatsoever .  The r e s u l t s  of Knowles' study 
revealed t h a t  none of  the  feedback provided had any s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t
43
on the  l e a rn ing  and performance of  the  movements ta sks  in the  study.
She concluded t h a t  e x t r i n s i c  feedback provided a f t e r  the  completion of 
a performance did not b e n e f i t  the  menta lly  r e ta rded .  ■
Baumeis t e r , Hawkins and Holland (1966) a lso  conducted a study i n ­
v e s t i g a t i n g  the  e f f e c t s  o f  e x t r i n s i c  feedback on the  motor performance 
of  the  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed .  In c o n t r a s t  to  Knowlest feedback adm in i s t r a ­
t ion  , Baumeister and h is  a s s o c i a t e s  provided t h e i r  s ub jec t s  with feed ­
back during performance of  a p u r s u i t  r o t o r  ta sk  by f l a s h in g  a l i g h t  
whenever the  sub jec t s  were on t a r g e t .  The i n v e s t i g a to r s  found t h a t  the  
r e t a rd ed  sub jec t s  s i g n i f i c a n t l y  improved t h e i r  performances when pro­
vided feedback concu r ren t ly  with t h e i r  performances.
The d i s p a r i t y  between Knowles' f ind ings  and the outcome of 
Baumeis ter,  Hawkins and Ho l land 's  study s t imu la te s  s pecu la t ion  about 
the  most e f f e c t i v e  way to  p re sen t  feedback to  the  menta l ly  r e ta rded .
The need fo r  c on cep tu a l i z a t io n  may perhaps be reduced when p e r t i n e n t  
informat ion i s  d e l iv e red  during performance r a t h e r  than following i t s  
completion.  Since i t  has been sugges ted t h a t  motor performance prob­
lems of  the  r e t a rd ed  may be a r e s u l t  o f  d i f f i c u l t i e s  in process ing 
a b s t r a c t  in fo rmat ion ,  concu r ren t  p rov is ion  of  feedback may be an 
e f f e c t i v e  method of  p re sen t ing  concre te  informat ion to  r e ta rded  pe r ­
formers .  Perhaps had the  v ideotape  feedback in t h i s  i n v e s t ig a t i o n  
somehow been provided concu r ren t ly  with the  performances of the  s tand ­
ing broad jump, the  outcome of  t h i s  study may have been d i f f e r e n t .
The . r e s u l t s  of  t h i s  i n v e s t i g a t i o n  may have been in f luenced  some­
what by the  a t t i t u d e s  o f  the  sub jec t s  toward the movement t a sk  and the 
experimental  t re a tmen t .  C ra t ty  (1974) d iscussed  in a t t e n t i v e n e s s  and 
d i s t r a c t a b i I i t y  as f a c t o r s  t h a t  might p o t e n t i a l Iy i n h i b i t  e f f i c i e n t  
informat ion process ing  by the  menta lly  r e t a rd ed .  Some s ub je c t s  in the  
Verbal Feedback Group and the  Video/verbal Feedback Group o f ten  became 
impa t ien t  with having to  perform the s tand ing  broad jump ten times and 
consequently  did not always pay c lo se  a t t e n t i o n  when feedback was being 
provided. The sub jec t s  in the  Video/verbal Feedback Group were i n i ­
t i a l l y  q u i t e  a t t e n t i v e  to  the  v ideotape  r e p l a y s , but a f t e r  th r e e  t r e a t ­
ment se s s ions  grew u n in t e r e s t ed  in viewing t h e i r  performances'.
