Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140
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Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
journa l homepage: ht tp : / /www.e lsev ier .com/ locate /dcn
An ERP study of conflict monitoring in 4–8-ye
Associa
Kristin A ra, L
a Department o
b Department o es
a r t i c l
Article history:
Received 30 A
Received in re
13 December 2010
Accepted 29 December 2010
Keywords:
ERP
N2
Conflict monit
Temperament
Development
t in ide
ology, t
he N2,
linked cognitive and affective risk factors for anxiety. Most of this research, however, has
been conducted with adults, adolescents, and older children, but not with younger chil-
dren. To address this gap, the current study examined 26 4–8-year-olds, who completed a
cued flanker task while EEG was continuously recorded. We assessed whether the N2 was
detectable in this group of young children and examined associations between the N2 and
1. Introdu
There ha
understand
cesses (e.g.,
on theoretic
to the deve
and adapti
1995; Posne
Although th
types of cog
ical marker
∗ Correspon
Building I, The
United States.
E-mail add
1878-9293/$ –
doi:10.1016/j.oring factors reflecting affective risk (e.g., reduced executive attention, temperamental effortful
control, and temperamental surgency).We documented anN2 effect (greater N2 amplitude
to incongruent versus congruent flankers), but only in children older than 6 years of age.
Increases in the N2 effect were associated with less efficient executive attention and lower
temperamental effortful control.Wediscuss the implications of these findings and consider
how they may inform future studies on biomarkers for cognitive and affective risk factors
for anxiety.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
ction
s been a surge of research in recent years on
ing the development of cognitive control pro-
inhibitoryandattentional control) based inpart
al andempirical studies linking theseprocesses
lopment of emotion regulation, self-regulation
ve behavioral outcomes (e.g., Rothbart et al.,
r andRothbart, 2007; Lewis andStieben, 2004).
ere have been numerous studies linking these
nitive control processes with neurophysiolog-
s via scalp recorded event-related potentials
ding author at: 163 Child Study Center, University Support
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802,
Tel.: +1 814 863 1715; fax: +1 814 865 7002.
ress: kbuss@psu.edu (K.A. Buss).
(ERPs), most of this work has been with older children,
adolescents and adults. For example, the N2 is a early
frontal negativity that is elicited during conflict and inhi-
bition tasks (Nieuwenhuis et al., 2003) and is believed to
be a marker for cognitive control processes, most notably
conflict monitoring and detection (Van Veen and Carter,
2002a,b). However, we do not know much about the pres-
ence or function of the N2 and the association between the
N2 and behavioral indicators of risk and resilience in very
young children. Thus, the primary goal of current study
was to test whether the N2 (1) is present and (2) varies
predictably with degree of stimulus conflict in a sample of
typically developing children as young as 4 years of age.
Attentional processes, such as executive control, are
believed to be important links between early temperament
(e.g., fearful behavior) and either adaptive or maladap-
tive outcomes (Olvet and Hajcak, 2008; Lewis et al., 2008).
For instance, vigilant attention to threat and effortful con-
see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
dcn.2010.12.003tions with temperament
. Bussa,∗, Tracy A. Dennisb, Rebecca J. Brooke
f Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, United States
f Psychology, Hunter College of The City University of New York, United Stat
e i n f o
pril 2010
vised form
a b s t r a c t
Although there is great interes
that create risk for psychopath
event-related potential (ERP), tar old children:
auren M. Sippela
ntifying the neural correlates of cognitive processes
here is a paucity of research in young children. One
is thought to index conflict monitoring and has been
132 K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140
trol have been examined as mechanisms in the etiology
of anxiety (Mathews and MacLeod, 2005; Lonigan et al.,
2004; Lonigan and Vasey, 2009). Numerous studies have
documented physiological differences associated with the
developme
as fearful/i
review) and
Rothbart, 2
the temper
sis which g
behavior (K
affective, at
play a role i
problems (D
Perez-Edga
tial to serve
diathesis as
2009; Denn
secondary g
the N2 is as
have been l
tion, loweff
surgency.
1.1. N2 and
The N2 i
frontocentr
and 400ms
are though
trol resourc
incorrect re
Folstein an
those cond
reflected in
Veen andCa
erated duri
response te
tasks that r
(e.g., Go-No
(e.g., incong
2008; Kopp
and Carter,
is expected
compared t
The N2,
(e.g., error-
of the ante
Carter et al.
key region o
cessing of b
et al., 2004
bulk of this
very little r
the N2 in ch
1.2. Develo
As early
which ther
Nugent, 19
N2 tends to be larger in children compared to adults and
generally decreases with age (Henderson, 2010; Johnstone
et al., 2005; Jonkman, 2006; Lewis et al., 2006b; Lewis
and Stieben, 2004), although some exceptions have been
mente
itude i
ognitiv
itudes
contr
; Gold
e N2 ar
tures,
) and r
).
both
rators
owev
ation t
, 2006a
ctivati
vemen
ion to
is et al
addit
2, ind
een th
across
2 in c
r unde
l regul
lopme
et al.
