STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO COPY ' 
In presenting this professional paper in partial fulfillment of 
the requirements for an advanced degree at Montana State University, I 
agree that the Library shall make it freely available for inspection. 
I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this profes¬ 
sional paper for scholarly purposes may be granted by my major profes¬ 
sor, or, in his absence, by the Director of Libraries. It is under¬ 
stood that any copying or publication of this professional paper for 
financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. 
MEETING THE WRITING NEEDS OF THE LEFT-HANDED STUDENT 
by 
ELLEN HOSIER NOTTINGHAM 
A professional paper submitted to the Graduate Faculty in 
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree 
of 
MASTER OF EDUCATION 
with concentration in 
Elementary Education 
Approved 
Head, Major Department 
Gr auuci uc 
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY 
Bozeman, Montana 
August, 1971 
iii 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
A study of this kind depends upon the assistance and cooperation 
of many persons. The investigator is especially grateful to Mr. Jerald 
Mikesell for the encouragement and suggestions given during this study. 
The writer is deeply appreciative of the efforts of the person¬ 
nel who aided in gathering the data necessary for such a study. The 
school systems involved were the elementary schools of Fort Benton, 
Geraldine,v and Hamilton, Montana. 
TARLE OF CONTENTS 
Page 
LIST OF TABLES  v 
ABSTEACT   vi 
Chapter 
1. INTRODUCTION ...................... 1 
Stateirent of the Problem   1 
General Questions Asked. ^ ^ . 2 
Need of Purpose of the Study .............. 3 
General Procedure. . . .     3 
Limitations or Delimitations . .  ...... 5 
Definition, of Terms. . . . .   5 
2. REVIEW OF.RELATED RESdARCH ...... . . ....... 6 
Introduction   ............ 6 
3. RESEARCH DESIGN.   .   • • • • 27 
Introduction .    27 
Population Description and Sampling Procedure  27 
Investigation Procedures ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 
4. FINDINGS REPORTED.   32 
Introduction ........  ..... . . 32 
Teacher Observation and Interview. .   . 32 
Analysis of Penmanship Samples ............ 35 
Questionnaires .................... 36 
iv 
Chapter Page 
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.  46 
Summary.    45 
Conclusions. . .   ............. 47 
Recommendations   .   49 
Discussion ........  ...... 51 
APPENDIX       52 
LITERATURE CITED 57 
V 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table Page 
1. Population Distribution of Left-Handed Students 
and Approximate Academic Ratings. ........... 37 
2. Introducing Initial Manuscript to Left-Handed Students. . 39 
3. Introducing Initial Cursive Writing to Left-Handed 
Students. .   39 
4. How Left-Handed Students Hold Their Pencils When Writing. 40 
5. Writing Slant of Left-Handed Students .......... 42 
6. Seating Arrangement for Left-Handed Students During 
Penmanship Instruction. .  ........ 43 
7. Teacher's Expectation of Writing Perfection of the 
Left-Handed Students.  44 
8. Instructional Materials Available for Teaching 
Penmanship to the Left-Handed Students. . .   44 
9. Teacher-Training Programs for Left-Handed Student's 
Penmanship as Reported by Teachers. ... • • • • • • • 45 
ABSTRACT 
This study was conducted to determine what is being done to aid 
the left-handed student in meeting his writing needs. One class of 
sixty-two first grade students in the Fort Benton Elementary School was 
chosen as a sturdy group. There were six left-handed students in the 
group. Writing samples were collected twice each year until the group 
had progressed through the fourth grade. An attempt was made to deter¬ 
mine when and why so many of these students developed the ''hooked'-wrisf:' 
approach to writing and the writing slant that they used. 
Questionnaires included information gained from thirty-nine 
teachers, kindergarten thrcugh grade six, in three elementary school 
systems in Montana. The information sought was: (a) percentage of 
left-handed students, (b) sex of these students, (c) their approximate 
academic ability, (d) methods of presenting penmanship to the class, 
(e) room environment, (f) attitudes of the teachers toward changing the 
writing habi.s of the left-handed student, and (g) adequacy ot readier 
training programs. 
Four of the six left- handed students* of the study group wrote 
with the "hooked-ivTr:»st" approach. The hand nositicn hibits were formed 
by the time the students entered the second grade. All of the students 
used the forward slant or no slant writing. None of the left-handed 
students wrote with the backslope. 
Eighty-nine of 819 students were left-handed. Of the female 
portion of the population, 10.9 percent were left-handed and 11.2 of 
the male population. The academic ability of the students were rated 
by their teachers as follows: 30 percent aoove average ability, 40 
percent average ability, and 30 percent below average. 
Most of the teachers did not attempt changing handedness in 
writing. Initial manuscript writing was, in most cases, introduced to 
the left-handed fir^t grade and kindergarten students at the chalkboard 
Initial cursive writing was introduced at the chalkboard by 40 percent 
of the teachers and at the student’s desks by 40 percent. Others used 
a combination of desk and chalkboard. More than half of the left- 
handed students received no specific writing instructions. Backslope 
handwriting was used by only about 4 percent of writers of manuscript 
and about 30 percent of writers of cursive. 
More than half of the teachers reporting did not have recent 
and adequate instructional materials for teaching the left-handed stu¬ 
dent to write. Eighty-five percent of teachers reported that teacher 
training programs did not prepare them for teaching writing to left- 
handed students. 
Chapter 1 
INTRODUCTION* 
Is the left-handed student being discriminated against in 
writing instruction? Are his instructional needs being fulfilled? The 
left-handed student is faced with unusual difficulty in learning to 
write, not because of nis inability to do so, but because he is of a 
minority group who lives in a right-handed world Basic instructional 
procedures are oriented toward the right-handed because cf. an age old 
stigma that the right hand is the correct hand to use when writing. 
This stigma is one of the reasons why the left-handed student has met 
with such difficulty in getting any recognition or help for his needs. 
Another reason is because cf apathy among many teachers and administra¬ 
tors. They often fail to recognize or admit that such a problem exists 
and that.they have an obligation to these students (Norris, 21:225). 
The use of instructional procedures and writing materials adapted for 
the right-handed student would create a handicap for the left-handed 
pupil which, perhaps, would greatly affect his writing. 
Statement; of the Problem 
The purpose of this study was to determine what is being done 
to aid the left-handed student in meeting his writing needs. The in¬ 
vestigator ascertained the percentage of stedents who are left-handed, 
their sex distribution, and academic rating. Teaching approaches were 
2 
explored with emphasis on the primary level of instruction where the 
habits of writing are formed. The study was extended to include whether 
or not the same perfection of writing is expected from the left-handed 
student as from the right-handed one. Finally, to find out if teachers 
have adequate teaching materials available for teaching the left-handed 
student and if they were satisfied that their training preparation was 
adequate for them to do a good job in this area. The adequacy of 
training preparation was questioned in several of the studies reviewed 
(Groff, 14:95; Enstrom, 7:45). 
General Questions Asked 
Answers to the following questions were sought: 
1. Is tne left-handed student encouraged to write with his 
left hand? 
2. Do teachers still insist that the left-handed student use 
his right hand when writing? 
3. Is the left-handed student accepted as being left-handed 
and no effort made to change his handedness? 
4. Do left-handed penmen begin their initial manuscript and 
cursive writing at the chalkboard. 
5. Are left-handed children grouped in the front, right corner 
of the classroom facing the chalkboard? 
6. Are left to right sequence exercises given to the left- 
handed student as a preliminary writing exercise to forming letters? 
3 
7. Do teachers feel competent in guiding the left-handed stu¬ 
dent toward efficiency in penmanship? 
Need of Purpose of the Study 
This study was important because recent research showed that 
over 10 percent of all school population was left-handed and that a 
typical classroom was likely to include some of these students (Enstrom, 
7:45). These are exceptional students who are entitled to special in¬ 
struction to meet their individual needs. This instruction should in¬ 
clude special procedures most beneficial to left-handed students and 
specially adapted materials and tools. This means of communication 
needs to be developed so that it will be of greatest possible benefit 
to them. The responsibility for this potential development lies with 
those responsible for training the teachers and with the teachers them¬ 
selves in following through with proper instruction. Teachers must be 
made aware that with proper instruction left-handed students can more 
easily master the art of penmanship. 