Despite the  con ten t ions  held by some (C r a t t y , 1968; Neufeld , 1972; 
Ryan, 1969) t h a t  v ideotape  cna p re sen t  t a ng ib le  and i n t e r p r e t a b l e  i n ­
fo rmat ion ,  t h i s  p r e s en t  i n v e s t i g a t i o n  found t h a t  the  use o f  v ideotape  
to r e l ay  performance informat ion  did not b e n e f i t  the  menta l ly  r e ta rded  
s u b j e c t s '  l ea rn ing  or performance of a movement t a sk ,  Perhaps the  low 
cogn i t ive  level  of the  sub je c t s  l im i t ed  t h e i r  perceptual c a p a b i l i t i e s  
as Alley (1968) sugges ted .  I t  appears t h a t  al though feedback was 
provided to  the  r e t a rd ed  sub jec t s  in a concre te  manner, the  sub jec t s  
were s t i l l  unable to pe rce ive  or  modify e r r o r s  in performance even 
when the  e r r o r s  were s p e c i f i c a l l y  poin ted out to the  sub jec t s  by the  
i n v e s t i g a t o r .
The menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  sub jec t s  in t h i s  study were poss ib ly  a t  too
45
low of  a performance level  t o  b e n e f i t  from the  v ideo tape  rep lay s .  
Following t h e i r  a n a ly s i s  of  l i t e r a t u r e  concerned with the  e f f e c t iv en e s s  
o f  v ideotape  rep lay  on motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n ,  Ro ths te tn  and Arnold 
(1976) concluded t h a t  beginners did not seem to  p r o f i t  from exposure to 
videotape record ings  o f  t h e i r  performances.  DelRey (1971) ind ica ted  
t h i s  a l s o ,  and specu la ted  t h a t  beginners did not b e n e f i t  from videotape  
rep lay  because t h e i r  a t t e n t i o n  was u su a l ly  not d i r e c t e d  to p e r t i n e n t  
aspec ts  of  the  recorded performances.  Most o f  the  r e ta rded  sub jec t s  
in t h i s  p re sen t  s tudy performed the  s tand ing  broad jump a t  a beginning 
s k i l l  l e v e l .  The sub je c t s  rece iv ing  the  v ideo /ve rba l  feedback t r e a t ­
ment were s p e c i f i c a l l y  d i r e c ted  to c e r t a i n  f a c to r s  o f  t h e i r  performances 
while viewing the  rep lays  o f  t h e i r  jumps, as DelRey sugges ted .  Since 
th e re  was no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en ce  between the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  
performances o f  the  Video/verbal Feedback Group, i t  would appear t h a t  
menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  in d iv idua l s  a t  a beginning performance level  do not 
p r o f i t  from videotape  feedback even when t h e i r  a t t e n t i o n  i s  d i r e c ted  to 
s p e c i f i c  a spec ts  o f  recorded performances.
Summary
The r e s u l t s  o f  t h i s  study f a i l e d  to  f ind  v ideo tape  feedback to  be 
a p o s i t i v e  tool in enhancing th e  menta l ly  r e t a r d e d ' s  motor lea rn ing  and 
performance of  a s e l e c t e d  motor t a sk .  Unfo r tuna te ly ,  few o the r  s tud ie s  
have inv e s t ig a t e d  the  use of  videotape  with the  menta l ly  r e t a rd e d ,  and
46
the  r e s u l t s  o f  t h i s  study should not be considered conc lus ive .  Factors 
t h a t  may have a f f e c t ed  the  outcome could have been i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s  or 
d i s t r a c t i b i I i t y  (C r a t t y , 1974.) Poor perceptual process ing  may have 
a lso  accounted f o r  the  lack of  s i g n i f i c a n t  changes in performance (Al ley ,  
1968.) The f a c t  t h a t  the. s ub je c t s  were a t  a beginning level a t  the  
motor s k i l l  used in t h i s  s tudy may have been a f a c t o r  in the  lack of 
s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t s  o f  th e  v ideotape  feedback (Ro ths te in  and Arnold, 
1976.)
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER VI ■
Summary
Purpose
. The purpose o f  t h i s  study was to  examine the  e f f e c t s  o f  videotape 
feedback on menta l ly  r e ta rded  a d u l t s '  performance of  a motor t a sk .  
Videotape record ings  were u t i l i z e d  as feedback regard ing  performances 
of the  s tanding  broad jump of  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  s u b j e c t s .
