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Item Using a beam theory model to quantify metatarsal bone stress during running(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2023) McKibben, Kaitlyn Marie; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: James N. Becker; This is a manuscript style paper that includes co-authored chapters.Running is a common fitness activity that is associated with a high incidence of overuse injuries, including metatarsal stress fractures. One contributor to stress injury is repetitive loading of the metatarsals without adequate recovery time and experiencing larger volumes and magnitudes of bone loading may increase injury risk. Thus, quantifying metatarsal loads can be beneficial to understanding injury risk. However, it is currently difficult to estimate bone stress in clinical settings and unclear how bone stress changes following a long run. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis was to 1) characterize changes in metatarsal bone stress before and after the completion of a long-distance run, and 2) suggest a clinically feasible method for estimating metatarsal bone stress. Study 1 involved 21 healthy long-distance runners who ran 25% of their average weekly mileage on an instrumented treadmill. Foot kinematics, ground reaction forces, and in-shoe plantar pressures were collected at the beginning and end of the run and a mathematical model was used to estimate bone stresses and bending moments for all five metatarsals. Plantar stress, dorsal stress, and midshaft bending moments in the second and third metatarsals were greater after the completion of the run. This is consequential for injury risk because the second and third metatarsals are the most susceptible to stress fracture development. In study 2, seventeen runners ran barefoot across a force plate overlaid with a plantar pressure mat while foot kinematics were recorded. The same mathematical model of the metatarsals was used to estimate third metatarsal bone stresses and bending moments, and linear regressions determined whether force or pressure beneath the metatarsal predicted bone loads. A model containing head and base pressure differentials and force beneath the metatarsal head was the best predictor of bone loading, indicating that the use of plantar pressure measurements as a surrogate measure of bone stress could be a time and cost-effective method for estimating bone stress in clinical settings. Moving forward, elucidating how metatarsal bone stress changes over the course of a long run and finding more accessible ways to quantify bone stress could help alleviate injury risk.Item Coordination and coordination variability during running with respect to internal loading and age(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2021) Hoffee, Allison Jane; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: James P. Becker; David Graham, Scott Monfort and James Becker were co-authors of the article, 'Coordination variability predicts achilles tendon and peak patellofemoral loading in healthy runners' submitted to the journal 'Clinical biomechanics' which is contained within this thesis.; Scott Monfort, David Graham and James Becker were co-authors of the article, 'Comparison of coordination and coordination variability between adolescent and adult runners' submitted to the journal 'Journal of sports sciences' which is contained within this thesis.Running is a largely popular and widely accessible form of exercise. However, running may pose risks to individuals due to its associations with high rates of injuries. Coordination between lower extremity joints and segments as well as coordination variability have linked to these running injuries. While mechanisms of injury are multifactorial, one theory suggests that reduced coordination variability may cause injury by increasing cumulative loading of soft tissue structures. This relationship may be important when assessing age, as prevalence of injuries differ between adolescents and adults. Therefore, this thesis aimed to 1) assess the relationship between coordination variability and loads in the Achilles tendon and patellofemoral joint during running 2) and evaluate differences in segmental coordination and variability between adolescent and collegiate runners. In Study 1, 64 healthy, adult runners ran on an instrumented treadmill while kinematics and kinetics were recorded. Coordination variability for knee-shank, knee-rearfoot, and shank-rearfoot couplings were calculated using vector coding. Achilles tendon and patellofemoral kinetics were calculated with musculoskeletal models. Surrogate variables were created for Achilles tendon and patellofemoral metrics using principal component analyses, and regressions were used to determine whether variability metrics predicted loading surrogates. One surrogate variable was created for Achilles loading, and lower knee-rearfoot variability predicted greater Achilles loading. Two surrogate variables were created for patellofemoral loading. Lower knee-rearfoot and knee-shank variability predicted greater peak patellofemoral loading, but no variability predicted cumulative patellofemoral loading. This suggests that a combination of low variability and large loads may be important for injury risk rather than cumulative loading. Study 2 assessed 21 competitive adolescent and 21 collegiate runners. Coordination variability was calculated using vector coding for various thigh, shank, and rearfoot couplings. Coordination patterns were analyzed using a binning frequency analysis. Adolescent and collegiate runners displayed different coordination patterns while running that primarily emerged from the transverse plane. Adolescent runners displayed greater coordination variability on average than collegiate runners. Combined with previous literature, this suggests a downward trend in coordination variability starting in adolescence and continuing through adulthood. In conclusion, coordination and its variability may be consequential in terms of injury mechanisms and different age populations.Item The Y-balance test in runners: relationships between performance and running mechanics, and the influence of fatigue(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2020) Wilson, Charles Scott; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: James P. Becker; Allison Theobold, Sara Skammer, Sam Nelson and James Becker were co-authors of the article, 'A multivariate analysis between the Y-balance test and injury-linked running mechanics' submitted to the journal 'The American journal of sports medicine' which is contained within this thesis.; Sam Nelson, Sara Skammer and James Becker were co-authors of the article, 'The relationship between Y-balance test performance and running mechanics at the hip following fatigue' submitted to the journal 'The journal of orthopedic and sports physical therapy' which is contained within this thesis.The YBT is a widely known clinical movement screen used to measure strength, dynamic stability and neuromuscular control in a variety of athletic and clinical populations. The YBT is also used to predict injury risk across a range of sports. Strength and neuromuscular control of the muscles surrounding the hip are strong predictors of YBT performance. These same variables are also essential for running performance and the prevention of injury. Changes in injury-related running mechanics have been shown to occur along