t dev
ren (ag
(ages
nse to
ren (ag
a chan
near c
s child
unders
al effe
N2 rela
iors
revie
of the
e will r
ences
also m
nd sim
itive c
g the
with a
er em
r regu
iated
12 y
was
, it apnt of temperamental variation in behavior such
nhibited behavior (see Fox et al., 2005 for
attentional and effortful control (Posner and
007). Specifically, it has been proposed that
amental inhibition includes a biological diathe-
ives rise to a pattern of fearful and anxious
agan et al., 1992). The N2 has been linked to
tentional, and cognitive factors that appear to
n the emergence of a range ofmood and anxiety
ennis and Chen, 2009; Ladouceur et al., 2010;
r and Fox, 2005). Thus, the N2 has the poten-
as a neurophysiological marker for a biological
sociated with affective risk (Dennis and Chen,
is et al., 2009; Luu and Tucker, 2004). Thus, a
oal of the current study is to examine whether
sociated with temperamental differences that
inked to affective risk: reduced executive atten-
ortful control, highnegative affectivity, and low
conflict monitoring
s a negative-going waveform that is maximal in
al electrodes appearing sometime between 200
after the onset of a stimulus. N2 amplitudes
t to reflect the degree to which cognitive con-
es are recruited to resolve conflict and inhibit
sponses (Braver et al., 2001; Jones et al., 2002;
d Van Petten, 2008). Thus, the N2 is largest in
itions that involve the most conflict typically
increasederror ratesand/or reaction times (Van
rter, 2002a,b).Methodologically, theN2 is gen-
ng tasks in which two or more incompatible
ndencies are activated at the same time such as
equire the inhibition of a pre-potent response
Go task) or that include incongruent stimuli
ruent visual flankers) (Folstein and Van Petten,
et al., 1996;Nieuwenhuis et al., 2003; VanVeen
2002a,b). For instance, in a flanker task the N2
to be larger to the incongruent (conflict trials)
o the congruent trials (i.e., N2 effect).
along with other medial frontal negativities
related negativity), has been linked to activity
rior cingulate cortex (ACC; Banich et al., 2001;
, 1998;VanVeenandCarter, 2002a,b),which is a
f the medial frontal cortex involved in the pro-
oth cognitive and affective conflict (e.g., Bishop
; Vuilleumier et al., 2001). Again, however, the
work has been conducted in adults so there is
esearch clarifying the functional significance of
ildren.
pment of the N2
as age 4, the N2 is evident in contexts in
e is cognitive emotional challenge (Nelson and
90; Todd et al., 2007). The amplitude of the
docu
ampl
on c
ampl
nitive
1997
in th
struc
2005
1999
In
gene
tex; h
activ
et al.
N2 a
invol
addit
(Lew
In
the N
betw
able
the N
large
tiona
deve
Todd
sisten
child
cents
respo
child
gest
nonli
acros
fully
ment
1.3.
behav
As
ment
As w
differ
ior is
N2 a
cogn
durin
dren
great
bette
assoc
8 and
same
Thusd (Ladouceur et al., 2004). This decline in N2
s often accompanied by improved performance
e tasks (Lamm et al., 2006) and smaller N2
are observed during tasks of attention and cog-
ol (Bachevalier and Mishkin, 1984; Casey et al.,
man et al., 1971). Thus age-related reductions
e thought to reflect the maturation of physical
including cortical thickening (O’Donnell et al.,
eductions in grey matter volume (Giedd et al.,
children and adults, the N2 is linked to neural
in medial frontal areas of the cingulate cor-
er, children show considerably more posterior
han is seen in adults (Jonkman, 2006; Lewis
,b; Stieben et al., 2007). This pattern of greater
on in posterior cortical regions suggests the
t of more automatic attentional processing in
more deliberative top-down cognitive control
., 2006a,b; Stieben et al., 2007).
ion to these general developmental changes in
ividual variation in N2 amplitudes and links
e N2 and emotional traits are somewhat vari-
development. In general, the amplitude of
hildren compared to adults is expected to be
r conditions that require cognitive or emo-
ation, suggesting that systemmay still be under
nt (Johnstone et al., 2005; Lewis et al., 2006b;
, 2007). However, there are also some incon-
elopmental findings. For instance, both young
es 4–6; Nelson and Nugent, 1990) and adoles-
13–16; Lewis et al., 2006b) show a larger N2 in
emotional information relative to school-aged
es 7–12 across studies). These differences sug-
ging attunement to emotional information or
hanges in emotion-related sensitivity of the N2
hood. Thus, the development of the N2 is not
tood andmore research documenting develop-
cts are needed.
tions with affective and cognitive control
wed above, findings concerning the develop-
N2 in terms of amplitude are somewhatmixed.
eview next, the literature examining individual
in the association between the N2 and behav-
ixed. Research findings demonstrate that the
ilar medial frontal negativities thought to tap
ontrol are larger and have a shorter latency
experience of negative emotion and in chil-
nxiety (Lewis et al., 2008). On the other hand,
otional flexibility, thought to be indicative of
lation and control of negative emotions, is also
with larger N2 amplitudes in children between
ears of age (Lewis et al., 2006a), although the
not true in younger children (5–7-year olds).