The conclus ions  of  the  reviewed l i t e r a t u r e  regard ing  feedback was 
t h a t  i t  played a c r i t i c a l  ro le  in the  l e a rn ing  p roce ss ,  and t h a t  visual  
feedback was the  most i n f l u e n t i a l  type o f  feedback in  motor le a rn ing .  
The l i t e r a t u r e  concerned with v ideotape  ind ic a ted  t h a t  the  value o f  . 
using v ideotape  record ings  to  provide feedback lay  in  the  f a c t  t h a t  
the  record ings  p re sen ted  informat ion in  a c l e a r  and concise  manner. 
L i t e r a t u r e  dea l ing  w i th  motor lea rn ing  and the  men ta l ly  r e ta rded  reveal 
ed t h a t  an i n a b i l i t y  to  concep tua l ize  movements may be one exp lana t ion  
fo r  the  d i f f i c u l t i e s  exper ienced by the  re t a rd ed  in motor l e a rn ing  and 
s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n .  Impl ica t ions  were made.in some sources  t h a t  video­
tape could p o t e n t i a l l y  a id  the  developmenta lIy d i s ab led  in motor s k i l l  
lea rn ing  by p re s en t ing  informat ion necessa ry  f o r  l e a rn ing  a s k i l l  in a 
concrete  manner, thus  reducing the  need f o r  c on cep tu a l i z a t io n .
48
Procedures
An i n i t i a l  assessment  was made o f  s ix te en  men ta l ly  r e t a rd ed  a d u l t s '  
jumping p a t t e rn s  while they performed the  s tanding  broad jump. The 
sub jec t s  were then d iv ided  in to  th re e  groups to undergo the  following 
t rea tmen ts :  (I). Control Group: The sub jec t s  p ra c t i c e d  the  s tand ing
broad jump and rece ived  no feedback regard ing  t h e i r  performances;
(2) Verbal Feedback Group: The sub jec t s  p r a c t i c ed  the  s tand ing  broad 
jump and rec ieved  s tanda rd ized  verbal cues on how to  improve t h e i r  
jumping p a t t e r n s ;  and (3) Video/verbal Feedback Group: The sub jec t s  
p ra c t ic ed  the  s tand ing  broad jump and rece ived  s tanda rd ized  verbal 
feedback cues whi le  viewing a videotape  record ing  o f  t h e i r  performances;
The sub jec t s  rece ived  t h e i r  r e s p e c t iv e  t rea tmen ts  once weekly fo r  
a period of  s ix  weeks. A f i n a l  eva lua t ion  was made o f  the  s u b j e c t s '  
jumping p a t t e rn s  fo l lowing the  conclus ion of  the  t r e a tm en t  s e s s i on s .
Desc r ip t ive  s t a t i s t i c s  were e s t a b l i s h e d  fo r  the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  
performances of the  s tand ing  broad jump. A ONEWAY ana ly s i s  of  var iance  
as used to  compare the  f i n a l  performances of  the  t h r e e  groups.  A t - t e s t  
was used to compare the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  performances o f  each group.
Results
There was no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e  between the  f i n a l  performances 
of  the  th ree  groups fo llowing the  experimental  t r e a tmen t .  There were
no s i g n i f i c a n t  d i f f e r en c e s  between the  i n i t i a l  and f i n a l  performances
49
of  any of  the  groups.
Conclusions / -
The fo llowing conclus ions  can be formulated  s p e c i f i c a l l y  f o r  the  
popula tion of  t h i s  s tudy based on the  r e s u l t s  o f  the  i n v e s t i g a t i o n .  
