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Item Smart wildlife monitoring: evaluating a camera trap enabled with artificial intelligence(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2024) Kaltenbach, Taylor Louise Gregory; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Jared T. Beaver; Jeffrey C. Mosley (co-chair)Wildlife-livestock conflicts, including depredation, disease transmission, and resource competition, present significant challenges to both the ecological and economic aspects of ranching operations. These conflicts can undermine the sustainability of ranching operations as well as the conservation of wildlife in working landscapes. Leveraging timely and precise data on wildlife activity, distribution, and their interactions with livestock are crucial for enhancing ongoing conflict mitigation efforts and to help sustain wildlife on working landscapes. I evaluated the potential of an artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled camera trap to limit false positive images and provide real-time monitoring of wildlife presence while reducing data overload. In Study 1, I compared the performance of a prototype, edge AI-enabled camera trap (Grizzly Systems) with 2 traditional, non-AI camera traps (Browning and Reconyx) at 8 sites across 3 ranches in south-central Montana, USA, from mid-June through mid-September 2023. I also evaluated the influence of site-specific environmental conditions, including air temperature, wind speed, cloud cover, and vegetation type on camera trap performance. The Grizzly Systems camera trap captured fewer false positive images but exhibited a higher rate of missed detections compared to the Browning and Reconyx camera trap models. Across all 3 camera trap models, the probability of positive detections declined with warmer air temperatures and greater wind speeds. In addition, warmer air temperatures positively influenced missed detections by Reconyx and Grizzly Systems camera trap models, but warmer air temperatures negatively influenced missed detections by Browning camera traps. In Study 2, I compared the performance of a cellular-connected AI-enabled Grizzly Systems camera trap, equipped with an automated image processing and notification reduction workflow, to a traditional, non-AI, cellular-connected Reconyx camera trap at 2 sites in south-central Montana, USA from mid-April to mid-June 2023. The AI-enabled, cellular-connected Grizzly Systems camera trap successfully sent real-time notifications of wildlife presence and transmitted significantly fewer false positive images than the cellular-connected Reconyx camera trap. However, the Grizzly Systems camera trap sent substantially fewer notifications of positive detections than the Reconyx camera trap, which are likely attributed to missed detections by the Grizzly Systems camera trap.Item Impacts of low-tech restoration methods on soil, vegetation, and livestock grazing in Montana's sagebrush steppe(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2024) Lowing, Nicholas Allen; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Bok SowellIn the semi-arid rangelands of western North America, water is a limiting factor for plant growth. In Montana's high elevation rangelands, snowmelt is the primary source of water for ephemeral streams and mesic meadows. Wildlife and livestock rely on these areas especially when surrounding uplands have dried. Less snowpack and early melt times associated with climate change pose a threat to forage resources in this region. In 2018 and 2019, small rock restoration structures were constructed in seven drainages in southwest Montana with the intention of increasing resiliency in these systems. In this study we compare stream reaches with restoration structures to reaches without structures to assess the impacts of this technique on soil moisture, plant cover, diversity, evenness, and production. We observed cattle grazing within and adjacent to treated drainages to determine how they use the landscape. We used soil moisture probes to measure soil water content once per month in June-September of 2021 and 2022. We used 0.5m2 frames to estimate plant cover, diversity, and evenness June-September in both years. At the end of each growing season, vegetation frames were clipped and weighed to estimate production. Soil and vegetation sampling occurred in 54 reaches across 7 drainages. We observed cattle near four treated drainages in mornings and evenings to assess whether cattle prefer mesic or upland areas. Cattle observations occurred in July and August of 2021 and 2022. Using linear fixed effects models, we detected no differences (p > or = 0.05) in soil moisture between treated and untreated reaches during any sampling period. We detected no differences in vegetation cover, richness, diversity, or evenness in 92% of sampling periods. No differences in plant production