College of Engineering
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The College of Engineering at Montana State University will serve the State of Montana and the nation by fostering lifelong learning, integrating learning and discovery, developing and sharing technical expertise, and empowering students to be tomorrow's leaders.
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Item Beyond the Surface: Non-Invasive Low-Field NMR Analysis of Microbially-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation in Shale Fractures(Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2024-07) Willett, Matthew R.; Bedey, Kayla; Crandall, Dustin; Seymour, Joseph D.; Rutqvist, Jonny; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Phillips, Adrienne J.; Kirkland, Catherine M.Microbially-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a biological process in which microbially-produced urease enzymes convert urea and calcium into solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deposits. MICP has been demonstrated to reduce permeability in shale fractures under elevated pressures, raising the possibility of applying this technology to enhance shale reservoir storage safety. For this and other applications to become a reality, non-invasive tools are needed to determine how effectively MICP seals shale fractures at subsurface temperatures. In this study, two different MICP strategies were tested on 2.54 cm diameter and 5.08 cm long shale cores with a single fracture at 60 ℃. Flow-through, pulsed-flow MICP-treatment was repeatedly applied to Marcellus shale fractures with and without sand (“proppant”) until reaching approximately four orders of magnitude reduction in apparent permeability, while a single application of polymer-based “immersion” MICP-treatment was applied to an Eagle Ford shale fracture with proppant. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) and X-Ray computed microtomography (micro-CT) techniques were used to assess the degree of biomineralization. With the flow-through approach, these tools revealed that while CaCO3 precipitation occurred throughout the fracture, there was preferential precipitation around proppant. Without proppant, the same approach led to premature sealing at the inlet side of the core. In contrast, immersion MICP-treatment sealed off the fracture edges and showed less mineral precipitation overall. This study highlights the use of LF-NMR relaxometry in characterizing fracture sealing and can help guide NMR logging tools in subsurface remediation efforts.Item Beyond the Surface: Non-Invasive Low-Field NMR Analysis of Microbially-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation in Shale Fractures(Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2024-07) Willet, Matthew R.; Bedey, Kayla; Crandall, Dustin; Seymour, Joseph D.; Rutqvist, Jonny; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Phillips, Adrienne J.; Kirkland, Catherine M.Microbially-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a biological process in which microbially-produced urease enzymes convert urea and calcium into solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deposits. MICP has been demonstrated to reduce permeability in shale fractures under elevated pressures, raising the possibility of applying this technology to enhance shale reservoir storage safety. For this and other applications to become a reality, non-invasive tools are needed to determine how effectively MICP seals shale fractures at subsurface temperatures. In this study, two different MICP strategies were tested on 2.54 cm diameter and 5.08 cm long shale cores with a single fracture at 60 ℃. Flow-through, pulsed-flow MICP-treatment was repeatedly applied to Marcellus shale fractures with and without sand (“proppant”) until reaching approximately four orders of magnitude reduction in apparent permeability, while a single application of polymer-based “immersion” MICP-treatment was applied to an Eagle Ford shale fracture with proppant. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) and X-Ray computed microtomography (micro-CT) techniques were used to assess the degree of biomineralization. With the flow-through approach, these tools revealed that while CaCO3 precipitation occurred throughout the fracture, there was preferential precipitation around proppant. Without proppant, the same approach led to premature sealing at the inlet side of the core. In contrast, immersion MICP-treatment sealed off the fracture edges and showed less mineral precipitation overall. This study highlights the use of LF-NMR relaxometry in characterizing fracture sealing and can help guide NMR logging tools in subsurface remediation efforts.Item Subsurface hydrocarbon degradation strategies in low- and high-sulfate coal seam communities identified with activity-based metagenomics(Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2022-02) Schweitzer, Hannah D.; Smith, Heidi J.; Barnhart, Elliott P.; McKay, Luke J.; Gerlach, Robin; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Malmstrom, Rex R.; Goudeau, Danielle; Fields, Matthew W.Environmentally relevant metagenomes and BONCAT-FACS derived translationally active metagenomes from Powder River Basin coal seams were investigated to elucidate potential genes and functional groups involved in hydrocarbon degradation to methane in coal seams with high- and low-sulfate levels. An advanced subsurface environmental sampler allowed the establishment of coal-associated microbial communities under in situ conditions for metagenomic analyses from environmental and translationally active populations. Metagenomic sequencing demonstrated that biosurfactants, aerobic dioxygenases, and anaerobic phenol degradation pathways were present in active populations across the sampled coal seams. In particular, results suggested the importance of anaerobic degradation pathways under high-sulfate conditions with an emphasis on fumarate addition. Under low-sulfate conditions, a mixture of both aerobic and anaerobic pathways was observed but with a predominance of aerobic dioxygenases. The putative low-molecular-weight biosurfactant, lichysein, appeared to play a more important role compared to rhamnolipids. The methods used in this study—subsurface environmental samplers in combination with metagenomic sequencing of both total and translationally active metagenomes—offer a deeper and environmentally relevant perspective on community genetic potential from coal seams poised at different redox conditions broadening the understanding of degradation strategies for subsurface carbon.Item In Situ Enhancement and Isotopic Labeling of Biogenic Coalbed Methane(American Chemical Society, 2022-02) Barnhart, Elliott P.; Ruppert, Leslie; Hiebert, Randy; Smith, Heidi J.; Schweitzer, Hannah D.; Clark, Arthur C.; Weeks, Edwin P.; Orem, William H.; Varonka, Matthew S.; Platt, George; Shelton, Jenna L.; Davis, Katherine J.; Hyatt, Robert J.; McIntosh, Jennifer C.; Ashley, Kilian; Ono, Shuhei; Martini, Anna M.; Hackley, Keith C.; Gerlach, Robin; Spangler, Lee; Phillips, Adrienne J.; Barry, Mark; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Fields, Matthew W.Subsurface microbial (biogenic) methane production is an important part of the global carbon cycle that has resulted in natural gas accumulations in many coal beds worldwide. Laboratory studies suggest that complex carbon-containing nutrients (e.g., yeast or algae extract) can stimulate methane production, yet the effectiveness of these nutrients within coal beds is unknown. Here, we use downhole monitoring methods in combination with deuterated water (D2O) and a 200-liter injection of 0.1% yeast extract (YE) to stimulate and isotopically label newly generated methane. A total dissolved gas pressure sensor enabled real time gas measurements (641 days preinjection and for 478 days postinjection). Downhole samples, collected with subsurface environmental samplers, indicate that methane increased 132% above preinjection levels based on isotopic labeling from D2O, 108% based on pressure readings, and 183% based on methane measurements 266 days postinjection. Demonstrating that YE enhances biogenic coalbed methane production in situ using multiple novel measurement methods has immediate implications for other field-scale biogenic methane investigations, including in situ methods to detect and track microbial activities related to the methanogenic turnover of recalcitrant carbon in the subsurface.Item Addressing wellbore integrity and thief zone permeability using microbially-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP): A field demonstration(Elsevier BV, 2020-02) Kirkland, Catherine M.; Thane, Abby; Hiebert, Randy; Hyatt, Robert; Kirksey, Jim; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Gerlach, Robin; Spangler, Lee; Philips, Adrienne J.Microbially-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is an emerging biotechnology for wellbore integrity applications including sealing defects in wellbore cement and modifying the permeability of rock formations. The goal of this field demonstration was to characterize a failed waterflood injection well and provide proof of principle that MICP can reduce permeability in the presence of