Caution should he exe rc i sed  in  g ene r a l i z ing  the  r e s u l t s  to  o th e r  
popu la t ions ,
1, In t h i s  s tudy ,  feedback provided by verbal cues has no 
s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t  on the  l e a rn ing  or  mastery  of  the  s tanding  
brgad jump by the  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  s u b j e c t s ,
2 , In t h i s  s tudy ,  feedback provided by v ideotape  rep lay  accom-
. panied by verbal cues has no s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t  on the  l e a r n ­
ing or  mastery o f  t h e  s tanding  broad jump by the  menta l ly  
re ta rded  a d u l t  s u b j e c t s ,
Tbe lack  of  a more d i s c r im ina t ing  tool may.be one f a c t o r  under­
ly ing  the  non -s ign i f i .can t  r e s u l t s .  The tool used in  t h i s  s tudy was 
designed f o r  use to  g e n e r a l ly  a ssess  the  jumping p a t t e r n s  o f  young 
ch i ld ren .  I t  was the  most a pp rop r ia te  tool found t h a t  could be 
adequate ly  modif ied f o r  use in t h i s  s tudy.
Videotape may be a p o t e n t i a l l y  va luab le  tool  to  d e l i v e r  concre te  
and i n t e r p r e t a b l e  v isua l  feedback to menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  i n d i v i d u a l s . 
Es tab l i shed  movement p a t t e r n s  a r e ,  however, d i f f i c u l t  to  change, and 
the f a c t  t h a t  the  s ub je c t s  in t h i s  study were a l l  a d u l t s  with f i rm ly
50
e s tab l i s h ed  jumping p a t t e r n s  may have been an element in  the  outcome 
of  the  i n v e s t i g a t i o n .  A general  conclusion of  t h i s  s tudy i s ,  nonethe­
l e s s ,  t h a t  v ideotape  feedback, as admin is tered  in t h i s  s tudy ,  does 
not have a s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t  on the  s tand ing  broad jump performances 
of  mild ly  and modera tely  menta l ly  r e ta rded  a d u l t s .
Recommendations
Evidence of  the  e f f e c t s  o f  v ideotape  feedback on the  motor l e a r n ­
ing and performance o f  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  in d iv idua l s  in s o re ly  l a ck ­
ing.  The r e s u l t s  o f  t h i s  s tudy revea led  no s i g n i f i c a n t  e f f e c t s  of 
t h i s  mode of  feedback,  a l though the l i t e r a t u r e  i n d i c a t ed  t h a t  the  
po ten t i a l  of  v ideo tape  as a feedback technique with the  r e t a rd ed  was 
promising.  The fo llowing recommendations f o r  f u r t h e r  re sea rch  in 
the  a reas  o f  v ideo tape  as a feedback mode and motor, l e a rn ing  and the  
menta lly  r e t a rd ed  a re  o f f e red :
1. Conduct s tu d i e s  to  i n v e s t i g a t e  the  e f f e c t s  o f  v ideo tape  fe ed ­
back on the  l e a rn ing  and performance of  young menta l ly  r e ­
ta rded  in d iv id u a l s .  Retarded ch i ld ren  and youth s t i l l  in 
the  developmental s tages  may b e n e f i t  from t h i s  type of  
feedback.
2. Conduct long i tud in a l  s tud ie s  involv ing  l a r g e r  popu la t ions  o f  
menta l ly  r e t a rd ed  persons.  S tud ies  such as these  may y i e l d  
more conc lus ive  evidence regard ing  feedback and the  motor
51
lea rn ing  process  in  the  menta l ly  r e ta rded  by inco rpo ra t ing  
many motor s k i l l s  in the  i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,
3. Devise more dynamic ways to d e l i v e r  v ideotape  feedback to  
menta lly  r e t a rd ed  ind iv id u a l s .  By p re s en t ing  feedback i n ­
formation in  a manner t h a t  i s  s t im u l a t i n g ,  r e t a rd ed  l e a rn e r s  
may d i sp lay  more i n t e r e s t  and enthusiasm in  l e a rn ing  and 
p r a c t i c i n g  motor s k i l l s .  Feedback t r ea tmen t  and oppo r tun i ­
t i e s  f o r  p r a c t i c e  should a l so  be provided a t  more f r equen t  
i n t e r v a l s  than the  l im i t a t i o n s  o f  t h i s  s tudy  would allow.