pears for older children and adolescents that
K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140 133
both increased negative affect and more effective regula-
tionof negative emotions is linked to greater neural “effort”
as reflected in larger N2 amplitudes. Given the ongoing
development of prefrontal cortical regions in young chil-
dren, great
recruitmen
mance and
otherhand,
ral inefficie
less efficien
ies with adu
older childr
There h
association
activity. In
as high soo
ciated with
cognitive co
In contrast,
(2010)dem
high-shy ch
ent flanker
was not a d
shyness sug
reflecting re
sures such a
these neura
understand
aspects of t
Given t
emergence
2002; Pere
in the pre
tions betwe
Although r
amplitudes
(the N2 effe
et al., 1996;
2002a,b), ot
associated
mance (i.e.,
to congruen
larger N2 e
which resu
executive a
case in child
In the p
between th
Attention N
is a cued fl
performanc
crete doma
(Posner and
us to exam
N2 and exe
a range of a
Taken to
are inconclu
are associat
negative aff
highlights t
incongruent–congruent) because it reflects conflict mon-
itoring (incongruent) relative to a non-conflict baseline
(congruent); in contrast, most of the research reported
above with children only examines correlations between
mplitu
idual d
oth t
erame
ous stu
l reso
ction
might
fect –
t possi
nt stu
elated
tful co
d the
examin
onflict
he cur
ildhoo
hich
tive pr
e ong
ol.Mo
any a
n com
cellen
treme
y the N
evelo
ap, in t
N2 in
ren, as
NT, an
in tem
e teste
will
itudes
fect—l
t tria
-like p
cause
ehavi
ratory
to sho
e to w
with p
ypothe
with l
, we ex
rnal re
broad
affect
the
l mar
ever, w
tively cer N2 amplitudes might indicate the effective
t of cognitive resources to support task perfor-
be associated with better performance. On the
greaterN2amplitudes could also reflect a “neu-
ncy” pattern (i.e., increased N2 associated with
t behavioral performance) found in some stud-
lts (e.g., Dennis and Chen, 2009) and studies of
en (Lamm and Lewis, 2010).
ave been a handful of studies examining the
between temperamental variation and N2
children as young as age 7, characteristics such
thability or attention control have been asso-
larger N2 amplitudes during different types of
ntrol tasks (Perez-Edgar and Fox, 2005, 2007).
in a sample of children ages 9–12, Henderson
onstrated increased social anxietyoutcomes for
ildren with larger N2 amplitudes to incongru-
trials. However, in the Henderson study there
irect association between N2 amplitudes and
gesting that perhaps temperamental shyness,
activity, may be distinct from regulatory mea-
s those indexedby theN2. Thus, examinationof
l markers in young children may be critical for
ing the relation between reactive and control
emperament.
he importance of attentional factors in the
of mood and anxiety problems (Fox et al.,
z-Edgar and Fox, 2005; Vasey et al., 1995),
sent study we wished to examine associa-
en the N2 and executive attention efficiency.
esearch with adults suggests that greater N2
to incongruent compared to congruent trials
ct) reflects adaptive conflict monitoring (Kopp
Nieuwenhuis et al., 2003; Van Veen and Carter,
her research suggests that larger N2 effects are
with less efficient executive attention perfor-
slower reaction times to incongruent compared
t trials; Dennis and Chen, 2009). Therefore, a
ffect may reflect less efficient control capacity
lts in poor task performance (i.e., less efficient
ttention). It is unclear whether this is also the
ren.
resent study, we will examine associations
e N2 and attention performance using the
etwork Test (ANT; Fan et al., 2002). The ANT
anker task that yields measures of attention
e in three anatomically and functionally dis-
ins: alerting, orienting, and executive attention
Petersen, 1990; Fan et al., 2002). Thiswill allow
ine the specificity of associations between the
cutive attention, or whether the N2 is linked to
ttentional processes.
gether, these studies with adults and children
sive in terms of whether larger N2 amplitudes
ed with greater cognitive control and reduced
ect, or vice versa. Notably, research with adults
he importance of focusing on the N2 effect (i.e.,
N2 a
indiv
ine b
temp
previ
neura
distin
there
N2 ef
effor
prese
are r
effor
exten
only
the c
1.4. T
Ch
N2, w
affec
ing th
contr
has m
tratio
an ex
of ex
natel
and d
this g
in the
child
the A
ences
W
there
ampl
N2 ef
gruen
adult
Be
and b
explo
tive
degre
ated
we h
ated
Next
mate
three
ative
Given
neura
How
negades to conflict-only contexts and behavioral
ifferences. In the present study, we will exam-
o better tease apart how the N2 relates to
ntalpredispositionsand tobetter comparewith
dies. That is, if the N2 effect reflects activity of
urces to resolve the conflict there should be a
between congruent and incongruent trials, but
beacost toperformance if thatdistinction– the
is too large (reflecting inefficiency or too much
bly reflecting that task is too difficult). In the
dy, we will examine whether greater N2 effects
to disrupted attention performance, reduced
ntrol, and increased negative affect. This will
existing research with children that typically
e theN2within trial-type (and typically during
trials).
rent study
d is a period of extensive cognitive change. The
is highly sensitive to changes in cognitive and
ocessing,maybeparticularly useful formeasur-
oing development of emotional and cognitive
reover, theuse of ERPs in researchwith children
dvantages, including relative ease of adminis-
pared to other neuroimaging techniques, and
t temporal resolution that allows measurement
ly rapid covert cognitive processes. Unfortu-
2 literature as it pertains to child populations
pmental processes is quite sparse. To address
his study,we examined age-related differences
a sample of 4–8-year-old, typically developing
sociations with attention performance during
d whether the N2 varied with individual differ-
perament.
d three hypotheses. First,wehypothesized that
be age-related changes in the pattern of N2
such that older children would show a clear
argerN2 amplitudes to incongruent versus con-
ls during the flanker task, reflecting a more
attern.