oil using conventional oilfield fluid delivery methods. We compared well logs performed at the time the well was drilled with ultrasonic logs, sonic cement evaluation, and temperature logs conducted after the well failed. Analysis of these logs suggested that, rather than entering the target waterflood formation, injectate was traveling through defects in the well cement to a higher permeability sandstone layer above the target formation. Sporosarcina pasteurii cultures and urea-calcium media were delivered 2290 ft (698 m) below ground surface using a 3.75 gal (14.2 L) slickline dump bailer to promote mineralization in the undesired flow paths. By Day 6 and after 25 inoculum and 49 calcium media injections, the injectivity [gpm/psi] had decreased by approximately 70%. This demonstration shows that 1) common well logs can be used to identify scenarios where MICP can be employed to reduce system permeability, remediate leakage pathways, and improve waterflood efficiency, and 2) MICP can occur in the presence of hydrocarbons.Item A Numerical Model for Enzymatically Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation(MDPI, 2020-06) Hommel, Johannes; Akyel, Arda; Frieling, Zachary; Phillips, Adrienne J.; Gerlach, Robin; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Class, HolgerEnzymatically induced calcium carbonate precipitation (EICP) is an emerging engineered mineralization method similar to others such as microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP). EICP is advantageous compared to MICP as the enzyme is still active at conditions where microbes, e.g., Sporosarcina pasteurii, commonly used for MICP, cannot grow. Especially, EICP expands the applicability of ureolysis-induced calcium carbonate mineral precipitation to higher temperatures, enabling its use in leakage mitigation deeper in the subsurface than previously thought to be possible with MICP. A new conceptual and numerical model for EICP is presented. The model was calibrated and validated using quasi-1D column experiments designed to provide the necessary data for model calibration and can now be used to assess the potential of EICP applications for leakage mitigation and other subsurface modifications.Item Kinetics of Calcite Precipitation by Ureolytic Bacteria under Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions(2019-05) Mitchell, Andrew C.; Espinosa-Ortiz, Erika J.; Parks, Stacy L.; Phillips, Adrienne J.; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Gerlach, RobinThe kinetics of urea hydrolysis (ureolysis) and induced calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitation for engineering use in the subsurface was investigated under aerobic conditions using Sporosarcina pasteurii (ATCC strain 11859) as well as Bacillus sphaericus strains 21776 and 21787. All bacterial strains showed ureolytic activity inducing CaCO3 precipitation aerobically. Rate constants not normalized to biomass demonstrated slightly higher-rate coefficients for both ureolysis (kurea) and CaCO3 precipitation (kprecip) for B. sphaericus 21776 (kurea=0.10±0.03 h−1, kprecip=0.60±0.34 h−1) compared to S. pasteurii (kurea=0.07±0.02 h−1, kprecip=0.25±0.02 h−1), though these differences were not statistically significantly different. B. sphaericus 21787 showed little ureolytic activity but was still capable of inducing some CaCO3 precipitation. Cell growth appeared to be inhibited during the period of CaCO3 precipitation. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images suggest this is due to the encasement of cells and was reflected in lower kurea values observed in the presence of dissolved Ca. However, biomass regrowth could be observed after CaCO3 precipitation ceased, which suggests that ureolysis-induced CaCO3 precipitation is not necessarily lethal for the entire population. The kinetics of ureolysis and CaCO3 precipitation with S. pasteurii was further analyzed under anaerobic conditions. Rate coefficients obtained in anaerobic environments were comparable to those under aerobic conditions; however, no cell growth was observed under anaerobic conditions with NO−3, SO2−4 or Fe3+ as potential terminal electron acceptors. These data suggest that the initial rates of ureolysis and ureolysis-induced CaCO3 precipitation are not significantly affected by the absence of oxygen but that long-term ureolytic activity might require the addition of suitable electron acceptors. Variations in the ureolytic capabilities and associated rates of CaCO3 precipitation between strains must be fully considered in subsurface engineering strategies that utilize microbial amendments.Item A shallow