were detected in 2021 or 2022. Cattle used mesic areas in greater proportion to their abundance on the landscape in both years (p < or = 0.0001). Our results indicate that these structures have not yet had major impacts on soil moisture or vegetation metrics. However, our results indicate that mesic meadows are an important resource for grazing cattle in southwest Montana's high- elevation rangelands, supporting the idea that these areas warrant restoration efforts.Item Evaluating habitat suitability for lesser prairie-chicken conservation in the mixed-grass prairie ecoregion(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2022) Solomon, Morgan Jean; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Lance McNewPopulations of lesser prairie-chickens (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus; hereafter "prairie-chicken") in the southern Great Plains have declined by an estimated 85% and the species is currently being reconsidered for protections under the federal Endangered Species Act. Despite efforts to increase the quantity, quality, and connectivity of available habitat, prairie-chicken populations in the mixed-grass prairie ecoregion have remained relatively stable-to-declining. To provide information that will assist in providing more appropriate qualifications of available prairie-chicken habitat, I used ensemble modeling approaches and a least-cost path analysis to develop spatially-explicit predictions of prairie-chicken habitat and assess connectivity of identified habitat within the mixed-grass prairie ecoregion. In addition, I provided a critical comparison of the Western Association of Fish & Wildlife Agencies (WAFWA) Habitat Evaluation Guide and research-based field indices used to quantify the amount and quality of habitat for prairie-chicken conservation on a proprety participating in an incentive-based conservation program. I also explored the potential for using ecological site descriptions and relative condition (similarity index) to monitor reproductive habitat for prairie-chickens. Predictions from our ensembled model identified ~4,576 km 2 of potentially suitable prairie-chicken habitat both occupied and unoccupied. Least-cost path analyses revealed a low degree of connectivity between areas of occupied and unoccupied habitat indicating a low probability of natural recolonization. Managers should consider focusing conservation efforts on targeting habitat restoration between, within and around areas of identified occupied and unoccupied habitat. Habitat quality under the HEG habitat assessment protocol showed the property had excellent prairie-chicken habitat quality while research-based estimates showed the property only had marginal habitat quality for prairie-chickens. Differences in habitat quality assessments were in areas that had low percent cover of vegetation species preferred by prairie-chickens and in areas that had recently experienced fire. Thus, managers should consider using components of both habitat assessments protocols when quantifying habitat for prairie-chicken conservation to reduce the probability of producing erroneous estimates of habitat quality. Limited sample size within moderate categories of similarity index across ecological sites prevented us from reliably executing further analyses exploring the utility of using a similarity index as a tool for monitoring prairie-chicken habitat.Item Ecological responses to meadow restoration in the sagebrush steppe of Montana(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2023) Robison, Laura Margery; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Bok SowellIn the semi-arid landscapes of the Western United States, water is scarce. In the high-elevation sagebrush steppe of Southwest Montana, mesic meadows are primarily fed by melting snowpack. These meadows, often centered around an ephemeral stream, collect and store water in the soil. Between 60-80% of wildlife rely on meadows for resources when surrounding upland environments are dry. Warming temperatures and declining snowpack are threatening water resources in this region. Stream incision, often induced by historic land use, decreases water storage in surrounding meadows. In 2018 and 2019, rock restoration structures, typically less than 0.3 m tall, were installed in seven impaired catchments in Southwest Montana to mitigate climate change and incision by slowing and spreading water. Catchments spanned an ecological and abiotic gradient that accounts for over 1/3 of the variation within the sagebrush biome. We compared reaches with structures built to reaches without to assess the impact of restoration on average soil moisture, soil drying rate, water storage, water retention time after rainfall events, and sage-grouse chick food resources (plants and arthropods). We installed soil moisture probes at 24 reaches in 4 catchments, recording hourly