results on theassociationbetween theN2effect
or are mixed, the next set of hypotheses was
. Even though it is developmentally norma-
w a larger N2 effect compared to adult, the
hich this distinction is made may be associ-
roblems. Thus, given the most recent research,
sized that a larger N2 effect would be associ-
ess efficient executive attention performance.
plored the relation between the N2 effect and
port of temperament. Specifically, we focus on
dimensions of temperament: surgency, neg-
, and effortful control (Rothbart et al., 2001).
paucity of research linking temperament to
kers, these analyses were largely exploratory.
e did hypothesize that the N2 effect would be
orrelated with the temperament dimension of
134 K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140
effortful control which most closely measures the execu-
tive functioning, as well as increased negative affect and
reduced surgency.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Thirty-five children participated in the current study.
Participants were recruited through fliers and announce-
ments in a community newsletter. To be eligible for
participation, children had to be between 4 and 8 years of
age, right-handed, free of any known neurological impair-
ments, andnot takinganystimulantmedications.Of the full
sample, fou
one child re
could not b
Thus, 29 ch
children pr
average age
The sample
shead index
the sample
ties.
2.2. Proced
2.2.1. Labor
Upon de
ticipation i
including a
tionnaire to
visit. Upon
with a neu
baseline re
tory episod
and attenti
Families re
received a s
2.2.2. Atten
Children
AttentionN
Rueda et al.
ogy Softwa
was presen
back to part
the task. Ch
the compu
1 As a part o
with a strange
child was seat
tant) entered t
engaged the c
stranger asked
“What other t
Following this
purpose and f
it was time fo
completion of
hold in their lap or place on a table in front of them,
whichever was more comfortable.
The experimenter explained the task to eachparticipant
using a set of index cards depicting an array of five fish. Par-
ticipantsw
the middle
using the re
als, the exp
button on
response fo
When it wa
started with
A sessio
tice trials a
began
s. For
rning
d for
onditi
cue.
nted
ouble
of the
e spat
e posi
0ms f
his, th
n unti
ms el
were
n and
essing
irectio
he tar
direc
surrou
Accur
A sch
.
Elect
G dat
nel de
analyz
eodes
0Hz.
(Fer
record
-bit a
r acqu
eferen
orrect
öfer
scree
n, EG
movem
ding
highp
Hz. C
rimentr children refused towear the electrode cap and
moved the cap during data collection. One visit
e completed due to equipment malfunction.
ildren (10 females) completed the visit and 26
ovided complete EEG and behavioral data. The
of participants was 68.58 months (SD=15.49).
was largely middle-class, with mean Holling-
of 48.62 (12.62) ranging from 21 to 66; 80% of
was Caucasian with 20% racial/ethnic minori-
ure
atory visit
termining that their child was eligible for par-
n the study, parents were mailed a packet
consent form and a child temperament ques-
be completed and brought to the laboratory
arrival to the laboratory, children were fitted
ral net used for EEG data collection. Following
cording, the children participated in labora-
es including a conversation with a stranger1
on task followed by a post baseline collection.
ceived $20 for their participation and children
mall gift.
tion network test
individually completed a child version of the
etworkTest (Dennis et al., 2009; Fanet al., 2002;
, 2004) on a Dell PC using E-Prime 1.1 (Psychol-
re Tools, Inc.: Pittsburgh, PA). The experimenter
t throughout testing, but did not provide feed-
icipants outside of encouragement to complete
ildren were seated approximately 10 in. from
ter screen and given a response box to either
f the laboratory visit, children took part in a conversation
r episode designed to elicit fear and wariness. While the
ed in front of the computer, a stranger (2nd research assis-
he physiology chamber, stood next to the child’s chair, and
hild in casual conversation for approximately 2min. The
questions (e.g., “What kinds of games do you like to play?”
hings do you like to do?”) and waited for child to respond.
, the stranger spoke, from a script, to the child about the
unctions of the EEG net (approximately 1min), stated that
r them to leave, and exited the experimental room. After
this task, children completed the ANT task.
trial
400m
a wa
sente
cue c
or no
prese
the d
tions
In th
in th
of 45
ing t
scree
1700
pants
scree
by pr
the d
als, t
same
was
tion.
trial.
Fig. 1
2.2.3.
EE
chan
and
cal G
of 50
70k
was
a 16
Cz fo
age r
and c
Jungh
were
Statio
eye
excee
were
at 35
expe
yses.ere instructed to pay attention only to the fish in
of the array (i.e., the target) and “feed that fish”
sponse box. Prior to beginning the practice tri-
erimenter asked participants to indicate which
the response box corresponded to the correct
r the target arrays depicted on the index cards.
s clear that participants were ready to begin we
a set of practice trials.
n of the ANT consisted of a total of 16 prac-
nd three experimental blocks of 32 trials. Each
with the presentation of a fixation cross for
purposes of behavioral scoring, on some trials
cue replaced the fixation cross and was pre-
150ms and represented one of four warning
ons: a center cue, a double cue, a spatial cue,
In the center cue condition, an asterisk was
at the same location of the fixation cross. In
cue condition, an asterisk appeared at loca-
target both above and below the fixation cross.
