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Item Impact of increasing NaCl levels in livestock drinking water on the intake and utilization of low-quality forages by beef cattle(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2022) Nack, Makae Frances; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Timothy DelCurto; This is a manuscript style paper that includes co-authored chapters.Water is one of the most important nutrients for livestock production (Petersen et al., 2015) but its quality is often overlooked in western range settings. The western United States and more specifically, Montana, are prone to variable precipitation and droughts, reducing the quantity and quality of livestock drinking water as well as limited forage quality/quantity. Dormant season grazing of rangeland forages often involves utilizing self-fed, salt limited supplements to meet cattle nutrition requirements and better utilize forage. Self-fed supplements commonly add salt as an intake limiter because it is effective, cheap and necessary in beef cattle diets (Cardon et al., 1951). The objective of this study was to evaluate the impacts of increasing NaCl levels in water on low quality forage intake, digestibility, and rumen fermentation of cattle consuming low quality forage. Eight, ruminally-cannulated, Angus crossbred cows were individually stalled and used in two 4 x 4 Latin squares design. One square was hand fed a non-salt supplement; the second square was fed a salt limiting supplement. Two cows (one from each square) were assigned to one of four water treatments per period: 1) control, no added NaCl; 2) 1000 mg NaCl/L; 3) 2000 mg NaCl/L; and 4) 3000 mg NaCl/L. A 14-day adaption period allowed cattle to acclimate to the water; followed by a 6-day total collection period. Rumen fluid samples were collected on day 22 at hours 0, 4, 8, 12, 18 and 24; and on day 23 a total rumen evacuation was conducted to determine total rumen volume and collect rumen content samples. Increasing levels of NaCl did not influence intake in either study (P > or = 0.36). Rumen pH was influenced by water NaCl in study 1 (P = 0.01), however, post hoc analysis revealed no differences. Volatile fatty acids in both studies were not affected by NaCl in either study (P > or = 0.39). Our results suggest the NaCl levels in our study may have little influence on intake, rumen fermentation and liquid kinetics suggesting NaCl levels up to 3,000 are safe for cattle.Item Salt limited intake: impacts of salt level and form of supplement on intake, nutrient digestion, and variability of supplement intake in beef cattle(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2021) White, Hayley Christina; Co-chairs, Graduate Committee: Megan Van Emon and Timothy DelCurto (co-chair); M. L. Van Emon, H. M. DelCurto-Wyffels, S. A. Wyffels and T. DelCurto were co-authors of the article, 'Impacts of form of salt-limited supplement on supplement intake behavior and performance with yearling heifers grazing dryland pastures' submitted to the journal 'Journal of feed science & technology' which is contained within this thesis.; M. L. Van Emon, H. M. DelCurto-Wyffels, S. A. Wyffels and T. DelCurto were co-authors of the article, 'Impacts of increasing levels of salt on intake, digestion, and rumen fermentation with beef cattle consuming low-quality forages' submitted to the journal 'Journal of animal science' which is contained within this thesis.For centuries, salt has been used as a cost effective intake-limiter of supplements for ruminants. Beef cattle production in the western United States relies on self-fed, salt-limited supplement to offset seasonal nutrient deficiencies which, in turn, may improve performance and increase forage intake. However, research has found high variation in individual supplement intake among animals and across days. If cattle are over consuming high-salt diets, this may result in negative impacts on animal performance and additional cost for the producer. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of form of supplement on supplement intake behavior, body weight, and body condition change and the impacts of supplemental salt levels on forage intake, water intake, dry matter digestibility, and rumen fermentation of yearling heifers consuming low quality forages. During a two-year summer grazing trial, individual supplement intake, time spent at the feeder, and frequency of visits was measured. It was found that supplementation and form of supplement did not influence heifer weight gain or intake CV (P = 0.26), but heifers in the pelleted treatment consumed more supplement (grams/kg BW), and at a faster rate compared to heifers fed the loose supplement form (P < 0.01). In study 2, six ruminally cannulated heifers were assigned to treatments to determine the effect of salt levels on digestibility and rumen parameters. Salt treatments consisted of: 1) control, no salt (CON), 2) 0.05% of BW salt (LOW), and 3) 0.1% of BW salt (HIGH). Forage and water intake, digestibility, and rumen parameters were measured. Supplemental salt tended to decrease forage intake (grams/kg BW; P = 0.06) and tended to increase DM fill (P = 0.07). Both water intake and liquid fill increased with increasing level of salt (P < 0.01). Ruminal pH and ammonia levels decreased with increasing salt (P < 0.01) while acetate concentration increased (P < 0.01). Digestibility was not influenced by salt levels (P > 0.05). Our results suggest that pelleting salt-limited supplements has a masking effect on the intake regulation of salt. Additionally, increasing levels of salt modifies rumen fermentation and digestion suggesting lower efficiency of intake and use with high-salt diets.Item Sodium in drinking water and adolescent blood pressure(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Nursing, 1981) Forseth, Jean CharlotteItem Lipid production in algae stressed with sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Engineering, 2013) Blaskovich, John Philip; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Brent M. Peyton; Rob Gardner, Egan Lohman, Karen Moll, Luke Halverson, Robin Gerlach, Brent Peyton were co-authors of the article, 'The use of sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride to stimulate lipid production in an algal isolate from Soap Lake, Washington' submitted to the journal 'Algal research' which is contained within this thesis.Microalgae may play an important role in the path to a more sustainable future by producing valuable hydrocarbons using inorganic carbon, sunlight, and non-food source competitive supplies of nitrogen and phosphorus. The prospect of growing microalgae for the production of a stable and dependable source of biofuel is plausible only if done at scale with intricate attention