General Procedure 
Research relating to the writing needs and problems of the 
left-handed student were reviewed. 
Samples of penmanship were taken periodically from a random 
first grade class in the Fort Benton Elementary School. Each year 
thereafter samples were taken from those same students until the class 
4 
had progressed through the fourth grade. These rooms were observed to 
find cut room conditions and procedures that may or may not have been 
suitable for teaching writing to the left-handed student. The purpose 
of these observations was to find out if there was a particular time 
or condition under which the student starts writing with the "hook- 
wristed" hand position. The writer had observed that the majority of 
left-handed students who come into her classroom each year used that 
writing approach. Teachers of these classes were interviewed with 
special emphasis in the area of beginning manuscript and the changeover 
to cursive writing. . » 
A questionnaire was sent to each teacher, kindergarten through 
sixth grade, in elementary classrooms in three school systems in Montana 
Information was requested concerning: (a) percentage of left-handed 
students, (b) sex of these students, (c) their academic ability, (d) 
methods of presenting penmanship to these students, (e) room environ¬ 
ment, (f) attitudes of teachers toward changing the writing habits of 
the left-handed student, and (g) adequacy of teacher training programs 
in regard to teaching the left-handed student to write. 
The penmanship samples were compared,, each student with his 
own previous samples in an attempt to find out when the back-slant in 
writing began, if it did. Findings from teacher interviews and room 
observations (from Fort Benton Elementary School) were reported as 
found. Results of the questionnaires were tabulated and reported by 
5 
tables. Findings were summarized and will be reported in a later 
chapter. 
Limitations or Delimitations 
The observation and follow up portion of this study was limited 
to one class of left-handed students from the Fort Benton Elementary 
School that was observed from the first through the fourth grade. The 
teachers who were observed and interviewed were the teachers of these 
particular students. 
Questionnaires were sent to three small school systems in com¬ 
paratively rural areas with a population of predominately white stu¬ 
dents with an average and above average background economically and 
socially to broaden the scope of the study. 
Definition of Terms 
Hook position. The "hook position" or "hook-wristed approach" 
is used as reference to a position of writing where paper placement is 
the same as recommended for the right-handed writer but when used by 
the left-handed student forces him to approach the writing with his 
wrist in a curved position from the top of the paper. 
Smudge position. The "smudge position" is a writing approach 
where the student writes a letter, then must move his hand over the 
first letter written in order to write the second letter or element, 
thereby making a smudge on the paper. 
Chapter 2 
REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH 
Introduction 
The review of related research was organized to briefly mention 
theories for the causes of left-handedness. Implications of the mean¬ 
ing of the word "left" and the stigma resulting from the many interpre¬ 
tations of the meaning of "left” have effected hardships on the left- 
handed student and were explained in the review of literature (Norris, 
21:228). 
Research concerning the problems of the left-handed students 
was reviewed. Finally, recommendations by the researchers for methods 
of helping to solve the problem were included in the review. 
Theories for the causes of left-handedness. The causes of left- 
or right-handedness are not known for sure. There are many theories: 
heredity, acquired habit by training, purely learned, imitation, ocular 
dominance, and others. Frances McMullen (20:72) specialist in Paycho- 
logical Testing said: 
Children are not born handed. They grow that way. As nerve 
fibres develop and motor apparatus matures, the two hands come 
by degrees to work together with the eyes and brain. Later, one 
hand takes over leadership . . . . 
Early interpretations and stigma of the left-handed. The word 
"left” originally meant sinister, ill-omened, or unfortunate. Sometimes 
7 
even today the left-handed person is referred to as being "sinistror- 
sally" inclined. The modern French term for "left" means the same as 
clumsy. The right-handed person has always been the symbol of strength, 
sincerity, and bravery; the left-handed, the sign of weakness, malici¬ 
ousness, and inferiority. From these meanings have derived such inter¬ 
pretations as "a left-handed compliment", meaning no compliment at all; 
or a "left-handed oath", one which need not be kept (Norris, 21:224). 
Problems of left-handed students in penmanship. Early inter¬ 
pretations of the left-handed student have carried down through many 
generations and are with us today. This stigma is one of the reasons 
that the left-handed student has met with such difficulty in getting 
recognition or help for his needs. An example of modern prejudice was 
reported by Norris (21:226) in one of classrooms that she observed in 
her study of the left-handed students. A new primary teacher who was 
trying to discover the potential of her children asked them which one • 
knew how many monkeys were in a certain picture in the text. Many 
children raised their hands with great enthusiasm. A child was called 
upon to write the correct numeral on the blackboard. This child proudly 
went to the front of the room and wrote a back-sloped, but very correct 
and easily read, "8". The teacher’s only response was that he had 
written the numeral with the wrong hand. 
A second reason why the left-handed student was having such a 
struggle to come into his own rights was because of apathy among many 
8 
teachers and administrators. They failed to recognize or to admit that 
such a problem existed or that they had an obligation to these students 
This example was also cited in the study by Norris (21:229). The stu¬ 
dents were busy writing an examination on desks with right-handed arm 
rests in a room lighting arrangement to benefit the right-handed stu¬ 
dent. He noticed a left-handed student who twisted awkwardly over 
her paper, stopping to rest often. When the teacher was asked how many 
left-handers there were in her room she answered that there were none. 
There turned out tc be five left-handed students in the room. In the 
same school he questioned a principa] as to how many left-handed stu¬ 
dents there were in his school and was told that there were very few. 
A survey indicated that 10 percent of the students in that particular 
school were left-handed. 
Left-handers are a minority group. Research studies show that 
thirty years age there were from 2 to 6 percent of the people who were 
sinistrorical. Current studies estimate from 7 to 15 percent of the 
people write with their left hands (Enstrom, 5:234). The number of 
left-handed students is increasing, probably because the child x^ith 
sinistral tendencies is not as frequently corrected as he once was. 
Parents and educators arc beginning to realize that the left-handed 
student is perfectly normal and are putting less pressure on children 
to change hands. Years ago many students were forced to write with 
the light hand. In one study (Enstrom, 5:235) involving ten thousand 
9 
teachers who answered questionnaires in regard to their left-handed stu¬ 
dents, it was revealed that 11.1 percent of the students were left- 
handed. Of these, 12.5 percent were boys and 9.7 percent xjere girls. 
It was noted that this finding was generally higher than that usually 
estimated by educators in literature. From this study, Enstrom con¬ 
cluded that practically all teachers in all grades that he observed 
permitted left-handed writing and for this reason the percent for each 
grade was nox7 found to be higher and generally constant. 
The problem that the left-handed student is facing is brought 
about by the system of writing used by all English speaking people. 
The movements of this system are predominantly counter-clockwise rotary 
movements that capitalized on the directional movements that are 
easiest and most natural for the right-handed student. The body tends 
to move from the center out. For the left-handed student, this meant 
going contrary to the way that the symbols of writing are formed. 
Consequently, when he used this method of writing, he progressed toward 
the bcdy, pushing when he wrote rather than pulling. He is constantly 
covering his completed work with the elements of the characters that he 
is forming. His hand acts in the way of his seeing, interfering with 
bis seeing and feeling teamwork. The result is bound to be inconsis¬ 
tency in writing. If the writer uses the hook-wristed approach, his 
problem is even greater because he pushes his pen or pencil in a re- 
verse direction, holding the pen in such a way that it tends to dig 
10 
into the paper (Borders, 2:54). 
About 1 percent of left-handed writers are mirror writers, that 
is, their writing is backwards to the standard method of right-handed 
writing and can be read by looking into the mirror. There is nothing 
wrong with this way of writing as it is the natural way for the left- 
handed student to write. Its only drawback is that, it is not a very 
satisfactory method of communication (Norris, 21:229). 
The left-handed student is deprived of the visual clue of look¬ 
ing at the whole word. He gets his cues from kinesthetic and muscle 
cues. The left-handed mirror writer*s tendency for reversals is be¬ 
cause his writing is not controlled by vision. Only when the student’s 
writing is controlled by muscle and vision fusion do students tend to 
change from reversals and to write with more speed and accuracy. The 
student’s short-te?.*med memory obscures each letter as he writes it 
and handicaps the learning of spelling and of writing (Ure, 21:229). 
