Theses and Dissertations at Montana State University (MSU)
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Item A case study examining the historical use of waist tethers and associated training practices in adaptive skiing(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Letters & Science, 2022) Augst, Jaime; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: C. John GravesThis case study investigated the historical application of and training practices revolving around waist tethers for students enrolled in Eagle Mount's multiweek ski program at Bridger Bowl in Bozeman, Montana. Historically, Eagle Mount trained all new volunteers to operate waist tethers to support students. Capitalizing on best practices working with adaptive skiers, it was hypothesized that this approach inhibited student autonomy and may not consider the student central to learning to ski. To learn more about this, Eagle Mount's Bridger Bowl Snowsports staff was interviewed, a restructured training model was examined, waist tether volunteers were questioned, and student lessons were observed. It was determined that waist tethers could limit autonomy and discourage a student's least restrictive environment. Yet, there are instances that these tools are appropriate based on the student's needs and to support their goals. Because the historic training model strongly emphasized the operational skills required to safely waist tether a student, it was possible that identifying student goals and crafting a unique progression that supported a student-centered experience may not have been the central message of volunteer training. As such, volunteers may have lacked the tools necessary to encourage an environment that inherently focused on progressions and highlights play and exploration via games and activities that capitalize on student interests. The restructured training environment required for all new volunteers made this the central element of the discussion. It provided volunteers with a toolbox of ideas to support safe and fun progressions based on students' needs and goals. As a result, fewer students currently use waist tethers, greater emphasis is placed on games and activities that engage students, and more time is spent by volunteers supporting student autonomy.Item High versus low carbohydrate in Skimo race performance: a randomized controlled trial(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2024) Topf, Rachel Marie; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Mary P. Miles; This is a manuscript style paper that includes co-authored chapters.Ski mountaineering (skimo) is a high-intensity sport with several race disciplines of varying lengths in which competitors face many challenges that can make consuming food and fluids difficult. There is currently a scarcity of literature on skimo, particularly on nutrition in individual-format races. Exercise >1.5 h, as in an individual skimo race, may benefit from high carbohydrate consumption of > or = 90 g/h compared to lower recommendations of 60 g/h. However, gastrointestinal upset is worsened with increasing amounts of carbohydrate consumption, especially during high-intensity exercise. Highly-branched cyclic dextrin is a glucose polymer with a low osmolality allowing it to have a fast gastric emptying rate which can decrease gastrointestinal upset during exercise. The first purpose of this study was to survey skimo athletes about their nutrition knowledge and practices. With this new information combined with recommendations on carbohydrate and fluid intake, the second purpose of this study was to test an 18% solution of highly-branched cyclic dextrin + fructose (3:1) in a skimo race. It was hypothesized that an 18% solution (90G) would improve performance in an individual race compared to a 6% solution (30G) without contributing to gastrointestinal upset. Fifteen participants completed the randomized controlled crossover trials. Average carbohydrate consumed was 27 and 85 g/h and race time 105 and 107 min in 30G and 90G, respectively. Overall race times were not significantly different. Gastrointestinal upset trended higher in 90G (p=0.07). When the four participants with high gastrointestinal upset (rating >4/10) were removed from analysis, there was a main effect for drink on percent lap time change (p<0.001), with 30G having a greater percent increase in lap time throughout the trial. In conclusion, a high-carbohydrate drink was created to address the needs of skimo athletes. It was found that an 18% carbohydrate solution had significantly higher gastrointestinal upset ratings and did not confer additional performance benefit compared to a 6% solution. Additionally, high gastrointestinal upset with the 18% solution appears to have contributed to slower time; however, those without high gastrointestinal upset with the 18% solution had a lesser percentage change in lap time throughout the trial compared to 6%.Item The way of the mountain: powder snow, Dolores LaChapelle, and a search for 'the answers'(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Letters & Science, 2022) Menzel, Clare Wolz; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Mark FiegeLongstanding narratives in Europe and the United States about progress as emancipation from nature construct perceptions of separation between humans and everything else. This separation justifies human