ial cue condition, a single asterisk appeared
tion of the upcoming target. A fixation period
ollowed the disappearance of the cue. Follow-
e target array appeared and remained on the
l a response was detected or a maximum of
apsed, followed by a ITI of 1000ms. Partici-
told that a fish (target) would appear on the
that they should “feed the fish in the middle”
the button on the response box that matched
n that the fish was facing. During congruent tri-
get fish was surrounded by fish facing in the
tion; during incongruent trials, the target fish
nded by fish pointing in the opposite direc-
acy and reaction time were recorded for each
ematic representation of the task is shown in
roencephalograph recordings
a were recorded during the ANT using a 128-
nse array Geodesic Sensor Net (Tucker, 1993)
ed using Net Station software from Electri-
ics, Inc. (EGI, Eugene, OR) at a sampling rate
All impedances were reduced to less than
ree et al., 2001) during data acquisition. EEG
ed using a 0.1–100Hz bandpass filter with
nalog-to-digital converter and referenced to
isition and re-referenced offline to the aver-
ce (Bertrand et al., 1985; Tucker et al., 1993)
ed for polar average reference effects (PARE;
et al., 1999) prior to data analysis. Artifacts
ned using automatic detection methods (Net
I, Inc.) and visually inspected. Eye blink and
ent artifacts (70V threshold) and signals
200V were removed during averaging. Data
ass filtered at .10Hz and a lowpass filtered
hannels with excessive noise throughout the
weremarked as “bad” and excluded from anal-
K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140 135
Fig. 1. Modific
Note: Experim
2.3. Coding
2.3.1. Event
The EEG
50ms prior
divided ac
incongruen
preceding s
eye movem
were exclu
ical spline i
(Perrin et a
interpolate
one partici
was corrupation of attention network task.
ental procedure. (a) The four cue conditions; (b) the four stimuli; and (c) an over
and data reduction
-related potentials
was time-locked to the stimulus, segmented
to and 500ms following the stimulus, and
cording to type of trial (congruent versus
t). Epochs were baseline corrected for 50ms
timulus onset. Segments containing eye blinks,
ents, or response times of less than 200ms
ded. Bad channels were replaced using spher-
nterpolation of values of neighboring channels
l., 1987). The average number of bad channels
d in the final data set was 7.56. EEG data from
pant was not used because the EEG data file
ted. Two children were excluded from analy-
ses because
may not ha
tions. Upon
Thus, we a
dren.
The tim
principle co
data. Three
of the varia
peak betwe
at approxim
(identified a
was defined
between 3
tracted fromview of the procedure.
reaction time performance data indicated they
ve been cooperating or understand the instruc-
examination of videotapes this was confirmed.
nalyzed the data from the remaining 26 chil-
e window for the N2 was identified using a
mponents analyses with the grand averaged
componentswere identified accounting for 93%
nce and included a fast positive to negative
en 92 and 176ms; a second positive deflection
ately 250ms; and second negative deflection
s the N2) at 350ms. For each individual, the N2
as the greatest negative deflection occurring
20 and 380ms (±30ms) post-response sub-
the preceding positive peak. This deflection
136 K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140
was maximal at Cz. This method was selected in order
to capture the full degree of the negative deflection and
account for possible individual differences in EEG ampli-
tudes prior to theN2 (seeNieuwenhuis et al., 2004). N2was
calculated a
for the con
extreme va
next lowest
2.3.2. Atten
From p
ciency of al
calculated
correct tria
cue and ty
three atten
lated by su
cue was p
tion (RT no
greater ale
culated by
cues were
was presen
scores indic
spatial cue
ing effects
attention e
reaction tim
incongruen
scores indic
efficient ex
normality. E
above and
value.
2.3.3. Mate
Tempera
Behavior Q
Rothbart, 2
that assess
gency/appr
Parents res
(1 = extrem
child, 3 = sl
false of my
true of my c
internal con
.65 to .85.
3. Results
Thedesc
trodesite (F
flanker) an
presented
the task, co
gruent trial
incongruen
Table 1
Means and standard deviations for N2 amplitudes and performance.
Congruent Incongruent
Fz −10.71 (5.71) −11.74 (6.79)
tion tim
rrect
ting
nting
flict
N2 am
ype
order
s sites
ures A
ruent,
effect
itudes
(p’s < .0
2.30, i
hole.
ext, gi
age as
plit th
). The
12 chi
of res
as ma
these
l Type
) ANO
action
arison
a sig
7.77,p
led th
ruent)
9.05, p
the di
r olde
nstrat
itudes
e olde
Associa
eramen
e were
was
t-repo
es in children,we also examined theN2 to the congru-
nd incongruent trials. Given thatwe only found theN2
t for older children, andagewas correlatedwith theN2
t (r=−.42, p< .05), we conducted partial correlations
olling for age. These correlations are summarized in
2. We found that greater N2 effect was associated
higher conflict scores, reflecting less efficient exec-
attention. The incongruent N2 was also associatedt three midline sites (Fz, Cz, and Pz) separately
gruent and incongruent trials. We truncated
lues above 1.5 SD (across participants) to the
value.