Shortcomings of the left-handed student may be the lack of 
seeing. His writing is made more visible by hooking the arm and wrist 
above the line and writing downwards. The word is then revealed. In 
this position, the normal push-pull movements of hand to body is re¬ 
versed, tending to cause reversals and inversions of letters and word 
parts. A second choice open to the left-handed writer is to turn the 
paper sideways and to write, from above downwards toward the body, top 
to bottom instead of left to right. In this way, the visibility of 
11 
the word is increased but the rotation tends to cause confusions and 
reversals in writing. The left-handed student adopts "compensatory 
postures in an attempt to facilitate feedback" by turning the page at 
a 90 degree angle and writing from top to bottom (Ure, 27:227). 
An experimental pencil, designed to provide visual feedback and 
to allow the left-handed student to write in a normal position was used 
in a study (Ure, 27:228). The shaft was a penholder with the point of 
an inexpensive compass wedged into it instead of a pen point. A pencil 
stub was placed in the compass with the point extending in the oppo¬ 
site direction ordinarily used. The angle at the entry of the pencil 
was 45°, enabling the student to see and develop the shape of the whole 
word as he wrote it. This pencil lowered the hand to a normal position 
where it did not shadow the writing. This study showed marginal im¬ 
provement in most cases, but the fact that it established itself stably 
on one test trial seems that benefits might be expected in an early 
use of such a pencil (Ure, 27:229). 
McMullan (20:71) reported several views regarding the change¬ 
over from the left to the right hand for writing. One, the changeover 
from the left to the right hand may be accomplished in the early years 
for some of the left-handed children who do not have strong sinistral 
tendencies. A second, the changeover may cause confusion in the brain 
and the nearby language center may be affected. Third, the trouble 
caused in some children by the changeover may be emotional. McMullan 
12 
explained the problem this way, "Try carrying your own preferred hand 
in a sling for a few days. The frustration and helpless rage you ex¬ 
perience will make you understand the problems of the changed-over 
child." If the child is a determined left-hander, let him stay that 
way. The child is not so bad off if he is definitely and consistently 
left-handed, especially if he is a well-adjusted, normal child. The 
problem child is the one who has not decided which hand to use or one 
who has been a changeover and the transfer has been incomplete. He 
often turns out to be inept.with both hands'.C^cMullan, 20:72). 
The idea of not.tampering with handedness can be overdone be¬ 
cause left-hahdedness may be fastened on a child unnecessarily, and at 
its best left-handedness is inconvenient. Some children can be changed 
successfully. It is necessary, however, to take into consideration 
the whole personality of the child and his previous history. Retrain¬ 
ing must proceed with consistency and skill; but, if it is successful, 
it may solve a problem (McMullan, 20:72). 
If the left-handed child can be encouraged to use the right 
hand without emotional problems, then it is all right to do so, but one 
must remember that some children are confirmed left-handers. There 
are tests to show the degree of left-handedness and thus give a guide 
as to how far to go with any changes. However, this trait is a very 
complex one, bound up with all the reactions of the whole child, in¬ 
cluding the eyes and the feet. Therefore, such a testing must be done 
13 
by a specialist (Norris, 21:226). 
If the child is equally proficient with the right or left hand, 
it may be best to train him right-handed. But, if he is strongly left- 
handed, let him stay that way (Slote, 24:47). Slote listed common 
tests which may help in making a decision. 
1. With which hand does he instinctively throw a ball, open a 
book, button his coat, etc.? 
2. With which hand does he hold scissors? (This is considered 
one of the most conclusive tests. While cutting with the left hand is 
good proof of left-handedness, cutting with the right hand is not con¬ 
clusive evidence of right-handedness.) 
3. Does he do mirror writing? If this persists, is it a sign 
of left-handedness? 
4. Is there a family history of left-handedness? 
She concludes that in doubtful cases that the child is sinistral, a 
specialist should be consulted. 
Williams (26:45) of the Boulder Valley Schools at Boulder, 
Colorado, wrote that once the children have reached school age they 
should not be encouraged to change from left-hand usage to the right 
hand. 
Hdlullen (20:71) noted that most children^inclinations lie 
somewhere between the extremes of left and right and at first are easy 
to deflect. There is evidence to prove that most babies under six 
’14 
months slightly prefer the left hand. Between the sixth and eleventh 
month this dwindles to a little less than 50 percent, and the greatest 
number of children establish their preference between three and seven 
years of age. She told us that an indication of the strength of the 
baby’s preference is how insistent he is and also how he manages the 
two hands together. 
Parents often try to influence the use of the right hand because 
of the convenience for children. With use, the right hand becomes 
stronger and coon becomes the preferred hand. Ihis change may work 
very well if the methods used co promote the change are passive and 
casual. Attitudes toward the use of the left hand can cause much dam¬ 
age, the same as if children are ridiculed for any reason. The pro¬ 
blems are often caused by the manner of the change rather than from 
the changes themselves (Marksheffel, 19:72). 
Kern (17:12) provided this guide for those who decided on hand 
changing: 
1, Consistency. Remember to show the child how to work with 
the right hand. He is not apt to remember himself. Confusion will 
result if you leave him stranded between two hands, 
2. Give up entirely at the first signs of resistance. It may 
become clear to you the very first day. If either you or your child 
takes the "test of strength" position (and this feeling wells up in 
the best of us) it is time to quit. 
15 
McMullen (20:72) recommends the first grade as a good time to 
change handedness if the teacher has the time and interest and if the 
parents are willing to do their share. When a child is cooperative and 
the first trials succeed, the outlook is favorable, particularly if he 
is a bright and steady student and the teaching is good. She thinks 
that the very best time to counteract leftness is from three to five 
years of age. This is the time that handedness has just begun to form 
and the least effort goes the farthest. Left-handedness tends to 
assert itse.i.f a little later than right-handedness. Even when fai?:ly 
apparent, it seems to be less stable in the beginning.. In this early 
period, the child engages only in simple motor activities and his con¬ 
trols are still crude. Tact and gentleness must be used if the change 
is to be made with no difficulties. 
Enstrom (5:235) concluded from his study that the problem of 
the left-handed student is such that it warrants inclusion in teacher 
preparation courses and deserves in-service study by all teachers in 
all grades. Unfortunately, few teachers have had special education in 
helping the left-handed children. He believes that teachers and ad¬ 
ministrators concerned with exceptional children should be especially 
well-equipped to help these individuals correctly. Special training 
should be given, particularly to primary teachers since the initial 
training of the left-handed child is of such great importance. This 
problem then, according to him, becomes the responsibility of first the 
16 
educators training the teachers, and secondly of teachers instructing 
primary grades. Again in 1963, Enstrom (6:522) emphasized that all 
teachers should know that this is not strictly a pupil problem but is 
a teaching responsibility. Teachers who understand the solutions that 
he recommended seldom have failures. 
Most of the investigators agreed that before teaching hand¬ 
writing some adjustment in the classroom must be made to provide for 
the needs of the left-handed student. In the early grades, group the 
left-handed students so that they would be less inclined to copy the 
methods suitable to right-handed students. A left-handed student 
needs a left-handed desk. If only right-handed desks are available, 
one extra desk to the left of each student can be placed so that he 
will have a convenient place on which to work. Work written in a 
right-armed chair by a left-handed student cannot be expected to be 
his best possible work. When working around a table, make sure that 
the left-handed student sits where he will not bump elbows with other 
students (Williams, 26:45). 
A ^ery important part of preparing the left-handed student for 
writing and for increasing his ego is to make him aware that he belongs 
to a very important group of people—the left handers. He is not alone 
with his problem and despite this handicap, many left handers have be¬ 
come great men, among them Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo di Vinci, 
two presidents of the United States, President Garfield and President 
17 
Truman, and many famous athletes (Norris, 21:229). 