4. Develop assessment too l s  designed s p e c i f i c a l l y  to  eva lua te  
movement p a t t e r n s  and motor s k i l l s  o f  the  men ta l ly  r e t a rd ed .  
Cu r ren t ly ,  inadequate  means o f  a s s e s s ing  the  motor p r o f i c i e n ­
cy o f  developmenta lIy d i sab led  in d iv idua l s  o f t en  i n h i b i t s  
e f f e c t i v e  p r e s c r i p t i o n  o f  the rapy  o r  remedial a c t i v i t i e s  which 
could a id  the  r e t a rd ed  in overcoming t h e i r  motor d e f i c i e n c i e s .  
Work in  t h i s  p a r t i c u l a r  area  would be a major c o n t r ib u t io n
to  the  f i e l d  o f  motor l e a rn ing  and the  men ta l ly  r e t a rd ed .
APPENDICES
53
APPENDIX A
LETTER OF CORRESPONDENCE AND SUBJECT CONSENT FORM
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TRAINING PROJECT FOR THE EXCEPTIONAL INDIVIDUAL
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION 
CRAIG STEWART EDD  PROJECT DIRECTOR
M ON TAN A  STATE UNIVERSITY. BOZEMAN  M ONTANA  59717
March 13, 1980
Dear Group Home Counselors ,
My name i s  Laura Sim, and I am a graduate  a s s i s t a n t  working with 
Dr. Craig Stewart  a t  Montana S t a t e  Un ive rs i ty .  As p a r t i a l  f u l f i l lm e n t  
of  the  requirements  f o r  a Master o f  Science  degree I in tend to conduct 
research  concerning motor s k i l l  a c q u i s i t i o n  by the  menta l ly  r e t a rd ed .
I would l i k e  to do a s tudy using the  ind iv idua l s  p a r t i c i p a t i n g  in the 
Thursday n igh t  r e c r e a t i o n  program here a t  the  Univers i ty .
I plan to  i n v e s t i g a t e  the  e f f e c t s  of  using videotape  feedback in 
the development of  jumping s k i l l  wi th the  developmentalIy d i sab led .  
There i s  some evidence t h a t  i n d i c a t e s  videotape i s  a va luab le  method 
of  p rovid ing  performance in format ion  t h a t  may enhance motor l earn ing  
by the  r e t a r d e d ,  but much more re sea rch  in the  area  i s  d r a s t i c a l l y  
needed.
The p a r t i c i p a n t s  in the  study w i l l  work on jumping s k i l l s  f o r  
approximate ly  twenty minutes each Thursday, beginning on April IOth 
and con t inu ing  u n t i l  June 5 th .  The v ideotape  record ings  of the  
sub jec t s  w i l l  be used only as feedback to the  in d iv id u a l s ,  and wil l  
remain s t r i c t l y  c o n f i d e n t i a l .  All the  s t a t i s t i c a l  r e s u l t s  w i l l  be 
presented  anonymously in the  publi shed  t h e s i s ,  and wi l l  be a v a i l ­
able  to you upon r eque s t .
I f  you have any q u e s t i o n s ,  concerns or o b j e c t io n s ,  p lease  fee l  
f r e e  to c on tac t  me during the  day a t  994-2260 or  in the  evening a t  
586-0889. I t  wil l  be a g r e a t  help i f  you would encourage the  c l i e n t s  
to a t t e nd  the  program r e g u l a r l y  as t h e i r  presence and p a r t i c i p a t i o n  
i s  e s s e n t i a l  to the  outcome of  the study.
Thank you very much f o r  your coopera tion .
S ince re ly ,
Laura J .  Sim
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY 
HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH CONSENT FORM
T i t l e  of  resea rch : The E f fe c t s  of Videotape Feedback on the Standing 
Broad Jump Performances of Mildly and Moderately 
Mentally  Retarded Adults .