tion performance reaction times
erformance on the ANT, measures of effi-
erting, orienting, and executive attention were
from the reaction time (RT) data from the
ls. RT to the flanker targets under different
pe conditions measures the effects of these
tion networks. Alerting efficiency was calcu-
btracting the RT for trials in which the double
resented from trials with no cue presenta-
cue-RT double cue). Higher scores indicate
rting efficiency. Orienting efficiency was cal-
subtracting the RT for trials in which spatial
presented from trials in which a central cue
ted (RT center cue-RT spatial cue). Higher
ate greater efficiency in orienting because the
provides more information than the alter-
of the cue alone. Conflict score (i.e., executive
fficiency) was calculated by subtracting the
e for congruent trials from reaction time for
t trials (RT incongruent–RT congruent). Higher
ate greater conflict which is interpreted as less
ecutive attention. Scores were examined for
xtreme values over 1.5 SD (across participants)
below the mean were truncated to the next
rnal-reported child temperamental shyness
mental shyness was assessed using the Child
uestionnaire Short Form (CBQ; Putnam and
006a,b). The CBQ short form contains 94 items
three broad domains of temperament: sur-
oach, negative affect, and effortful control.
pond to statements on a 6-point Likert scale
ely untrue of my child, 2 =quite untrue of my
ightly untrue of my child, 4 =neither true nor
child, 5 = slightly true of my child, 6 = extremely
hild). All scales have been shown to have good
sistency, with Cronbach’s alphas ranging from
riptive statistics forN2 amplitudes at each elec-
z, Cz, Pz)by trial type (incongruentor congruent
d attention performance behavioral data are
in Table 1. Children performed quite well on
mpleting correctly an average of 41 the con-
s (range=27–48) and 39 (range=30–48) of the
t trials.
Cz
Pz
Reac
% co
Aler
Orie
Con
3.1.
trial t
In
acros
meas
cong
main
ampl
at Pz
50) =
as a w
N
ined
We s
years
and
tern
N2 w
from
(Tria
older
inter
comp
found
24) =
revea
cong
11) =
with
ted fo
demo
ampl
for th
3.2.
temp
W
at Cz
paren
studi
ent a
effec
effec
contr
Table
with
utive−10.03 (5.72) −10.86 (5.82)
−6.70 (5.26) −8.31 (4.05)
e 911.69 (148.35) 977.50 (166.82)
83.26 (16.74) 76.08 (14.98)
51.87 (54.03)
17.43 (77.37)
65.81 (68.38)
plitude differences across electrode sites and
to examine whether N2 amplitudes varied
, trial types, and age we conducted a repeated
NOVA. This 3 (Site: Fz, Cz, Pz)×2 (Trial Type:
incongruent) analysis revealed a significant
of Site, F(2, 50) =7.37,p< .01,2p = .23, such that
at Fz andCzwere significantly larger than those
5) (Fig. 2). Therewas no effect of Trial Type, F(1,
ndicating no significant N2 effect for the sample
ven the large age range of children, we exam-
an additional factor in an additional ANOVA.
e sample at the median age (72 months; 6
re were 14 children younger than 72 months
ldren older than 72 months. Given the pat-
ults in the original ANOVA showing that the
ximal at Fz and Cz, the Pz site was dropped
analyses. We conducted a 2 (Site: Fz, Cz) by 2
: congruent, incongruent) by 2 (age: younger,
VA analysis. There was a significant trial by age
, F(1, 24) =5.53, p< .05, 2p = .19. A set of posthoc
s were used to examined this interaction. We
nificant Trial Type× age interaction at Cz, F(1,
< .01,2p = .24, butnot at Fz. Testing this further
at the expected N2 effect (N2 incongruent >N2
was only significant for the older children, F(1,
< .01, 2p = .45. This effect is depicted in Fig. 3
fference waves (incongruent–congruent) plot-
r and younger children at Fz and Cz. In sum, we
ed that the expected difference between theN2
by trial type to theflanker targetwas significant
r children only and at electrode site Cz.
tions between the N2 and performance and
t
interested in examining whether the N2 effect
associated with attention performance and
rted temperament. To be consistentwith other
K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140 137
Fig. 2.
with less e
associated w
reported te
scores: Sur
Although la
surgency, NN2 waveforms for congruent and incongruent trials.
fficient alerting but the N2 difference was not
ith alerting, or orienting. Turning to maternal-
mperament, we focused on the three factor
gency, Effortful Control, and Negative Affect.
rger incongruent N2 was associated with more
2 effect was not. Greater N2 effect and larger
F
N2 to incon
Effortful Co
Affect and c
4. Discussi
The curr
a measure
related diff
between N
The main g
the N2 wa
young child
the magnit
differences
a discussion
future deve
biomarkers
4.1. Eviden
conflict mon
Consiste
effects in th
N2 amplitu
all children
even in pre
N2 amplitu
not limited
widely dist
dren comp
adult comp
gest a fronig. 3. N2 difference waveforms by age group.
gruent trials were both associated with less
ntrol. Noassociationswere foundwithNegative
ongruent N2.
on
ent study extends the literature on the N2 as
of conflict monitoring by demonstrating age-
erences in early childhood and associations
2 and executive attention and temperament.
oal of the project was to determine whether
s associated with conflict monitoring in very
ren. A secondary goal was to explore whether
ude of the N2 was associated with individual
in attention and behavior. We will now turn to
of each of these findings and implications for
lopmental ERP research, including discussion of
for temperamental variation and affective risk.
ce for development of the N2 response and
itoring effects
nt with predictions, we found age-related
e modulation of the N2. First, we found that
des on all trials were maximal at Fz and Cz for
, suggesting frontalization of the N2 response
schoolers. As we reviewed in the introduction,
des across a variety of studies including but
to conflict N2, were more likely to be more
ributed and larger at more parietal sites in chil-
ared to adults. Although we did not have an
arison, the data from the current study sug-
tocentral distribution of the conflict N2 even
138 K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140
Table 2
Partial correlations, controlling for age, between N2 at Cz and attention performance and temperament.