Many poor habits of writing may be done away with if the be¬ 
ginning teaching is done at the blackboard^ Pulling the writing from 
a starting point to the left of the writer’s body may be instituted 
with nothing that must f5.rst be overcome or unlearned* Additional 
writing opportunities need to be continued at the chalkboard for those 
children who tend to use the "smudge position". The smudge position 
denotes a position of writing where the writer writes a letter and 
then must drag his hand over the first letter written in order to write 
the second letter of element of a letter, thereby making a smudge on 
the paper. William’s study (26:46).shows that 50 percent of the stu¬ 
dents observed drag their hands through what they had written. 
The value of using the chalkboard in the initial stages of 
learning to write is obvious. It is easier for the student to 
make each detail in the larger figures and for him to form 
internal images in legible shapes—first at the chalkboard and 
then on paper (Goforth, 13:46). 
Borders (2:53) does not think that the left-handed students 
drape themselves on their desks or hook their arms over the top of the 
paper and write upside down just to annoy their teachers, rather it is 
a natural reaction to a right-handed system of teaching writing. Bevel 
opment of this left-handed hook is not convenient nor is it necessary. 
This position develops in an attempt to follow the directions of the 
teacher who is teaching the right-handed students to write. She re¬ 
ported that because they are permitted to go on in their own way with- 
18 
out any special instruction suited to their own needs they are unable 
to make the necessary adjustments* 
Some investigators report that a correct way for left-handed 
students to write is by the use of the backhand slope. Since a correct 
position for the left-hander is a reversal of the position used by the 
right-hander, the slope may also be affected. Slote (24:47) recom¬ 
mended that it was a good idea to supply left-handed children with 
their own backhand slanted model alphabet so that they would not feel 
that they had to copy the models used by right-handed students. Norris 
(20:228) said that there is nothing sacred about the slant of writing 
so long as it was readable. Williams (27:46) concluded that a prefer¬ 
red slope may vary from 45 degrees left of the vertical to 45 degrees 
right of the vertical line. Goforth and Hunnicutt (13:46) writes that 
any slant in writing of 20° backwards to 40° forward makes little dif¬ 
ference in the legibility of the writing and that the left-handed stu¬ 
dent need not force himself to use a forward slant. 
Enstrom (6:522) did not agree with the above investigators in 
regard to the backhand slope. He said that left-handed children should 
be started with vertical manuscript as are right-handers. He said 
that contrary to some unsupported opinions, the pupils should never be 
permitted to write or print backhand, and that all printing done be¬ 
yond the first grade should have a definite forward slant. Success, 
when cursive writing begins, would be much more likely if the above 
19 
precaution was taken. Other suggested helps*that he listed were that 
left-handed printers or writers should never be hidden in the rear of 
the room but placed in a forward corner where they could be watched, 
helped, and encouraged. The position of the pencil should be directed 
so that the blunt end would be over the shoulder and the wrist would 
be fairly flat on the desk surface, held close to the desk surface but 
never to drag. The elbows should be held close to the body. 
The placement of paper creates a serious problem for left- 
handed students if their vision was blocked by their writing hands. 
When they turn their hands in an effort to see what they are writing, 
they develop the "hook". Unless these students are guided at the right 
moment, they will probably become "hookers" with the ink-smearing pro¬ 
blem. It is the responsibility of the teachers to know and to make use 
of the research that was available (Enstrom, 6:522). 
Related research. A comprehensive study concerning the pro¬ 
blems of the left-handed writer was made to find the extent of the use 
of the left-hand in writing, and to determine the effect of the various 
hand, wrist, arm, and paper adjustments on the efficiency of writing 
(Enstrom, 5:234). Enstrom checked 92,000 pupils in a four-state area 
(New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Maryland) to determine the per¬ 
centage of left-handed writers and the percentage of these that were 
boys and the percentage that were girls. Data was determined by short 
questionnaires sent out in conjunction with the handwriting program 
20 
used in their schools. Only carefully filled out questionnaires were 
used and the reliability was checked by combining fifty classrooms of 
pupils in each grade into blocks of three hundred rooms. These blocks 
were totaled and the procedure continued until a stabilized finding was 
obtained. At this particular time, practically all of the teachers in 
this area permitted left-hand writing; therefore, the percentage in 
each grade was found to be high and fairly constant. 
The second part of the study was based on analyses of 1,103 
]eft-handed writers of grades five through eight.. Enstrom observed 
classrooms and recorded his observations with the camera and sketch 
pad. He classified the techniques actually used by the left-handed 
writers in the classrooms in two general classifications: the students 
writing from below the line and those using the "hooked-wrist" approach 
Those two groups were classified. The most important phase of this 
part of the study was finding the relative efficiency of these varia¬ 
tions. Finally, he determined the techniques which produced the most 
successful results and condemned those most damaging to the left-handed 
writers. He concluded from this study that rate and success in hand- 
writing were more closely related to the technique used than to hand 
preference (Enstrom, 7:45). 
Enstrom (7:44) noted that five different positions of writing 
were recommended and one approach, the "hooked-wrist" was condemned in 
his study of literature, concerning the left-handed writer. However, 
21 
nowhere in the literature did he find any research backing for either 
recoiimending or condemning the various approaches. The five positions 
that were recommended were all with the paper slanted opposite to that 
used by the right-handed writer with the differences in the angle of 
the slant. For his study, Enstrom classified two types of writers: 
those who kept their writing below the writing line (a relatively 
smear-free technique) and those who approached writing from the left 
side of the paper (the "hooked-wrist" writers). He rated his groups 
for relative efficiency, quality of writing, rate or speed or writing, 
ability to produce smear-free papers and possible health hazards. 
Sixty-nine percent of the first group wrote rapidly with a natural and 
forward slant. Twenty-two percent of those who used the "hooked-wrist" 
approach produced a writing that was high in quality and rate with 
letters easily read and easily written. However, this group carried 
the probability of ink-smearing. Other "hooked-wristed" writers tested 
low or hazardous in all areas tested. 
He concluded from his study that the "hooked-wrist" position 
could be recommended only when radical changes seemed inadvisable be¬ 
cause of habit formation, daily writing pressures or pupils lack of 
desire to change. He concluded that very few "hooked-wristed" writers 
could be changed beyond the fourth grade. When the advanced grade stu¬ 
dent is willing to change his writing position, then it is the teacher^ 
duty to help him find the most desirable position and "teach him the 
22 
right way of doing it wrong." He recommended the following: 
1. Place the paper exactly as a right-handed writer would 
place it, 
2. Keep the writing-wrist on the edge as far as possible. 
3. Use maximum flexing of che hand at the wrist during the 
writing process* 
4'. Ignore all other hand-positions or instructions. Clnstruc- 
tions for slant letter forms, spacing are the same for all.) 
5. Use pen-shaped ball point pen of good quality. 
Enstrom (10:760) noted that reversal problems, particularly 
prevalent among the left-handed writers, can be oravented. They hap¬ 
pened because of: 
1. Lack of instruction in preschool or kindergarten where 
children were ready for learning but were untutored. 
2. Lack of exacting instruction by kindergarten or first- 
grade teachers. Careless beginnings cause many errors that become 
permanent and plague the individual for life. 
3. Many teachers do not understand the importance of elimina¬ 
ting errors by emphasizing the correct beginning point, correct direc¬ 
tion of motion, and correct sequence of multi-part letters. 
4. Retroactive inhibition caused by teaching two different 
but similar learnings close together without sufficient practice to 
establish each as a habit ... 
23 
5. When pupils are permitted to frequently write without a 
copy, left-handedness may be the cause of not more-than-normal rever¬ 
sals but of general mirror writing. To ensure success here, teachers 
should understand how to solve all phases of problems involved in wri¬ 
ting with the left hand. 
Preventing problems is always the best cure, therefore, re¬ 
flects the best teaching. Instead of using our energies to battle 
wrong habits, teachers should devote more time and thought to correct 
introductions even though it may be very formal teaching. Careful 
sequential teaching will prevent many of these problems (Enstrom, 10: 
763). 