I n v e s t ig a to r : Laura J .  Sim, Graduate A ss i s tan t  
B.E.H. Training '  P ro je c t
Department of Heal th ,  Physical  Education and
Recreation
Montana S t a t e  Univers i ty  
Bozeman, Montana
I ,  _____________________  ______________, have been provided: A
(name of  p a r t i c i p a n t )
general  d e s c r ip t i o n  o f  the  above named i n v e s t ig a t i o n  and i t s  purpose:an 
exp lana t ion  of why I was s e l e c ted  to p a r t i c i p a t e ;  and an exp lana t ion  of 
my r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s  as a p a r t i c i p a n t ,
I hereby consent  to  p a r t i c i p a t e  in the  i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
s ign a tu re  of p a r t i c i p a n t
56
APPENDIX B
PROCEDURES FOR THE STANDING BROAD JUMP AS DESCRIBED IN THE AAHPER 
SPECIAL FITNESS MANUAL FOR MILDLY MENTALLY RETARDED PERSONS
AND
THE ASSESSMENT TOOL DEVELOPED BY McCLENAGHAN AND GALLAHUE
Procedures f o r  the  s tand ing  broad jump as descr ibed  on page 18 o f  the  
AAHPER Special  F i tn e s s  Manual f o r  Mildly Menta lly  Retarded Persons:
Equipment:
Mat, F loor ,  o r  ou t s id e  jumping p i t  and tape  measure.
De sc r ip t ion :
Pupil  s tands  with the  f e e t  severa l  inches  a p a r t  and the  toes  j u s t  
behtnd the  t a k e - o f f  l i n e .  P repa ra to ry  to  jumping, the  pupil  swings the 
arms backward and bends the  knees. The jump i s  accomplished by 
s imultaneously  ex tending the  knees and swinging the  arms forward.
Rules : .
1. Allow th r e e  t r i a l s .  (*N0TE: Five t r i a l s  were g iven . )
2. Using a t a p e ,  measure from the  t a k e - o f f  l i n e  to  the  back of 
the  heel n e a r e s t  the  t a k e - o f f  l i n e .
3. When the t e s t  in  given indoors ,  i t  i s  convenient to  tape  the
57
tape  measure to  the  f l o o r  a t  r i g h t  angles  to  the  t a k e - o f f  
l i n e  and have the  pup i l s  jump along the  t ape .  The sco re r  
s tands  to the  s ide  and takes  the  measurement.
Sco r ing :
Record the  b e s t  of the  th r e e  t r i a l s  in  f e e t  and inches to  the  
n e a r e s t  inch.  (* NOTE: For t h i s  s tudy ,  the  mean of  f i v e  t r i a l s  was 
u t i l i z e d .  The d i s t a n ce s  were recorded in  inches and measured to  the 
n e a r e s t  one -ha l f  inch . )
The assessment tool on the  following page was developed by 
McClenaghan and Gallahue (McClehaghan and Gallahue,  1978: 104.) The 
following mod if ica t ions  were made by the i n v e s t i g a to r  to adapt the 
tool f o r  use in. t h i s  study:
1. Performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s  f o r  trunk ac t ion  a t  the elementary 
level were added as th e r e  were none l i s t e d  in the o r ig i n a l  t o o l .
2. A scor ing  system was devised in order  t h a t  the  tool  may be 
adapted f o r  s t a t i s t i c a l  t r e a tmen t .  This system cons i s ted  of  ass ign ing  
a numerical va lue  to  each of  the  performance l e v e l s .  The i n i t i a l  s tage  
was ass igned  the  number one, the  e lementary s tage  the  number two and 
the mature s tage  the  number th r e e .  The sub jec t s  were evalua ted  by 
a sse ss ing  the  a c t ion s  o f  the  arms, trunk and lower ex t remet ies  s ep a r ­
a t e l y .  By adding the  numbers ass igned  to  the level  a t  which they pe r ­
formed each body a c t i o n ,  a t o t a l  s co re ,  r e f e r r e d  to  in t h i s  s tudy as 
the  p r o f i l e  s co re ,  was determined. For example, a sub jec t  whose arm 
a c t ion  was a t  the  i n i t i a l  leve l  (a va lue o f  one,)  t runk  a c t ion  was a t  
the e lementary level  (a va lue  of  two,)  and leg -h ip  ac t ion  was a t  the  
i n i t i a l  leve l  (a value of one) would have a p r o f i l e  score of fou r .  I t  
was t h i s  p r o f i l e  score  t h a t  was sub jec ted  to  s t a t i s t i c a l  an a ly s i s  to 
determine the  r e s u l t s  of  t h i s  i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
3. Blanks on which to  record  the  d i s t a n ce s  of the  f iv e  t r i a l s ,  
the  p r o f i l e  scores  and the  sub je c t  i d e n t i f i c a t i o n  number were added.