Cz congruent N2 Cz incongruent N2 Cz incongruent-congruent N2
Conflict score −.03 −.29 −.42a
Alerting sco a
Orienting sc
CBQ surgenc
CBQ effortfu
CBQ negativ
a p< .05.
b p< .10.
in the youn
frontalizati
a validated
researchers
effects (e.g.
Second,
amplitudes
was only ev
dence that
conflict mo
hood (>6 in
These age
demonstrat
component
of the ACC
agedchildre
Lewis et al.
Third, w
effect was
tion. Altho
associated w
congruent)
suggesting
So while th
and presen
reflect reso
utive attent
the finding
greater the
executive a
is the first
association
4.2. N2 as a
children
Turning
current stud
gruent trial
effortful co
which refle
et al., 2001
ing summa
different ty
current fin
opmental s
N2 amplitu
regulatoryp
trol) (Perez
onent
nt stud
contro
mplitu
een tr
accou
at the
he N2
be th
ren in
tful co
al reso
skills
eeded
is th
ol pro
dies o
ren mo
thoug
gruen
s whi
y. Surg
ive af
) and
isk for
tifter,
ugh n
e conti
y as rep
vior co
In fact
thus w
in par
lative
to tem
t is for
).
e do k
al fron
tempe
ty (Ha
that Mre .18 .41
ore .04 −.11
y .21 −.36b
l control −.25 .43a
e affect −.10 −.16
gest children. It is possible that we found the
on of the N2 in our sample because we used
, developmentally appropriate task as other
have suggested would enhance detection of
, Hogan et al., 2005; Torpey et al., 2009).
the expected modulation of the N2 (larger
to incongruent compared to congruent trials)
ident for the older children. Thus, we have evi-
this N2 effect may be a good biomarker for
nitoring efficiency in children in early child-
our sample) but not in preschool-aged children.
differences are consistent with the literature
ing age-related changes across several ERP
s thought to reflect the ongoing development
and prefrontal cortex in preschool and school-
n (e.g.,Henderson,2010; Johnstoneetal., 2005;
, 2006b; Lewis and Stieben, 2004).
e found that after controlling for age, the N2
associated with less efficient executive atten-
ugh the N2 to incongruent trials alone was
ith alerting, the N2 effect (incongruent versus
was not associated with orienting or alerting
specificity of links with executive attention.
e incongruency effect on the N2 is normative
t in older children, greater N2 effect may also
urce depletionwhich is onemechanism in exec-
ion interference. This finding is consistent with
s of Dennis and Chen (2009) showing that the
N2 effect was associated with less efficient
ttention. To our knowledge, the current study
to demonstrate modulation of the N2 and its
with executive attention in children this young.
biomarker for temperamental variation in
to the second, more exploratory goal of the
y,we found that largerN2amplitudes to incon-
s and the N2 effect were associated with less
ntrol. Note that this effortful control finding,
cts behavioral control and regulation (Rothbart
) was consistent with the conflict score find-
comp
curre
els of
N2 a
betw
could
be th
ine t
could
child
effor
neur
these
are n
study
contr
of stu
child
Al
incon
score
genc
posit
2001
and r
and S
Altho
of th
genc
beha
ness.
CBQ,
ing,
specu
sitive
like i
2009
W
medi
with
anxie
noterized above demonstrating consistency across
pes of measures of executive functioning. The
dings extend the literature, especially devel-
tudies demonstrating an association between
de and other, related aspects of control and
rocesses (e.g., soothability and attentional con-
-Edgar and Fox, 2005, 2007) both of which are
lescents wh
which is a
that Hende
between te
9–13-year-
and adulth
tion betwee.21
−.13
−.03
.41a
.08
s of the effortful control construct used in the
y. However, in these two other studies low lev-
l and soothabilitywere associatedwith smaller
des to incongruent trials; and the difference
ial types (i.e., N2 effect) was not explored. This
nt for the differences in findings, or it could
differences in the types of tasks used to exam-
accounted for the discrepancy. In addition, it
at the younger children (compared to age of
other studies) in our sample who have low
ntrol and self-regulation need to recruit more
urces when resolving conflict specifically. As
and the PFC develop, fewer neural resources
to complete these tasks. To our knowledge, our
e first to examine the N2 effect in relation to
cesses and a given the relatively small number
n the N2 and behavioral control processes in
re empirical work is needed.
h not hypothesized, larger N2 amplitudes to
t trials were associated with higher surgency
le the N2 effect was not associated with sur-
ency is largely characterized by high intensity
fect and approach behavior (Rothbart et al.,
is often associated with risk-taking behaviors
externalizing behavior problems (e.g., Putnam
2005; Rubin et al., 1995; Stifter et al., 2008).