measurements from June through September in 2020, 2021, and 2022. Using 0.5 m 2 frames, we estimated vegetation canopy cover at the species level once per month in June through September. We set 24 hr pitfall traps once per month from June through August. Vegetation and arthropod sampling occurred in 2021 and 2022 at 54 reaches in 7 catchments. We detected an increase in water residence time at treated reaches of 1.67 days (p=0.0069) after controlling for variation between catchments and reaches. We also found evidence for a 27% increase in total canopy cover (p=0.004) at treated reaches when compared to control reaches. We found no evidence of a difference in seasonal soil moisture, seasonal drying rate, seasonal water storage, arthropod activity density, or arthropod biomass. Our results indicate that rock restoration structures are effective in increasing soil moisture and vegetation components in mesic meadows in Southwest Montana, potentially providing a tool to restore meadows in semi-arid landscapes and build resilience against climate change.Item Adaptive constraints at the range edge of a widespread and expanding invasive plant(Oxford University Press, 2023-12) Fletcher, Rebecca A.; Atwater, Daniel Z.; Haak, David C.; Bagavathiannan, Muthukumar V.; DiTommaso, Antonio; Lehnhoff, Erik; Paterson, Andrew H.; Auckland, Susan; Govindasmo, Prabhu; Lemke, Cornelia; Morris, Edward; Rainville, Lisa; Barney, Jacob N.Identifying the factors that facilitate and limit invasive species’ range expansion has both practical and theoretical importance, especially at the range edges. Here, we used reciprocal common garden experiments spanning the North/South and East/West range that include the North American core, intermediate and range edges of the globally invasive plant, Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) to investigate the interplay of climate, biotic interactions (i.e. competition) and patterns of adaptation. Our results suggest that the rapid range expansion of Johnsongrass into diverse environments across wide geographies occurred largely without local adaptation, but that further range expansion may be restricted by a fitness trade-off that limits population growth at the range edge. Interestingly, plant competition strongly dampened Johnsongrass growth but did not change the rank order performance of populations within a garden, though this varied among gardens (climates). Our findings highlight the importance of including the range edge when studying the range dynamics of invasive species, especially as we try to understand how invasive species will respond to accelerating global changes.Item Genomic, microbial, and linear relationships between residual feed intake, dry matter intake, average daily gain, and post weaning weights in range sheep(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2023) Schaub, Daniel James; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Christian J. PosberghOver forty years, United States sheep producers have selectively bred range sheep for larger post-weaning weights using estimated breeding values. However, this has led to increased feed intake, prompting this study's objective to quantify the relationship between lamb growth estimated breeding values, feed intake, and feed efficiency. The study involved 40 Targhee and 40 Rambouillet ewe lambs weaned at four months and put on a GrowsafeTM feeding system for a 56-day experimental period, with ewes weighed weekly and at the start and end of the trial. Residual feed intake was calculated using body weights, average daily gain, and daily feed intake measurements. The ewe lambs' post-weaning weight estimated breeding value was associated to their phenotypic traits. These procedures were repeated when the same ewes were yearlings and at maintenance. The study found that while post-weaning weight estimated breeding values predicted dry matter intake (P<0.05), they lacked association with residual feed intake (P>0.05) in both experimental periods. However, the ewe's post-weaning weight estimated breeding value predicted mid-trial body weight in both periods (P<0.05). Thus, while selecting higher post- weaning weight animals may increase feed usage due to larger body size, it does not affect feed efficiency. Comparing the residual feed intake between the two experimental periods, growth residual feed intake measurements did not predict residual feed intake in maintenance. Therefore, caution should be used when utilizing residual feed intake from the growth period as an indicator of feed efficiency in maintenance. The study also examined rumen microbial profiles in sheep between the two experimental periods. Methanogenic archaea were relatively increased within the growth experimental period, where a pelleted diet was used, and cellulolytic bacteria were increased in the maintenance experimental period, where hay was