mastery of and control over nature, leading to environmental exploitation as well as individual experiences of alienation from place. Dolores LaChapelle, author of 'Deep Powder Snow: 40 Years of Ecstatic Skiing, Avalanches, and Earth Wisdom', countered dominant Eurocentric and anthropocentric ascendancy with knowledge that she argued came from her experiences as a powder snow skier in the western United States during the twentieth century. Using theories of neo-materialism and vital materiality, this study examines relational, more-than-human agency that produced cultural identity and embodied ethical knowledge. In particular, it focuses on LaChapelle's encounters and relationships with mountain places, and transformations in her thinking that occurred after she learned to ski powder in Aspen, Colorado, from 1947-1950, as well as after she experienced a large avalanche in Alta, Utah in 1963. This study argues that LaChapelle is an overlooked, original thinker about the agency and ethical standing of non-human beings in the material world.Item Travel behavior and decision-making biases of lift access backcountry skiers on Saddle Peak, Bridger Mountains, Montana, USA(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Letters and Science, 2018) Sykes, John Massey; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Jordy Hendrikx; Jordy Hendrikx, Jerry Johnson and Karl Birkeland were co-authors of the article, 'Travel behavior and decision-making biases of lift access backcountry skiers' submitted to the journal 'Applied geography' which is contained within this thesis.Backcountry skiers recreate in a complex environment, with the goal of minimizing the risk of avalanche hazard and maximizing recreational opportunities. Traditional backcountry outings start and end in uncontrolled backcountry settings, with responsibility for avalanche safety and rescue falling in the hands of each group of skiers. Lift access backcountry skiing (LABC) is a particular genre of the sport in which ski resort lifts are utilized to access backcountry recreation sites. By shifting skiers mentality from the traditional backcountry setting to a LABC setting, the line between whether the ski resort provides avalanche mitigation and rescue services or not, becomes less clearly defined in the minds of skiers. We observe the travel behavior and evaluate the decision-making biases of LABC skiers via GPS tracking and survey responses. Participants were recruited in the field, at the boundary between the relative safety of the ski resort and the uncontrolled backcountry terrain beyond. A geographic information system (GIS) is implemented to analyze the travel behavior of participants, with the aim to detect changes in behavior, as indexed via terrain used under different levels of avalanche hazard. Logistic regression and multiple linear regression are used to model travel behavior and decision-making biases as a function of observed terrain metrics. Data was collected over 19 days from February 2017 to February 2018 at Saddle Peak backcountry area, a prime LABC location at the southern boundary of Bridger Bowl Ski Area, Montana, USA. Avalanche hazard during data collection was either moderate (119 tracks) or considerable (20 tracks). Regression models indicate subtle changes in the terrain preferences of participants under elevated avalanche hazard, with increased travel on ridge features and decreased use of convex features. These indicate a positive response, minimizing the risk of an avalanche involvement by managing slope shape. Survey responses indicate that female participants and those with greater backcountry experience have a significantly lower percentage of their total GPS track in complex avalanche terrain as defined using the avalanche terrain exposure scale. Participants who perceived the ski patrol as providing avalanche mitigation in the backcountry area adjacent to the resort had a significantly higher percentage of GPS track in complex avalanche terrain.Item Using time lapse photography to document terrain preferences of backcountry skiers(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Letters & Science, 2018) Saly, Diana Ilona Patricia; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Jordy Hendrikx; Jordy Hendrikx, Karl W. Birkeland, Stuart Challender and Jerry Johnson were co-authors of the article, 'Using time lapse photograpy to document terrain preferences of backcountry skiers' submitted to the journal 'Journal of outdoor recreation and tourism' which is contained within this thesis.Avalanches are one of the greatest hazards for those recreating in snow covered mountainous terrain. In the past 20 years an average of 13 people in Canada and 27 people in the US are killed in avalanches each winter. Meanwhile, uncontrolled backcountry avalanche terrain use has significantly increased demonstrated by increased demand for avalanche education and increased sales in backcountry equipment. Lift-accessed backcountry (LABC), or avalanche terrain easily accessed from the ski resort, has seen increased usage since resorts opened boundaries in the mid-1990s. This has led to increased research interest in how people are using backcountry avalanche terrain. A simple method to reduce exposure to avalanche hazard is avoidance, however total avoidance is seldom practical. Professionals and recreational skiers alike mitigate avalanche