The obvious difference between left and right handedness is 
the hand that they wrote with. Horton (16:427) indicated that available 
evidence showed that the left-handed student can learn to write as 
easily, as rapidly, as comfortably, and as legibly as the right-handed 
student, but he cannot do it without special attention to his particular 
needs. He listed five essentials necessary for an appropriate method 
of instruction for the left-handed student: (1) correct position of 
the paper, (2) correct grip of the pen, (3) correct relation between 
the hand and the base line, (4) appropriate slant, and (5) usable writ¬ 
ing implements. 
A continuous film loop has been developed at the University of 
Haxjaii to teach handwriting (Strahan, 25:70). An 8 mm projector is 
24 
housed in a special rear-screened projection box. Elementary level 
students are able to learn techniques in holding a pen or pencil cor¬ 
rectly and proper formation of letters and words. The student can get 
as much or as little practice as needed. A whole set of film car¬ 
tridges are available for presenting the most basic letter construction 
as well as more complicated words and letter groupings. The child's 
progress is a sticker placed in a cumulative record following success¬ 
ful completion of. particular assignments. Individualized presentation, 
of penmanship to the left-hander may help to solve some of his problems. 
Illustration No. 1, page 26, shows left to right sequence exer¬ 
cises and paper placement that Enstrom (9:43) advocates for the left- 
handed student to learn the special techniques of writing. Figure 1 
illustrates a "rightward sliding" exercise which should be repeated 
many times as the student says aloud "touch, slide, left". It is im¬ 
portant that he keeps moving in the correct direction so the teacher 
should watch carefully at the beginning practice sessions. 
Figure 2 illustrates a second important movement that must be 
practiced until it is an established habit. While the student practices 
this exercise, he should repeat "touch, slide". 
The left-handed student should keep the paper turned as shown 
in Figure 3 when first learning to print. 
Figure 4 represents paper placement when writing lessons have 
advanced to slant print and slant cursive writing. 
25 
If the student writes with the •'hooked-wrist” approach, he 
should be taught to write as illustrated in Figure 5. Place the paper 
exactly as the right-handed student does. His wrist should be kept 
somewhat on the edge of the paper and should be flexed while he is 
writing. This approach is tolerated by experts and is the best of nine 
ways of writing with a hooked wrist (Enstrom, 9:44). 
26 
Illustration 
FIG.1 FIG.2 
Chapter 3 
RESEARCH DESIGN 
Introduction 
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the percentage of 
left-handed students, their sex distribution, academic rating, and what 
is being done to aid this student in meeting his writing needs. Envir¬ 
onmental factors, methods, and materials were of concern here. The 
investigation was extended to include the attitudes of the teachers 
toward changing the writing habits of the left-handed student and toward 
the adequacy of teacher training programs related to teaching the left- 
handed student to write. 
Population Description and Sampling Procedure 
The first part of the study involved the first grade students 
in the Fort Benton Elementary School, consisting of three classrooms 
(sixty-two students the first year of the study). 
Questionnaires were sent to three elementary school systems in 
comparatively rural areas of Montana (Fort Benton, Hamilton, and Geral¬ 
dine). The population is a group of predominately white students with 
an average or above average economic and social background. Eight 
hundred and nineteen students and thirty-nine teachers of kindergarten 
through sixth grade were involved in this portion of the study. 
28 
Investigation Procedures 
One group of first grade students was chosen as an experimental 
group for observation to determine how the writing needs for the left- 
handed student were being met in the Fort Benton Elementary School at 
Fort Benton, Montana. This group consisted of sixty-two students, six 
of whom were left-handed writers. The samples of writing collected 
from these left-handed students were compared to determine the writing 
slant and legibility. 
Teachers of these classes were interviewed during the first 
nine-week period of each year. The interviews emphasized the beginning 
of manuscript and the changeover to cursive writing procedures. These 
questions were pursued: 
1. Are left-handed students encouraged to write with their 
right hand or are they accepted as left-handed students and no attempt 
made to change handedness? 
2. Do left-handed students begin initial manuscript vrriting 
at the chalkboard, at their desks, or a combination of chalkboard and 
desks? 
3. When is cursive writing initiated? Is the initial teaching 
of cursive writing done at the chalkboard or at their desks? 
4. Are left-handed students seated in a particular area in the 
classroom? Are they grouped with other left-handed students for pen¬ 
manship class? 
29 
5. Are recent, adequate teaching materials available for these 
students? 
6. What instructions are given the left-handed student regard¬ 
ing paper placement? 
7. How many of these left-handed students use a "hooked-wrist" 
approach to writing? 
A second part of the study was based on information acquired 
from questionnaires sent to three school systems involving 819 students 
and thirty-nine teachers of these students. The questionnaire requested 
the following information and was to be filled out by the classroom 
teacher. 
1. What grade level is this classroom? 
2. How many students are there in your classroom? 
3. How many of these students are left-handed? 
4. What is the approximate academic rating of these students? 
(average, above average, below average) 
5. Check the statement below that is the most accurate des¬ 
cription of your situation. 
a. I encourage left-handed students to write with their 
right hands? 
b. I insist that left-handed children write with their 
right hands. 
c. I sometimes encourage left-handed students to write 
30 
with their right hands. 
d. I accept children that write with their left hands and 
never try to change their handedness. 
e. Other (explain) 
6. Do your left-handed students begin initial manuscript at 
the chalkboard? At their desks? 
7. Do your left-handed students begin initial cursive writing 
at the chalkboard? At their desks? 
8. Where are left-handed students seated during the penmanship 
period? Check one of the following. 
a. In the left, front corner of the room facing the chalk¬ 
board or overhead projector screen. 
b. In the right, front corner of the room facing the chalk¬ 
board or overhead projector screen. 
c. Randomly seated among the right-handed students. 
d. Other (explain) 
9. When the left-handed students are writing, the blunt end of 
the pencil points over the left shoulder? Away from the writer? Other? 
10. Are left-to-right sequence exercises given to left-handed 
students before they try to form letters? 
11. How many of your left-handed students write with the back¬ 
hand slant? The forward slant? With no slant? 
12. Do you expect the same perfection from left-handed writers 
31 
that you do from the right-handed writers? 
13. Do you think that you had adequate training preparation 
for teaching penmanship to left-handed students? 
14. Are the teaching materials that you are using adequate for 
teaching the left-handed student to write? 
Forty-five questionnaires were distributed to three elementary 
school systems. Questions were answered by the classroom teachers and 
thirty-nine teachers returned their questionnaires. Results of these 
were tabulated and findings reported. One question concerning paper 
placement was not tabulated because of inaccuracies in validity of 
question as stated. 
Chapter 4 
FINDINGS REPORTED 
Introduction 
This study was conducted to determine what is being done to aid 
the left-handed student in meeting his writing needs. . One class of 
sixty-two first grade students in the Fort Benton Elementary School was 
chosen as the study group. There were six left-handed students in the 
group. Writing samples were collected twice each year until the group 
had progressed through the fourth grade. An attempt was made to deter¬ 
mine when and why so many of these students developed the ’'hooked-wrist" 
approach to writing and the writing slant that they used. 
Questionnaires included information gained from thirty-nine 
r 
teachers, kindergarten through grade six, in three elementary school 
systems in Montana. The information sought; was: (a) percentage of 
left-handed students, (b) sex of these students, (c) their approximate 
academic ability, (d) methods of presenting penmanship to the class, 
(e) room environment, (f) attitudes of the teachers toward changing the 
writing habits of the left-handed student, and (g) adequacy of teacher 
training programs. 
Teacher Observation and Interview 
Three first grade classrooms were observed during penmanship 
instruction the first nine-week period of the school term. Flat-topped 
33 
desks were used in all of the rooms. Large primary pencils and wide~ 
lined first grade paper were provided for the students’ use. 
First grade teachers were interviewed at this time and in every 
case revealed that students were accepted as left-handed writers and 
only in special cases where the handedness was not definite was there 
any attempt made to encourage the student to change his writing hand. 
None of the teachers interviewed insisted on any left-handed student 
writing with his right hand. Left-to-right sequence exercises were 
given as preparation to initial manuscript. Manuscript writing was 
initiated by writing both at the chalkboard and at the desk. Students 
were not grouped in any of the rooms but remained in their regular 
places for the writing lesson. 