59
INITIAL ELEMENTARY MATURE
A A Limited swing; I n i t i a t e  jumping Move high and to
R C arms do not a c t ion . the r e a r  during
M T i n i t i a t e  the Always remain p rep a ra to ry  crouch.
I jumping a c t ion . toward f r o n t  o f During t a k e o f f ,  they
O During f l i g h t . body during p re - swing forward
N sideward/down- para to. ry crouch. with fo rce  and
ward or  r e a r - Move out to  s id e  to reach high.
ward/upward, to main ta in  balance Arms a re  held high
main ta in  b a l - during f l i g h t . th roughout the
ance. jumping a c t i on .
T A Moves in  ve r - S l i g h t  angle  of Trunk i s  p rope l led
R C t i c a l  d i r e c - t runk ;  a l i t t l e ■ a t  approximately
U T t i o n ;  l i t t l e more emphasis, on a 45 degree angle.
N I emphasis upon ho r izon ta l Major emphasis i s .
K O length  of d i s t a n ce . on ho r izon ta l
N j  ump. d i s t a n ce .
L A Prepara to ry P repa ra to ry  crouch Prepa ra to ry  crouch
E C crouch i s i s  deeper and i s  deep and con-
G T in c o n s i s t e n t more c o n s i s t e n t . s i  s t e n t .
-  I in terms of Extension i s  more Complete ex tens ion
H O leg f l e x io n . complete a t of  a nk le s ,  knees.
I N D i f f i c u l t y  using tak eo f f . and hips a t  take-
. „.P both f e e t . Hips a re  f lexed o f f .
Extension a t during f l i g h t . Thighs a re  held
t a k e o f f  i s and th ighs  a re p a r a l l e l  to
Iimi ted . held  in  a ground during
Weight f a l l s f lexed  pos i - f l i g h t ;  lower leg
backward a t t i o n . hangs v e r t i c a l l y .
landing . Body weight a t
landing i s  
fo rward .
Subjec t  #
P r o f i l e  Score
Distances  J l #2 #3 #4
#5 X Dis tance
60
LEGS:
ARMS:
TRUNK:
APPENDIX C
STANDARDIZED VERBAL FEEDBACK CUES
1. crouch: "Bend your knees more before  you jump,"
2 . t a k eo f f :  "S t r a igh ten  your  legs  as f a s t  as you. can when
you jump."
3. t a k eo f f :  "Try to  jump o f f  your t o e s . "
4. Landing: "Bend down when you land ,"
5. crouch: "Swing your arms behind you befo re  you jump."
6 . t a k eo f f :  "Swing your arms forward over your head when
you jump and keep then high in the  a i r  the  
whole t ime."-
7. land ing :  "Keep your arms in  f r o n t  o f  you where you can
see them when you land ,"
8 . t a k eo f f :  "Lean forward more when you jump,"
9. f l i g h t :  "Keep lean ing  forward when you a re  in the  a i r . "
10. land ing :  "Bend forward when you l a nd , "
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62
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MONTANA STATE  UN IVERSITY  L IBRAR IES
762 1001 5494 5
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SiHlS Sim, Laura J
cop.2 The e ffec ts  of video­
tape feedback on the 
standing broad jump 
performances . . .
DATE I S S U E D  TO
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