hazard by managing exposure to terrain containing the avalanche hazard. Current research studies use GPS tracking to study the terrain metrics of backcountry skiers. This GPS research is limited to studying volunteers and professionals that willingly track and submit their trips. This approach ignores many users and thus presents a biased picture of use. This paper develops a method to capture the terrain metrics of all skiers on an avalanche-prone backcountry slope. A remote time-lapse camera focused on a high skier-use backcountry slope, (Saddle Peak, in the Bridger Mountain Range of southwest Montana, USA) captured skiers descending Saddle Peak in ten-second increments. Skier locations were digitized from the photos, then transformed onto a geo-referenced digital elevation model (DEM) such that terrain metrics could be applied to each skier location. Analysis of terrain metrics for each skier point compared slope, profile curvature (downslope), and plan curvature (cross slope) over days with different forecasted avalanche hazard. Terrain metrics on Considerable avalanche hazard days differed significantly from Moderate or Low avalanche hazard days (p-value < 0.001). Transformed data fell within a 49-m horizontal accuracy for all skier point locations with a 95% confidence interval. By capturing all skiers on a slope without their knowledge, the data collected provides a large and diverse data set of the terrain preferences of backcountry skiers under varying conditions.Item The influence of a directional compression garment on muscle activity and performance in recreational alpine skiers(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2018) Snyder, Cory James; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: John G. Seifert; John G. Seifert, James Becker and Ed Adams were co-authors of the article, 'The influence of a directioanl compression garment on muscle activity and performance in recreational alpine skiers' submitted to the journal 'Journal of sports sciences' which is contained within this thesis.Recent studies reported reduced muscle activity in competitive alpine skiers using directional compression (DC). It is not known whether the effects of DC are limited to competitive skiers, or if similar changes would be observed in recreational skiers during a full day of skiing. The purpose of this study was to examine changes in hip and leg muscle EMG patterns in recreational alpine skiers when skiing with and without a lower body DC garment. METHODS 11 intermediate and expert skiers volunteered for this study. Subjects completed 2 randomized trials, one in a DC garment, and one in a non-compressive (NC) base layer. EMG of the gluteus medius (GMED), gluteus maximus (GMAX), rectus femoris (RF), adductor longus (ADL), and vastus lateralis (VL) were recorded using EMG during three measurement runs with standardized turns on each visit. Standardized turns were used to compare EMG response between conditions and measurement runs. Subjects also completed self-paced skiing bouts (SP) between measurement runs. Skiing performance (heart rate, velocity, and skiing load (vertical/runs) were measured during the SP bouts. 2x3 repeated measures ANOVA's was used to compare kinematic and EMG changes during measurement runs, as well as performance during self-paced skiing between (p < or = 0.05). RESULTS Subjects skied more runs (DC 18.60 + or = 0.98, NC 13.55 + or = 1.06, p=0.001) and vertical (DC 4805.31 + or = 304.31 m, NC 2373.56 + or = 219.60 m, p=0.001) during free skiing with DC than NC. Heart rate and ski velocity were not different between SP bouts. Peak edge angle was lower in the DC treatment (DC 55.06 + or = 10.70°, NC 57.90 + or = 9.10°, p=0.008). Absolute muscle activity was lower in the DC condition for all muscles (p < or = 0.05), although no differences were observed in relative muscle activity. CONCLUSIONS No differences in relative muscle activity were detected, absolute muscle activity was lower in the DC condition. Subjects improved their self-paced skiing performance in the DC condition. There was also a trend towards lower RMS for all muscles in the DC treatment. Further research should investigate the influence of DC garments on repeated bouts of recreational alpine skiing on consecutive days.Item A kinematic analysis of a telemark ski turn(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 1998) Trafton, Thomas AllenItem Distribution of seasonal training intensity in competitive masters-level cross country skiers(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2014) Ranta, Emily Christian; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Daniel P. Heil; Tara K. Vetrone, Daniel P. Heil, Mary P. Miles, and John G. Seifert were co-authors of the article, 'Distribution of seasonal training intensity in competitive masters-level cross country skiers' submitted to the journal 'European journal of applied physiology' which is contained within this thesis.Professionals have long debated the optimal distribution of training volume and intensity necessary for improved performance by endurance athletes. Although researchers have studied the training distributions of high-level cross country (XC) skiers, the unique population of Masters-level XC skiers has been largely overlooked. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to characterize the changes in Masterslevel skiers' training volume and intensity from the fall to mid-winter seasons using telemetry-based heart rate (HR) monitoring. The secondary purpose was to determine the relationship between winter training variables and race speed within the same population. Fifty-six Masters-level skiers volunteered to don a HR monitor and utilize a training log to record all bouts of physical activity over two 14+ day periods designed to correspond with the preparatory (fall) and pre-competition (mid-winter) seasons. After the midwinter collection period, the same subjects recorded HR data while competing in a 34.4 km ski race. All HR data were downloaded to a computer and summarized by absolute training time (T, min) and relative time (%T) spent within six HR zones (Z) which were calculated as percentages of age-predicted maximum HR (APMHR). Training variables were compared using two-factor and three-factor multivariate repeated measures ANOVAs, whereas winter training variables and race HR variables were correlated with race speed using the Pearson product-moment correlation. Only 13 men (Mean±SD: 62±5 yrs.) and 15 women (50±5 yrs.) completed all of the study requirements. From the fall to winter seasons, weekly training volume was maintained (Mean±SE: 515.7±24.2 vs. 514.8±31.7 min/week, respectively), but average training HR significantly increased (117±2 vs. 123±2 bpm, respectively). Moreover, there was a significant decrease in the %T spent training <70% of APMHR and a significant increase in the %T spent training > or =70% from the fall to winter seasons (53.0±3.6% vs. 40.2±3.1% and 47.0±3.6% vs. 59.8±3.1%, respectively). Additionally, the skiers' distribution of training intensity within each season tended to follow a threshold based model, as opposed to the polarized model followed by high-level endurance athletes. While characterizing these training practices helps build the knowledge base necessary for improved coaching of this population, further observational and experimental research is warranted.Item Physiological stress during five-days of vacation skiing(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2011) Portmann, Jennifer Ann; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: John G. SeifertLittle research has been conducted on repeated days of recreational skiing. Repeated days of recreational skiing were thought to increase stress markers, induce fatigue, and hinder ski performance and enjoyment. PURPOSE: To examine the physiological changes that occur in recreational skiers from elevations below 460 meters over five days of vacation skiing. METHODS: Fourteen skiers, four females (Mean ± SD; Age (yrs): 41.3 ± 6.2), ten males (47.9 ± 11.2) participated in the study. Nine skiers were considered advanced skiers (7 males, 2 females) and five intermediate skiers (3 males, 2 females). Subjects arrived at Bridger Bowl Ski Area, Bozeman MT to ski for five days. Each subject filled out subjective scales, had their resting heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure measured as well as blood drawn for creatine kinase analysis. Samples were taken on days 1, 3, and 5. Subjects skied for three hours in the morning at a self selected pace and on self selected runs. They came in for lunch and recorded their rating of perceived exertion (RPE). The researcher downloaded the data from the heart rate monitor. The subjects skied in the afternoon until a self determined end time and again recorded their RPE and gave the researcher their heart rate monitors; the researcher then gave directions for the following day. RESULTS: The variables of ski time, number of runs, heart rate, blood pressure, and subjective scales did not change significantly. However, RPE was significantly increased suggesting an increase amount of perceptual fatigue. Creatine kinase was did not increase until one outlier was removed. Significant creatine kinase (p=0.001) and RPE results strongly suggests that subjects were stressed even without a decrease in runs, or ski time. CONCLUSION: The current study supports previous research; repeated days of skiing was not a fatiguing enough event to hinder ski performance or enjoyment. Future studies should examine whether repeated days of skiing results in a positive contribution to physical fitness.Item Ticket pricing in the alpine ski industry.(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 1990) Gerlach, Andrew Robert; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Ronald N. Johnson.Alpine ski areas worldwide use daily lift-ticket pricing rather than individual ride-ticket pricing. Robert Barra and Paul Romer argue that the ski ride industry is a competitive market and that identical equilibriums and revenues are reached with either pricing method. They also argue that sticky lift ticket prices and lift-line queues are efficient. Lift-ticket pricing dominates because of lower monitoring costs. Tests of their model's predictions, however, do not support their model. A monopolistic ski-lift pricing model is developed. The monopoly model predicts that lift-ticket pricing would dominate the market due to its revenue generating advantages over ride-ticket pricing. Overall the monopoly model predicts the pricing policies that exist in the ski ride market better than the competitive model of Barra and Romer. It is argued that lift-ticket pricing is an indication of the market power most ski areas possess.