Teachers of the second grade students were interviewed the 
following year. All of the above left-handed students were in. this 
class again. Teachers or the second grade made no attempt to change 
handedness or hand position. Two of these teachers mentioned that the 
patterns of writing have been set by the time the student is in the 
second grade. Students were randomly seated among the right-handed 
students in all classrooms. Texts used for instruction were outdated 
with little help for the left-handed writer. Teachers in the second 
grade instructed students in paper placement for manuscript, a 90° 
angle from the front of the desk. 
Three of the six left-handed students began cursive writing the 
34 
last semester of the second grade. Initial cursive writing was intro¬ 
duced to them at their desks. One teacher had her left-handed stu¬ 
dents write at the chalkboard during initial presentation and then to 
practice further writing at their desks. The other two introduced 
initial cursive writing at the childrenfs desks. 
Cursive writing was introduced to the remaining three left- 
handed students at the beginning of the third grade. Room environment 
parallelled that in the second grade. Materials had been updated in 
the whole school system and uniform teaching materials were adopted. 
More up-to-date and definite instructions were included in these new 
teaching materials for the left-handed student. Less time for instruc¬ 
tion of writing was allotted at this level and systematic instruction is 
often cut for lack of time. Individual directions and help were given 
as needed for the left-handed student in every case. 
Interviews with fourth grade teachers of these left-handed stu¬ 
dents revealed that one hour or less of each week was allotted for sys¬ 
tematic instruction of penmanship. Here, again, as in the third grade, 
penmanship was often the class that was omitted in case of shortage of 
time. Uniform and recent texts were used for instruction in all rooms. 
Practice paper had a narrower line, but it was still divided to help 
students get more uniformity in lower case letters. Grouping of left- 
handed students was done in one room only. Desks were suitable for 
writing with either hand. No pressure was applied in any of the rooms 
35 
for changing hand positions or paper placement. Suggestions for 
changing paper placement was made in one of the rooms but paper was 
always returned to the position that student was used to. 
Analysis of Penmanship Samples 
Samples of writing were collected from one class of left-handed 
students the first and third nine-week period for grades one through 
four. These were, sorted into two groups that, in the opinion of the 
writer, had: Cl) very legible writing with well-formed letters, and 
(2) writing that was illegible because of poorly formed letters, poor 
spacing, and errors in writing generally. 
From the samples of writing taken from these six left-handed 
students, three were easily read with few mechanical errors. These 
three students were above average in academic ability. One of these 
students was using the "hooked-wrist" approach in the first grade. The 
other two wrote with the blunt end of their pencils pointed over the 
left shoulder ana their writing hand beneath the line of writing. Cur¬ 
sive writing was initiated during the last nine weeks of the second 
grade. The students wrote at their desks not at the blackboard. The 
student using the "hooked-wrist" approach used the paper placement 
recommended for a right-handed student. His letters were perfectly 
formed, neat, and easy to read but he wrote slowly and with effort. 
The two using the other approach were not quite as precise in letter 
formation but wrote more quickly and easily with well-formed and 
36 
legible letters. None of these students wrote with back-sloped 
letters. 
The other three left-handed students were below average academi¬ 
cally. Manuscript letters were poorly formed and uniformity of size was 
lacking. They had trouble staying within the lines, forming and spa¬ 
cing letters and words. Two of these students showed reversals even 
as late as the third grade. In the second year, capital and small 
letters were inter-mixed. All three of these three students used a 
deEinite "booked-wrist" approach and writing was very slow and labored. 
There was no back-slcping or backhand writing in any of the samples 
of writing collected. 
Questionnaires 
Questionnaires were received from thirty-nine classrooms with 
a total population of 816 students, 54 percent male and 46 percent 
female. Eighty-nine students, or 10.9 percent, were left-handed stu¬ 
dents. Of the female portion of the population, 10.1 percent were 
left-handed students, 11.2 percent of the total male population were 
left-handed. Teachers reported the approximate academic standing of 
their left-handed students by checking for each, either "above average", 
"average", or "below average". Table 1, page 37, shows the academic 
ability of the left-handed students as rated by their teachers. It 
indicates that 28 percent of the left-handed students were rated by 
their teachers to be above average academically, 33 percent below 
37 
average, and 40 percent average. 
Table 1 
Population Distribution of Left-Handed Students 
and Approximate Academic Ratings 
Grade No. of 
Class¬ 
rooms 
Total 
population 
Total 
left-handed 
population 
Academic rating 
of left- 
handed students 
Male Female Male Female Above 
average 
Average Below 
average 
K 1 11 10 2 1 2 1 C 
1 8 <>0 70 4 8 3 3 6 
2 6 63 62 11 5 5 6 5 
3 7 75 65 9 5 3 10 i 
4 6 72 59 8 7 4 3 8 
3 5 61 54 S 3 1 9 1 
6 5 53 56 6 12 - 4 7 
Special 
education 1 5 3 1 0 0 0 1 
TOTAL 39 437 379 48 41 25 36 29 
Total 
percentage 54% 46% 11.2 10.1 28% 40% 33% 
Thirty-seven teachers accept children that write with their left 
hands and never try to change their handedness. Comments by teachers 
38 
to this part of the questionnaire were: 
1. Kindergarten teacher:/"If handedness is not definitely es¬ 
tablished, I use tests to see which hand they use most* Example: hand¬ 
ing things to them, which hand do they reach out for the object?" 
2. First-grade teacher: "I do not think that it is necessary 
for all of us to write right-handed." 
3. Second-grade teacher: "The first grade teacher decides 
this." 
4. Sixth-grade teacher: "By sixth grade, I feel it is too 
late to change handedness." 
One teacher reported that she encourages left-handed students to write 
with their right hand and another sometimes encourages them to do so. 
Initial manuscript writing is formally taught at the child’s 
entrance in school. For this reason, only first grade, kindergarten, 
and special education questionnaires were considered for determining 
whether these students write at the chalkboard, their desks, or a com¬ 
bination of chalkboard and writing at their desks. Table 2, page 39, 
refers to initial presentation of manuscript to left-handed students. 
Ninety percent of the teachers polled initiate manuscript at 
the chalkboard. Ten percent used a combination desk and chalkboard 
for initial presentation. 
39 
Table 2 
Introducing Initial Manuscript to Left-Handed Students 
Initial manuscript Chalkboard Desks Other 
Kindergarten 1 0 0 
First grade 7 0 0* 
Special education 1 0 
Total 9 0 
* At both the desk and the chalkboard 
Initial cursive writing usually begins during the second and 
third grades. Table 3 indicates initial presentation of < cursive writing 
to left-handed students in second and third gr ades and special education 
Table 3 
Introducing Initial Cursive Writing to Left-Handed Students 
Initial cursive Chalkboard Desks Other 
Second grade 4 1 1* 
Third grade 0 4 1** 
Special education 1 0 0 
Total 5 5 4 
* At both desks and chalkboard **At the desk and writing in the air 
*** Questionnaires were not answered in this area 
40 
Thirty-six percent of the teachers begin initial cursive wri¬ 
ting at the chalkboard, 36 percent at the desks, 7 percent used a com¬ 
bination of the desk and the chalkboard, and 7 percent practiced wri¬ 
ting new words at the desk and forming the individual letters in the 
air. 
Three of the most often used hand positions are shown in Table 
4. Most of the. left-handed students in this study point the blunt end 
of the pencil over their left shoulders. 
Table 4 
How Left-Handed Students Hold Their Pencils When Writing 
Position Number of students Percentage 
Over the left shoulder 61 75% 
Away from the writer 14 17% 
Right angle to the body 6 8% 
Are separate and different writing instructions given to the 
left-handed and the right-handed students? Forty-six percent of the 
teachers polled indicated that they give writing instructions to both 
the left-handed and the right-handed students simultaneously (both re¬ 
ceive the same instructions). Another 10 percent give writing instruc¬ 
tions for the right-handed students and the left-handed students must 
decide for themselves the best way to write. Forty-one percent of the 
41 
teachers give different and separate writing instructions for the left- 
handed students. Five percent reported that individual help was given 
to the left-handed students. 
How many left-handed students use the backsloped or backhanded 
slant when writing, either manuscript or cursive? Table 5, page 42, 
indicates the writing slant of left-handed students. Ninety percent 
of left-handed students use no slant at all when writing manuscript. 