provided. Since methanogens are associated with decreased feed efficiency, diet may play a role in changing a sheep's microbiome towards more feed efficient bacteria. Finally, a genome-wide association study found the Dmrt2 gene associated with DMI and RFI in maintenance. The Dmrt2 gene may regulate muscle and bone development in the early embryo, affecting feed efficiency in sheep later in life.Item Importance of foot and leg structure for beef cattle in forage-based production systems: characterizing foot and leg scores for Montana Angus cattle(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2023) Sitz, Taylre Elizebeth; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Timothy DelCurtoThe objectives of this study were to increase the amount of phenotypic data available for enhancing the foot and claw EPDs of Montana sires and evaluate factors that could impact foot angle and claw set scores. Specifically, this study evaluated the interaction of sex and age on claw set and foot angle scores of front or hind legs. Researchers used the American Angus Association (AAA) Foot Scoring Guidelines to subjectively analyze claw set and foot angle on a series of Montana Angus herds, scoring a total of 4,723 cattle: 1,475 yearling bulls, 992 yearling heifers, 1,044 two- and three-year-old cows, and 1,212 cows that were four years and older. The AAA Foot Scoring Guidelines require breeders to score the combined "worst foot" for both the claw set and foot angle traits on a hard, flat surface. Yearling bulls had a 0.12 and 0.20 greater mean foot angle and claw set score compared to yearling heifers (P < 0.01). The proportion of scores that differed from 5 (ideal foot score) were greater (P < 0.01) for front feet as compared with hind feet, with 61.5 and 74.5% of the scores not equal to 5 being front feet issues for yearling heifers and bulls, respectively. Foot angle scores increased linearly (P < 0.01) with advancing cow age, ranging from 5.15 to 5.80 for heifers versus cows 4 years and older, respectively. Likewise, claw set scores increased quadratically (P < 0.01) as a function of cow age. The location of the "worst foot" also changed quadratically with age (P < 0.01) with the majority of problem feet in 2/3 year old cows and cows 4 years and older being hind feet issues (70.5 and 77.1% respectively). The proportion of foot angle and claw set scores not equal to 5 also increased quadratically with age (P < 0.01) with heifers having the lowest proportion of scores not equal to 5 (15.8 and 31.7%, respectively) compared to 4 yr and older cows (66.0 and 68.0%, respectively). In analysis of progeny of sire lines, the range between the progeny of the sire line with the greatest foot angle score and that of the least was 0.60 for foot angle. Likewise, for claw set, a similar range 0.57 was observed. Sire lines did have an effect on progeny claw set (P < 0.05) and foot angle scores (P < 0.05), as well as variation of progeny foot scores. In summary, progress is being made by utilizing the AAA foot scoring guidelines, as well as foot angle and claw set EPDs. Additional improvements may be possible with continued model refinement and improvements with scoring guidelines specific to age and sex effects.Item Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) nest survival and nest predator response to fence modifications in a grazing modified landscape(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2023) O'Harra, Aaron William; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Bok Sowell; This is a manuscript style paper that includes co-authored chapters.Livestock operations are present across much of the greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; sage-grouse) current range and the infrastructure associated with this land-use type can have negative effects on sage-grouse populations. Recent work has found that the daily survival rate of nests placed close to fences experience a 4-fold decrease in survival probability. The reduction in survival was theorized to be attributed to higher use of fences by predators due to increased movement efficiency and foraging rates predators experience along linear features. In this study, we experimentally modified fences to reduce perch availability and the barrier effects often associated with fences to improve sage-grouse nest survival. We monitored 177 nests over 8 years to assess the effectiveness of this management technique. We also used camera traps and point count surveys in the last 3 years of the study to assess the occurrence of three common sage-grouse nest predators; badgers (Taxidea taxus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and avian predators. We modeled daily nest survival against modified and traditional fences and landscape features throughout our study area in a Bayesian framework. Our predator occurrence rates were modeled using a single season