applied to the biochemistry, geochemistry, and environmental conditions of each system. Extreme environments with low proton activity and high salinity conditions may harbor microalgae suitable for large scale outdoor cultivation. Several algal isolates native to Soap Lake in Washington State were screened for biofuel potential and three isolates were selected for further studies. These three isolates were characterized to assess impacts on biofuel production studying high ionic strength in the form of sodium chloride (NaCl) in excess of 18g/L, and carbon supplemented treatments through the addition of inorganic carbon in the form of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3). Further, the ability of NaHCO 3 and NaCl to trigger lipid production was determined. The study was centered on understanding differences between two factors that will likely have implications in large-scale algal raceway ponds: inorganic carbon limitation, speciation, or bioavailability, and evaporative conditions resulting in high concentrations of salt. In this study, cell concentration, cell dry weight, nitrate, pH, biofuel potential, extractable lipid potential, and DIC (dissolved inorganic carbon), were monitored over time. Isolate GK5La grown in standard medium had the highest concentration of cell dry weight at the end of the study. Cultures supplemented with sodium bicarbonate were determined to be the most efficient way to produce biofuel in the form of extractable lipids. Supplementation with sodium bicarbonate and spiking to a concentration of 18g/L sodium chloride showed to be the most productive way to make triacylglyceride (TAG). Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) production on a concentration basis was greatest in the control treatment grown in standard medium.Item Distribution, characterization, and dietary risk assessment of indigenous salts in Mongolia's Darhad Valley(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2008) Barber, Loren Mickelle; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Cliff Montagne.Natural salt deposits around the world are used as human and livestock dietary mineral sources. The nomadic herders of the Darhad Valley, in northern Mongolia, harvest the precipitate that forms around saline lakes throughout their valley. The precipitate is termed hujir, and the main harvest location is Tukh. Darhad people are concerned about the declining amount of a hujir in the Tukh precipitate area and are curious about possible health effects related to hujir consumption. These studies focus on formulating the best management practices for sustainable hujir harvest by evaluating factors influencing the formation of hujir, and by establishing the mineralogy and ionic concentrations in Tukh soil, water, and hujir through chemical and spatial analyses. A dietary risk assessment was also accomplished by obtaining consumption rates through interviews, and determining exposure values from the consumption rates and ionic concentrations. Exposures were compared to chronic oral endpoints to relate potential health risks. A map of Tukh was created using Global Positioning System and Geographic Information System technologies and acts as baseline spatial data on the area. Minerals present include trona, halite, calcite, and other evaporites. According to pH and EC results, the area used for human harvesting at Tukh is more saline than the remainder of the lake. The soil profile within the precipitate area showed a TDS of 49 mg/L and pH of 7.2 in the surface horizon relative to an EC of 0.4 mg/L and a pH of 6.4 lower in the profile. This indicates a presence of capillary rise from groundwater, resulting in evaporation and salt precipitate at the soil surface. High exposure of arsenic, antimony, and lead compared to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization endpoint values resulted in risk quotients of 33, 1.7, and 14, respectively, which create concern in the population's hujir consumption. Further epidemiological and biomonitoring research would provide insight in the health relationships to hujir consumption. Future research could benefit from the resulting spatial and chemical data completed in these studies.Item Water use potential and salt tolerance of riparian species in saline-sodic environments(Montana State University - Bozeman, College of Agriculture, 2004) Sessoms, Holly Nicol; Chairperson, Graduate Committee: James W. Bauder.Salinization of soil and water resources exists on a global scale, largely due to irrigated agriculture in semi-arid climates. Coal bed methane (CBM) development, resulting in the co-production of saline-sodic discharge water, is a potential new source of salinzation in the Powder River Basin of Montana and Wyoming. Constructed wetlands may serve to reduce CBM product water volumes while applying saline-sodic product water to a beneficial use. The objective of this study was to assess the potential of constructed wetlands as a new management tool for CBM product water management. To accomplish this, riparian species native to Montana and Wyoming and classified as halophytes were selected as experimental treatments. Species chosen were subjected to saline-sodic conditions designed to mimic CBM product water for a 24-week period and harvested once every 8 weeks. Water use rates, water chemistry, biomass production, forage value, and salinity tolerance of each species were monitored throughout the experimental period. Due to turbulent airflow and high diffusion rates of water vapor from the plant canopy, plant water use rates of mature plants exceeded reference evaporation rates over a range of salinities for most species. For high water use species, ratios between plant water use rates and reference evaporation exceeded 3.00 at lower salinities. High ratios between plant water use and reference evaporation indicate that reference evaporation buckets were not subjected to the same evaporative conditions as the plant canopy, and may not represent potential evapotranspiration. Biomass production of traditional wetland species declined following defoliation and under increasing salinity. Grass species increased biomass production following defoliation and under elevated salinity in the third growth period. Crude protein (CP) also decreased with progressive harvests for wetland species, but increased in the third period for grass species. Based on percent acid detergent fiber and CP, forage value of most species is equal to or greater than average grass hay forage value. Results suggest that wetlands constructed of species analyzed will thrive in salinesodic conditions, and will outperform or perform similarly to evaporation ponds for CBM product water disposal while providing a forage resource and beneficial use.