Three and five-tenths percent of these students use backsloping and 
7.5 percent a forward slant. 
Grades three through six use cursive writing predominately. 
Forty-four percent of these students use no slant when writing, 32 
percent use the forward slant, and only 24 percent use the backslope. 
The seating arrangement of the left-handed students in the 
classroom could have some effect on the writing habits of these stu¬ 
dents. Table 6, page 43, indicates the seating arrangement for the 
left-handed students during penmanship instruction. 
Ninety-five percent of the teachers in this survey seat left- 
handed students randomly among the right-handed students during the 
penmanship instruction period. Only two teachers seated left-handed 
students in the left-front corner of the classroom and no teacher 
grouped left-handed students in the right front corner of the classroom 
facing the chalkboard or overhead projector. 
42 
Table 5 
Writing Slant of Left-Handed Students 
Manuscript 
Back slant Forward slant No slant 
Kindergarten 
First grade 
Second grade 
Third grade 
Fourth grade 
Fifth grade 
Sixth grade 
Special education 
0 0 
1 0 
0 3 
1 -3 
Cursive Writing 
1 8 
3
 4 
6 2 
3 5 
1 0 
14 19 
1 
11 
13 
25 
5 
8 
3 
10 
0 
26 
No slant 
Back slant 
Forward slant 
No slant 
Back slant 
Forward slant 
Manuscript - Left-handed students 90% 
3.5% 
7.5% 
Cursive Writing - left-handed students 44% 
32% 
24% 
43 
Findings from one question concerning paper placement was not 
reported here because, in the writer^ opinion, accurate, pertinent in¬ 
formation was not gained from replies to the questionnaire. 
Table 6 
Seating Arrangement for Left-Handed Students 
During Penmanship Instruction 
Seating arrangement Number of teachers 
using the method 
Percentage 
Left-handed students are seated: 
In the left front corner of the 
room facing the chalkboard or 
overhead projector screen 2 5 
In the right front corner of 
the room facing the chalkboard 
or overhead projector screen 0 0 
Randomly among the right- 
handed students 37 95 
Table 7 shows teacher's expectation of writing perfection of 
the left-handed students. (See page 44) 
Ninety-two percent of the teachers expect or usually expect 
that left-handed students should write as well as right-handed students. 
Only 8 percent of the teachers do not expect this perfection from their 
left-handed students. 
44 
Table 7 
Teachers Expectation of Writing Perfection 
of the Left-Handed Students 
Yes Usually No 
Do teachers expect the same perfection 
from left-handed writers that they 
expect from right-handed writers? 20 16 3 
Percentage 51% 41% 8% 
Table 8 indicates instructional materials available for teach- 
ing penmanship to the left-handed students. 
Table 8 
Instructional Materials Available for Teaching 
• Penmanship to the Left-Handed Students 
Yes No 
Recent and adequate instructional materials 
are available for left-handed students 18 20 
Over half of the teachers reported that they did not have 
recent or adequate teaching materials for use in instructing the left- 
handed student in penmanship. 
45 
Table 9 reports teacher-training programs for left-handed stu¬ 
dent's penmanship as reported by teachers. 
Table 9 
Teacher-l’raining Programs for Left-Handed Student's 
Penmanship as Reported by Teachers 
Yes No 
Do you believe that you had adequate training for 
teaching penmanship to the left-handed student? 6 33 
Percentage 15% S5% 
Eighty-five percent of the teachers questioned do not think 
that the teacher-training programs are preparing them to help the left- 
handed student meet his writing needs. 
Chapter 5 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
Summary 
This study was conducted to determine what is being done to 
help the left-handed student meet his writing needs. The left-handed 
students of the Fort Benton Elementary School were chosen as a study 
group. \ Samples of penmanship were collected twice a year for four 
consecutive years from this group in an effort to determine: (1) the 
particular time or conditions under which the left-handed student 
started writing with the nhooked-wristu hand position, and (2) the most 
common writing slant that these left-handed students use.. 
Teachers of this class were interviewed each year until the 
class had progressed.through grade four. The purpose of the interview 
was to determine: (1) methods of initial presentation of both cursive 
and manuscript writing, (2) room environment of the left-handed stu¬ 
dents during penmanship instruction, (3) approximate academic rating of 
the left-handed students, (4) the number of left-handed students using 
the "hooked-wrist" approach to writing, and (5) materials available 
for instruction for the left-handed student. 
The study was further extended to include three elementary 
school systems in rural Montana. Information was accumulated through 
questionnaires regarding 819 students, eighty-nine of whom were left- 
47 
handed students. Data collected concerned: (a) percentage of left- 
handed students, Cb) sex of these students, (c) their approximate aca¬ 
demic ability, (d) methods of presenting penmanship to the class, 
(e) room environment, (f) attitudes of the teachers toward changing 
the writing habits of the left-handed student, and Cg) adequacy of 
teacher training programs. 
Upon completion of the study and on the basis of the findings 
reported, it would seem apparent that the left-handed students, not 
because of willful neglect on the part of most teachers, but because of 
lack of knowledge of many teachers to meet the left-handed students 
needs and lack of up-to-date materials for instruction. A second con¬ 
sideration could be the apathy on the part of many teachers, particu¬ 
larly in upper elementary, toward the necessity of systematic instruc¬ 
tion in penmanship. . 
Conclusions 
As a result of this study, the following conclusions can be 
made from the data collected: 
1. In an average classroom, a teacher will be likely to have 
two or three left-handed students. About 40 .percent of these left- 
handed students may have an average academic ability, about 30 percent 
may have above average academic ability, and about 30 percent below 
average ability. Host of the teachers expect that these left-handed 
students should write as well as the right-handed students. Only 8 
48 
percent of the teachers in the study did not expect this perfection 
from their left-handed students. 
2. Ninety-five percent of the left-handed students in this 
study were seated randomly among other students in the classroom during 
penmanship instruction. Five percent of teachers polled seat their 
left-handed students in the left-front corner of the classroom facing 
the chalkboard or overhead projector. Grouping left-handed students in 
the right front corner of the classroom, as recommended in the litera¬ 
ture, facing the chalkboard or overhead projector was not done by any 
of the teachers. 
3. Most teachers accepted left-handed students and did not 
attempt to change their handedness when writing. An exception to this 
was a kindergarten teacher who tests if handedness has not been defi¬ 
nitely established. If it is not definite, the student is encouraged 
to use his right hand when writing. 
4. Initial manuscript writing was, in most cases, introduced 
to left-handed first grade and kindergarten students at the chalkboard. 
Thirty-six percent of the teachers reporting presented initial cursive 
writing to left-handed students at the chalkboard, and an equal number 
used student's desks for the initial cursive writing instruction. The 
remaining teachers used both the desk and the chalkboard or the desk 
supplemented by forming individual letters in the air. 
5. More than half of the left-handed students received no 
49 
writing instructions that were directed specifically to the left-handed 
student’s problems. Writing instructions were given for the right-handed 
students and the left-handed students were left to decide their own 
best way of writing. 
6. Host of the left-handed students have no slant to their 
manuscript writing. Only 3.5 percent of these students write with a 
backslope. In cursive writing, 32 percent use the backslant, 44 per¬ 
cent write with no s.lant, and 24 percent write with the forward slant. 
7. Recent and adequate teaching materials used to instruct the 
left-handed student in penmanship were not available to more than half 
of the teachers reporting. 
8. Teacher training programs seem to leave teachers unprepared 
to help the left-handed student meet his writing needs. This was re¬ 
ported by 85 percent of the teachers. 
Recommendations 
This study is limited by the size and local area of the popula¬ 
tion but some insights into possible weaknesses in teaching practices 
and school curriculums have been gained. The following recommendations 
are made from the conclusions of this study: 
1. It is the teacher’s responsibility to know the best and 
easiest writing methods for the left-handed student to use success¬ 
fully and to provide direction for him. 
50 
2. The administration and the teachers need to be aware of 
r.ew teaching materials that provide directions and helps for the left- 
handed students and to make use of them. 