ot necessarily thought of as the opposite end
nuum of behavioral inhibition or fear, low sur-
orted by parents may be indicative of avoidant
nsistent with behavioral inhibition and shy-
low shyness loads on the surgency factor of the
e can think of this surgency measure as reflect-
t, low shyness and low avoidance. Although
, this finding may suggest that the N2 is sen-
peramental shyness in young children much
trait anxiety in adults (e.g., Dennis and Chen,
now that other ERP components, such as other
tal negativities like the ERN, are associated
ramental shyness (McDermott et al., 2009) and
jcak et al., 2003). However it is important to
cDermott and colleagues’ study included ado-
o had been previously classified as inhibited
direct measure of shyness. Although, recall
rson (2010) failed to find a direct association
mperamental shyness and N2 in a sample of
olds. To date the literature across childhood
ood is somewhat mixed in finding an associa-
n temperamental shyness and N2. Henderson
K.A. Buss et al. / Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1 (2011) 131–140 139
(2010) suggested that from a temperament perspective we
should not expect an association between shyness which
is considered to be a reactive component of temperament,
and N2, which likely reflects a regulatory aspect of tem-
perament r
2001). It is
ies have fo
frontal neg
behavior in
across seve
ing temper
be mixed b
marker for
it appears t
a biomarke
as effortful
vidual diffe
4.3. Limitat
The larg
small samp
precluded o
by age and
over, given
unselected
temperame
ness. Paren
unlikely to
todetect th
association
beendue to
scores are b
This sugges
neural corre
than our pr
effect and e
compelling
needed in f
ciated with
measured o
5. Conclus
Findings
evidence th
in adults, y
a developm
the N2 only
age-related
frontal cort
As hypothe
was associa
and reduce
was associa
gruent N2 a
developme
of the N2, a
ral biomark
factors that
Author notes
The authors wish to thank the Social, Life, and
Engineering Sciences Imaging Center (SLEIC), Human Elec-
ysiolo
quipm
coding
d a th
.
is res
nal In
ded to
ublica
the Na
a com
orted b
h (PI:
anus
ences
valier, J.,
rning a
, 770–7
, M.T., M
amer, A
efrontal
gnitive
nd, O.,
e averag
enceph
ction 62
, S., Dun
nction a
ture Ne
, T.S., Ba
r cingu
hibition
, C.S., Br
98. Ante
ring of p
B.J., Ca
rger, S.
ht fron
ficient/h
ild and
s, T.A., Ch
reat: an
s, T.A., M
otion r
psycholo
, McCan
e efficie
gnitive
, T.C., L
pedanc
urophy
in, J.R., V
atch on
, 152–1
, Russo,
layed di
, 355–3
.A., He
05. Beh
develop
5–262.
, J.N., Bl
nbos, A
ildhood
ience 2,
an, P.S.
e delayeelated to cognitive control (see Rothbart et al.,
important to note, however, that several stud-
und associations with other components of
ativities, such as N2 latencies and shy/fearful
a clinical sample (e.g., Lewis et al., 2008). So
ral studies varying in age and methods assess-
amental aspects of behavior there appears to
ut promising findings that the N2 may be a
individual differences in temperament. In sum,
hat modulation of the N2 is a good candidate as
r for regulatory aspects of temperament, such
processes, and for approach/withdrawal indi-
rences.
ions
e age range of participants resulted in fairly
le sizes when age effects were considered. This
ur ability to examine associations separately
likely reduced power to detect effects. More-
that this sample included typically developing,
children there was likely a restricted range of
ntal variation especially with respect to shy-
ts with shy or fearful children may have been
volunteer for the study thus limiting our ability
ese differences as others have found. Finally, the
between N2 and conflict monitoring may have
methodoverlap—that is, both theN2and theRT
ased on the incongruent–congruent contrast.
ts the possibility that the association reflects
lates of specific behavioral performance rather
oposed theoretical association between the N2
xecutive functioning. Thus, in order to provide
evidence for this theoretical link, futurework is
uture studies examine whether the N2 is asso-
other measures of executive attention that are
utside of the ANT context.
ions
from the current study were consistent with
at the N2 reflects conflict monitoring as is does
et extends these findings by demonstrating
ental effect (i.e., the expected modulation of
for children older than 6). This suggests that
changes may reflect relatively immature pre-
ex development in the preschool-aged children.
sized in exploratory predictions, the N2 effect
ted with less efficient attention performance
d effortful control. Moreover, greater surgency
ted with larger N2 effects and larger incon-
mplitudes. Taken together, results add to the
ntal literature on the morphology and function
nd suggest that the N2 holds promise as a neu-
er for a range of attentional and temperamental
are linked to affective risk and resilience.
troph
and e
with
exten
study
Th
Natio
awar
This p
from
T.D.,
supp
Healt
this m
Refer
Bache
lea
98
Banich
Kr
pr
Co
Bertra
th
tro
Se
Bishop
fu
Na
Braver
rio
in
Carter
19
to
Casey,
bu
rig
de
Ch
Denni
th
Denni
em
ro
Fan, J.
th
Co
Ferree
im
Ne
Folste
m
45
Fox, E.
de
16
Fox, N
20
a
23
Giedd
de
ch
sc
Goldm
thgyFacility at PennState foruseof the laboratory
ent and the Emotion Development Lab for help
videos and scoring EEG data. We also wish to
ank you to the children who participated in the
earch was supported by two grants from the
stitutes of Health (NIH) grant 4R01 MH075750,
K.B. andgrant5K01MH075764, awarded toT.D.
tion was also made possible by Grant RR03037
tional Center for Research Resources (NCRR) to
ponent of the NIH. The third author, R.B. was
y a grant from the National Institute of Mental
Cole T32 MH070327) during the preparation of
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