occupancy model in relation to similar landscape features used for nest survival modeling. We detected evidence of an increase in nest survival of 11.4% (90% CRI: 3.2%, 20.0%) for sage grouse nests placed closer to modified fences (mean survival = 35.8%) when compared to traditional fence types (mean survival = 24.4%). We also found evidence for a 14% (95% CI: 5%, 23%) decrease in badger occurrence and a 15% (95% CI: 12%, 18%) increase in coyote occurrence along recently modified fences. We found no evidence that avian predators used fences more than areas with no fence present. Our results may be influenced by the distribution of fence types between sagebrush species. Our results indicate that predation risk for sage-grouse nests across a landscape is predator specific. We conclude that modifying fences in this way can improve sage-grouse nest survival, and the effectiveness of these modifications is controlled by a combination of the predators and landscape features associated with a nest site.Item Suppression force-fields and diffuse competition: competition de-escalation is an evolutionarily stable strategy(The Royal Society, 2023-08) Atwater, Daniel Z.Competition theory is founded on the premise that individuals benefit from harming their competitors, which helps them secure resources and prevent inhibition by neighbours. When multiple individuals compete, however, competition has complex indirect effects that reverberate through competitive neighbourhoods. The consequences of such ‘diffuse’ competition are poorly understood. For example, competitive effects may dilute as they propagate through a neighbourhood, weakening benefits of neighbour suppression. Another possibility is that competitive effects may rebound on strong competitors, as their inhibitory effects on their neighbours benefit other competitors in the community. Diffuse competition is unintuitive in part because we lack a clear conceptual framework for understanding how individual interactions manifest in communities of multiple competitors. Here, I use mathematical and agent-based models to illustrate that diffuse interactions—as opposed to direct pairwise interactions—are probably the dominant mode of interaction among multiple competitors. Consequently, competitive effects may regularly rebound, incurring fitness costs under certain conditions, especially when kin–kin interactions are common. These models provide a powerful framework for investigating competitive ability and its evolution and produce clear predictions in ecologically realistic scenarios.Item Clodronate use in yearling, exercising horses on endocrine regulation of bone growth and development(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2023) Conrad, Matthew Benjamin; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Amanda N. BradberyExtra-label bisphosphonate use in juvenile horses is widespread despite limited scientific understanding of biological and welfare impacts on skeletally immature, exercising horses. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of clodronate on endocrine regulation of bone growth, hypothesizing there would be no effect. To test this, 32 Quarter Horses were stratified by age (500 + or - 13 d of age), BW (336 + or - 26 kg), sex (n = 16 males, n = 16 females), and initial bone optical density by aluminum equivalence into four treatment groups for a 168-d trial. The experimental period was divided into two phases mimicking sales preparation (Phase I: d 0-83) and early performance training (Phase II: d 84-168). Investigators were blinded, and all horses received iso-volumetric intramuscular injections of either 1.8 mg/kg BW clodronate disodium (OSPHOS®) or saline (placebo) on d 0, 42, 84, and 126. Treatments consisted of control (CON; n = 8), single-dose (1X; n = 8; d 84), two-dose (2X; n = 8; d 0, 84), and four-dose groups (4X; n = 8; d 0, 42, 84, 126). Physical measurements including BW, wither height (WH), hip height (HH), body length (BL), and heart girth (HG) circumference were recorded every 42 d from d 0. Serum samples were collected every 42 d prior to treatment administration to quantify growth hormone (GH), calcitonin (CT), parathyroid hormone (PTH), and ionized calcium. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS. All physical growth parameters increased (P < or = 0.01) and growth hormone tended to decrease over time (P = 0.09) following normal growth patterns. A treatment time interaction was observed for PTH (P = 0.05) where concentrations increased on d 84 in 4X and on d 126 in 2x following the second administration of clodronate while 1X and CON remained unchanged. Ionized Ca decreased over time (P < 0.01) with no effect on CT concentrations (P > 0.33). These results suggest that while administration of bisphosphonate has no effect on growth morphometrics, its repetitive use alters PTH concentrations after two doses.