the course of a fatiguing run. Thus, the purpose of this thesis was twofold: 1) to evaluate the relationship between YBT performance and running mechanics and 2) to evaluate whether YBT performance can predict changes in injury-linked running mechanics after a run to fatigue. For the remainder of this paper the previous manuscripts will be referred to as Study 1 (A Multivariate Analysis of the Relationships Between Y-Balance Test Performance and Running Mechanics) and Study 2 (The Relationship Between Y-Balance Test Performance and Running Mechanics at the Hip Following Fatigue).Item The influence of lower body compression clothing on markers of running economy during submaximal treadmill running(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2011) Bakken, Bjorn; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Daniel P. HeilThe benefit of wearing lower-body compression clothing for individuals experiencing circulatory disorders has been well documented, yet little is known about benefits of wearing such clothing during endurance exercise. This was an investigation of the influence of lower-body compression clothing (stockings and shorts) on markers of running economy. METHODS: Eleven endurance runners (Mean±SD: 33±7 yrs, 67.9±15.5 kg) completed treadmill tests on three separate lab visits. First, subjects performed a running test to volitional exhaustion to measure maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2MAX) and heart rate at lactate threshold (HR LT). During the next visit, subjects ran for 90-mins at a speed that elicited 85% of HR LT (Mean±SD: 6.9±0.6 miles/hr for men and 6.7±0.5 miles/hr for women) while wearing one of two lower-body clothing conditions: compression shorts and stockings or running shorts. Subjects ran 90-mins again for the last visit at the same speed wearing the second clothing condition, the order of which was counterbalanced. During the 90-min runs, measures of oxygen uptake (VO 2), heart rate (HR), left-thigh accelerometry (AC), and blood pressure (BP) were summarized at the sixth minute of each successive 10-min time interval (T1-T9). Blood lactate (LA) was measured at the end of each time interval. Blood samples were also collected pre- and 24-hrs post-test to measure blood creatine-kinase (CK), an indicator of muscle damage. Values of VO 2 and HR were also summarized as the change for each subject from their T1 values (DeltaVO 2 and DeltaHR, respectively). Dependent variables were evaluated using a multivariate 2-factor repeated measures ANOVA with planned contrasts for post-hoc analyses. Comparisons were performed at the 0.05 alpha-level. RESULTS: Measures of VO 2, HR, BP, DeltaVO 2, DeltaHR, and CK were statistically similar at each time interval between conditions (P>0.05). Conversely, AC was significantly lower when wearing compression clothing during all time intervals (P<0.05). Measures of LA were significantly higher at T6 when wearing compression clothing (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: While wearing compression clothing, subjects experienced less movement of the thigh musculature (i.e., less AC), but no improvements in economy (i.e., lower VO 2 or DeltaVO 2) were observed. These results do not indicate any advantage to wearing lower-body compression clothing during endurance exercise.Item The effect of downhill running on impact shock and asymmetry(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2007) Killian, Megan Leigh; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Michael E. Hahn.Biomechanical studies are important for the prevention and treatment of injuries. Of special interest is running locomotion and its effect on impact shock. Impact shock magnitudes are often 2-3 times greater at the tibia during running compared to walking and have been reported to increase with decreasing grade conditions. The primary goal of this study was to determine the effect of downhill running on impact shock and asymmetry over varying grades. The secondary and tertiary goals of this study were to determine if there was significant symmetry difference between lower-limb preference groups and between training groups, respectively. Seventeen subjects (10 female, 7 male) were sampled from two populations with different types of downhill training (trained versus untrained) experience. The procedures included two visits, the first of treadmill familiarization and preference testing and the second for impact shock data collections. The data collection visit included a self-directed warm-up on the treadmill followed by a 16-minute running session that included four different running grade conditions (0%, -3%, -6% and -9%).Item Inflammation, insulin, and glucose differences between high and low glycemic index diets following downhill running in overweight and obese women(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development, 2012) McNulty, Katherine Angela Maureen; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Mary P. Miles.; Mary P. Miles, Daniel P. Heil and Dawn Tarabochia were co-authors of the article, 'Inflammation, insulin, and glucose differences between high and low glycemic index diets following downhill running in overweight and obese women' in the journal 'European journal of applied physiology' which is contained within this thesis.Low-grade chronic inflammation is associated with excess adipose tissue, and often precedes chronic disease. Overweight and obese individuals lose the ability to control inflammation as percent body fat increases, likely linked to inefficient carbohydrate oxidation that amplifies inflammation. Little is known about how the quality of carbohydrates influences inflammation of muscle in this population. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there are differences in inflammation and glucose metabolism between low glycemic index (LGI) and high glycemic index (HGI) diets following downhill running in overweight and obese women. This study was a pre-post design in which overweight and obese women (n = 20) were placed in matched pairs for percentage body fat, each receiving an isomacronutrient LGI or HGI diet. Participants completed a downhill run at heart rates at 65% predicted maximal oxygen consumption (VO 2max) until 15% loss of isometric force of the hip and knee extensors, or volition fatigue, was achieved. Participants ate their prescribed diet for 24 h post exercise. Glucose, insulin, creatine kinase (CK), C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin-6 were measured pre-exercise, 0, 24, and 48 h post-exercise. Isometric force and muscle tenderness were measured when blood was collected. Serum CK changed significantly over time (p < 0.001), with the peak at 24 h in the HGI group, and at 48 h in the LGI group. Isometric force decreased most at 24 h for the HGI group, and at 48 h for the LGI group, with significant differences occurring over time (p = 0.01), and a significant time/diet interaction (p = 0.02). No significant changes were seen in any of the inflammatory variables for diet or time, with the exception of the expected increase in IL-6 immediately post-exercise. There was a significant (p = 0.035) difference in delta insulin between groups. Delta IR also changed significantly over time between groups (p = 0.044). We conclude that while inflammation was not different between groups, a LGI diet following downhill running results in an acute improvement in insulin and IR in overweight and obese women.