3. In-service programs should be provided to bring teachers 
up-to-date in this neglected area of instruction. 
4. It is recommended that a study be made of the effect of 
seating in the classroom on the ability of the left-handed student to 
write. Literature cites special advantages in seating left-handed 
students in the right,front corner of the room facing the chalkboard 
or overhead projector during penmanship instruction. None of the 
teachers in the study used this seating arrangement of seating for 
left-handed students. 
5. It is recommended that a study be made of presenting both 
manuscript and cursive writing to the left-handed students at the 
chalkboard and continuing to write there until the hand-position-habit 
is fixed. Literatures cite this as a preventative measure against the 
,rhooked-wristu writing approach. 
6. It is recommended that a study be mede of the use of film- 
loops to provide individualized teaching of writing to left-handed 
students. The student would sit in front of a small screen and watch 
the demonstration of writing from the same angle that he would be using 
to write. This should help the student to use the correct hand posi¬ 
tion and to form the elements of writing correctly. The filmloop is 
51 
continuous and practice could continue until it had been mastered. 
This may be of particular benefit to the left-handed student whose 
teacher is right-handed and who gives instruction for the right-handed 
student only. 
Discussion 
Penmanship is no longer stressed as an artful communication, 
rather one of necessity with the most basic requirements that it be 
legible and be written with smooth and easy movements. Apathy toward 
writing was shown in this study by; (1) lack of systematic writing 
instruction in intermediate grades, (2) lack of recent and adequate 
teaching materials, and (3) by the number of teachers who felt inade¬ 
quate in teaching left-handed students to write because of lack of 
teacher training. 
APPENDIX 
53 
MEETING THE WRITING NEEDS OF THE LEFT-HANDED STUDENTS 
(A questionnaire for elementary teachers) 
DIRECTIONS: Do not write your name on this questionnaire. Answer the 
questions accurately and return to your principal's office as soon as 
possible. 
Grade level of teaching (Circle one) K 1 23 4 56 
1. How many students are there in your classroom?   
Boys  ^ 
Girls  
2. How many of these students write left-handed?   
Boys  
Girls  
3. Check the approximate academic rating 
of these left-handed students. Average   
Above Average  
Below Average  
4. Check the statement below that is the most accurate description 
of your situation. 
a. I encourage left-handed students to write 
with their right hands.  
b. I insist that left-handed children write 
with their right hands.   
c. I sometimes encourage left-handed students 
to write with their right hands.   
. I accept children that write with their left 
hands and never try to change their handedness.     
d 
54 
e. Other (explain) 
5. Do your left-handed students begin initial manuscript writing 
at the chalkboard? 
at their desks? 
6. Do your left-handed students begin initial cursive writing 
at the chalkboard? 
at their desks? 
7. During the penmanship period, left-handed students are seated: 
a. In the left front corner of the room facing 
the chalkboard or overhead projector screen 
♦ 
b. In the right front corner of the room facing 
the chalkboard or overhead projector screen 
c. Randomly seated among the right-handed students 
d. Other (explain)    
8. When the students are writing, the blunt end of 
the pencil points (designate number of left- 
handed students in blank) 
over the left shoulder 
away from the writer 
other (explain) 
9. Are writing instructions given (check one): 
a. To both the left-handed and the right-handed students 
simultaneously? (Both receive the same instructions) 
55 
b. Different and separate instructions for the left-¬ 
handed group and the right-handed group? 
c. For the right-handed students and the left-handed 
students are left to decide for himself the best way 
for him to write? 
10. Are left-to-right sequence exercises given to the left- 
handed students before they try to form letters? Yes 
No 
11. Write the number of students who use each of the following methods 
of paper placement under the figure that most closely represents 
the method used. If none of the below are accurate, please put a 
representation of this or other methods used in the blank space 
No. 4. ‘ - > 
Fig. 1 
Fig. 2 
 Fig. 2 
Fig. 3 ~ 
Fig. 4 
Fig. 3  Fig. 4 
12, How many of your left-handed students; 
a. write with the backhand slant?    
b. write with the forward slant?    
c. write with no slant?   
13. Do you expect the same perfection from left-handed writers that 
you do from the right-handed writers? 
No Yes Usually 
56 
14. Do you believe that you had adequate training 
preparation for teaching penmanship to 
left-handed students? 
No • Yes 
15. Are the materials (texts) that you are 
using adequate for teaching the left- 
handed student to write? No Yes 
Thank you for your time. 
Ellen M. Nottingham 
LITERATURE CITED 
LITERATURE CITED 
1. D. W. Anderson, Handwriting research, Elementary English, XLII 
(January, 1965), 45-53. 
2. A. Borders, Facility of the left hand, Education, LXXXIV (September, 
1963) , 53-55. 
3. Ruth and Edward Brecher, Five kinds of handedness, Parents Magazine, 
XXXV (January, 1960), 50-51. 
4. Harold D. Drummond, Suggestions for the "lefties", The National 
Elementary Principal, No. 5, XXXVIII (February, 3959). 
5. E. A. Enstrom, The extent of the use of the, left-hand in hand¬ 
writing, Journal of Educational Research, LV (February, 1962), 
234-235. 
6.  i Paper placement for manuscript writing. Elementary 
English, LX (May, 1963), 518-522. 
7.    , Research in teaching the left-handed, Instructor, 
LXXIV (October, 1964), 44-46. 
8. :  , Ready, willing and able for cursive handwriting. 
Instructor, LXXV (October> 1965), 32-34. 
9. , The left-handed child, Today's Education NEA 
Journal, No. 4, LVIII (April, 1969), 43-44. 
10. •  , and Doris E. Enstrom, In print handwriting: pre¬ 
venting and solving reversal problems. Elementary English, 
XLVI (October, 1969), 759-64). 
11. Frank N. Freeman, How to deal with left-handedness, NEA Journal 
XLIV (January, 1960), 12-13. 
12. Beatrice A. Furrier, The perceptual-motor nature of learning in hand¬ 
writing, Elementary English, XLVI (November, 1969), 886-94. 
13. Frances Goforth and C. W. Hunnicutt, A new slant on the second r. 
Today’s Education NEA Journal, LIX (February, 1970), 45-46. 
14. Patrick J. Groff, Who are the better writers, the left-handed or 
the right-handed?, Elementary School Journal, LXV (November, 
1964) , 92-96. 
59 
15. Loxcell W. HorLon, Illigibilitles in the cursive handwriting of 
sixth graders. The Elementary School Journal, XLXX (May, 
1970), 446-450. 
16.   > The second r: a working bibliography, Elementary 
English, XLVI (April, 1969), 426-430. 
17. Mary Margaret Kern, What about left-handers?, Better Homes and 
Gardens, XXXVII (February, 1959), 12. 
18. Left-handed children need writing helps, Science Newsletter, 
LX7III (July 23, ±955), 56. 
19. Ned D. Marksheffel, Composition, handwriting, and spelling, Review 
of: Educational Research, XXXIV (April, 1964), 130-182. 
20. Frances Drewry McMullen, T.7hat we know know about left-handedness?. 
Parents Magazine, XXXI (January, 1956), 46, 70-72. 
21. R. V. Norris, What we now know about the left-handers. Better 
Homes and Gardens, XXIX (September, 1951), 224-226, 228-229. ' 
22. J. E. Ray and G. K. Stegman, Teaching lettering to left-handed 
students, Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, XLV (liay, 
1956), 153-154. 
23. Oresta R. Rondinella, An evaluation of subjectivity of elementary 
school teachers grading handwriting, Elementary English, XL 
(May, 1963), 531-32. 
24. C. T. Slots, Left-handers in the family?, (adapted from Improve 
Your Handwriting), Parents Magazine, XXXIII (November, 1958), 
47-49. 
25. M. A. Strahan, Filmloop to teach handwriting. Instructor, LXXX 
LXXX { May, 1971), 70-71. 
26. W. N Williams, What do we know about lefties?. Grade Teacher, 
LXXXi (June, 1964), 45-46. 
27. Dorothy Ure, Spelling performance of left-handed school children 
as affected by the use of a pencil modified to increase visual 
feedback, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, XCVI 
(April, 1969), 220-230.