Scholarly Work - Center for Biofilm Engineering
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Item Treated recreational water venues(2012-12) Goeres, Darla M.; Hartemann, P.; Dadswell, J. V.Swimming is an activity enjoyed by people of all ages and abilities in all parts of the world. Swimming promotes known health benfits. The water provides support for the body, making it an ideal activity for people with joint pain or who are recovering from an injury. In addition to exercise, soaking in hot tubs or hot springs promotes relaxation and soothes sore muscles. With the notable healthy benefits and enjoyment associated with simming, it is important that the water and facility do not become a source of disease and/or injury. Swimming may be thought of as communal bathing. Bathers introduce varying amounts of organics into the water including sweat, urine, dead skin, hair, oils, lotions and microorganisms every time they enter. The type and concentration of organics introduced by the bather is a function of the individual and the facility they are using. A small child in swim diapers in a splash pool is very different to an adult competitive swimmer practicing in a lap pool. Regardless, it is the responsibility of the facility operator to maintain healthy water quality.Four factors contribute to maintaining a healthy water quality in a recreational water facility: engineering design, water chemistry, disinfection and facility management. All factors must be operating properly for a facility to maintain a healthy bathing environment. For instance, if a facility operator does not adhere to their policies in remediating a fecal accident in the pool water, then even if the facility has a disinfectant residual when the event occurred, they have still placed the other bathers at risk. This chapter will present a holistic approach for the maintenance of recreational water. This includes a discussion on the engineering aspects that define the different facilities, a general discussion on maintaining balanced water chemisty, the use and evaluation of disinfectants and a general discussion at the end on the importance of well-trained facility managers. An overview of the various illnesses that are associated with recreational water which is not maintained correctly are presented as a cautionary note. Finally, like any industry, recreational water is subject to trends, which will be addressed in the appropriate sections.Item Pathways of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene transformation by aerobic yeasts(2013-08) Ziganshin, Ayrat M.; Gerlach, RobinThe production and use of various highly persistent synthetic compounds lead to environmental pollution. Among such compounds, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is the one which is commonly used as an explosive. Synthesis and wide use of TNT in ammunition have resulted in the contamination of soil, air, surface water, and groundwater. TNT and its nitro group reduction products are highly toxic, potentially mutagenic and persistent contaminants which can persist in the environment for a long time (Spain et al. 2000; Stenuit et al. 2005; Smets et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2012). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has classified TNT as one of the most dangerous pollutants in the biosphere. Hence, remediation of TNT-contaminated sites is urgently warranted at places of its production and use (Keith and Telliard 1979; Fiorella and Spain 1997).Human exposure to TNT or its nitro group reduction metabolites can lead to the development of diseases, such as aplastic anemia, cataracts, impaired liver function and the formation of tumors in the urinary tract (Hathaway 1985; Yinon 1990; Leung et al. 1995). Hence, it is inevitable to work out strategies targeting the degradation of TNT.Decontamination of sites contaminated with explosives, especially with TNT, is possible with application of various physical, chemical, and biological methods. The main advantages of bioremediation are environmental friendliness and involvement of low cost (Rodgers and Bunce 2001).Item Antimicrobial Tolerance in Biofilms(2015-06) Stewart, Philip S.Tolerance to antimicrobial agents is a common feature of microbial biofilm formation ( 1 – 7 ). Table 1 presents a few examples of biofilm tolerance to biocides and antiseptics, and Table 2 summarizes some examples of antibiotic tolerance in biofilms. Neither of these listings is comprehensive, but these two data sets can be analyzed to gain insight into the factors that influence biofilm tolerance. The examples have been selected to illustrate the wide variety of microbial species, growth environments, and antimicrobial chemistries for which biofilm reduced susceptibility has been reported. The short list in Table 1 encompasses studies designed to mimic biofilms in dental plaque, hot tubs, paper mills, drinking water, household drains, urinary catheters, food processing plants, cooling water systems, and hospitals. These examples employ a range of individual and mixed species biofilms and diverse biocidal chemistries including halogens, phenolics, quaternary ammonium compounds, aldehydes, a plant essential oil, and peroxides. The studies captured in Table 2 cover 19 antibiotics and 9 organisms that include aerobic bacteria, strict anaerobes, and a fungus.Item New technologies for studying biofilms(2015-08) Franklin, Michael J.; Chang, Connie B.; Akiyama, Tatsuya; Bothner, BrianThe results of recent biofilm characterizations have helped reveal the complexities of these surface-associated communities of microorganisms. The activities of the cells and the structure of the extracellular matrix material demonstrate that biofilm bacteria engage in a variety of physiological behaviors that are distinct from planktonic cells (1 – 3 ). For example, bacteria in biofilms are adapted to growth on surfaces, and most produce adhesins and extracellular polymers that allow the cells to firmly adhere to the surfaces or to neighboring cells ( 4 – 6 ). The extracellular material of biofilms contains polysaccharides, proteins, and DNA that form a glue-like substance for adhesion to the surface and for the three-dimensional (3D) biofilm architecture ( 4 ). The matrix material, although produced by the individual cells, forms structures that provide benefits for the entire community, including protection of the cells from various environmental stresses ( 7 – 9 ). Biofilm cells form a community and engage in intercellular signaling activities ( 10 – 19 ). Diffusible signaling molecules and metabolites provide cues for expression of genes that may benefit the entire community, such as genes for production of extracellular enzymes that allow the biofilm bacteria to utilize complex nutrient sources ( 18 , 20 – 22 ). Biofilm cells are not static. Many microorganisms have adapted to surface-associated motility, such as twitching and swarming motility ( 23 – 28 ). Cellular activities, including matrix production, intercellular signaling, and surface-associated swarming motility suggest that biofilms engage in communal activities. As a result, biofilms have been compared to multicellular organs where cells differentiate with specialized functions ( 2 , 29 ). However, bacteria do not always cooperate with each other. Biofilms are also sites of intense competition. The bacteria within biofilms compete for nutrients and space by producing toxic chemicals to inhibit or kill neighboring cells or inject toxins directly into neighboring cells through type VI secretion ( 30 – 33 ). Therefore, biofilm cells exhibit both communal and competitive activities.