subsurface controlled release facility in Bozeman, Montana, USA, for testing near surface CO2 detection techniques and transport models(2010-03) Spangler, Lee H.; Dobeck, Laura M.; Repasky, Kevin S.; Nehrir, Amin R.; Humphries, Seth D.; Barr, Jamie L.; Keith, Charlie J.; Shaw, Joseph A.; Rouse, Joshua H.; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Benson, Sally M.; Oldenburg, Curtis M.; Lewicki, Jennifer L.; Wells, Arthur W.; Diehl, J. Rodney; Strazisar, Brian R.; Fessenden, Julianna E.; Rahn, Thom A.; Amonette, James E.; Barr, Jon L.; Pickles, William L.; Jacobson, James D.; Silver, Eli A.; Male, Erin J.; Rauch, Henry W.; Gullickson, Kadie S.; Trautz, Robert; Kharaka, Yousif; Birkholzer, Jens; Wielopolski, LucienA controlled field pilot has been developed in Bozeman, Montana, USA, to study near surface CO2 transport and detection technologies. A slotted horizontal well divided into six zones was installed in the shallow subsurface. The scale and CO2 release rates were chosen to be relevant to developing monitoring strategies for geological carbon storage. The field site was characterized before injection, and CO2 transport and concentrations in saturated soil and the vadose zone were modeled. Controlled releases of CO2 from the horizontal well were performed in the summers of 2007 and 2008, and collaborators from six national labs, three universities, and the U.S. Geological Survey investigated movement of CO2 through the soil, water, plants, and air with a wide range of near surface detection techniques. An overview of these results will be presented.Item Changes in microbial communities and associated water and gas geochemistry across a sulfate gradient in coal beds: Powder River Basin, USA(2019-01) Schweitzer, Hannah D.; Ritter, Daniel J.; McIntosh, Jennifer C.; Barnhart, Elliott P.; Cunningham, Alfred B.; Vinson, David S.; Orem, William; Fields, Matthew W.Competition between microbial sulfate reduction and methanogenesis drives cycling of fossil carbon and generation of CH4 in sedimentary basins. However, little is understood about the fundamental relationship between subsurface aqueous geochemistry and microbiology that drives these processes. Here we relate elemental and isotopic geochemistry of coal-associated water and gas to the microbial community composition from wells in two different coal beds across CH4 and SO42− gradients (Powder River Basin, Montana, USA). Areas with high CH4 concentrations generally have higher alkalinity and δ13C-DIC values, little to no SO42−, and greater conversion of coal-biodegradable organics to CH4 (based on δ13C-CH4 and δ13C-CO2 values). Wells with SO42− concentrations from 2 to 10 mM had bacterial populations dominated by several different sulfate-reducing bacteria and archaea that were mostly novel and unclassified. In contrast, in wells with SO42− concentrations <1 mM, the sequences were dominated by presumptive syntrophic bacteria as well as archaeal Methanosarcinales and Methanomicrobiales. The presence of sequences indicative of these bacteria in low SO42− methanogenic wells may suggest a syntrophic role in coal biodegradation and/or the generation of methanogenic substrates from intermediate organic compounds. Archaeal sequences were observed in all sampled zones, with an enrichment of sequences indicative of methanogens in low SO42− zones and unclassified sequences in high SO42− zones. However, sequences indicative of Methanomassiliicoccales were enriched in intermediate SO42− zones and suggest tolerance to SO42− and/or alternative metabolisms in the presence of SO42−. Moreover, sequences indicative of methylotrophic methanogens were more prevalent in an intermediate SO42− and CH4 well and results suggest an important role for methylotrophic methanogens in critical zone transitions. The presented results demonstrate in situ changes in bacterial and archaeal population distributions along a SO42− gradient associated with recalcitrant, organic carbon that is biodegraded and converted to CO2 and/or CH4.Item Field-scale modeling of microbially induced calcite precipitation(2018-11) Cunningham, Alfred B.; Class, Holger; Ebigbo, Anozie; Gerlach, Robin; Phillips, Adrienne J.; Hommel, JohannesThe biogeochemical process known as microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) is being investigated for engineering and material science applications. To model MICP process behavior in porous media, computational simulators must couple flow, transport, and relevant biogeochemical reactions. Changes in media porosity and permeability due to biomass growth and calcite precipitation, as well as their effects on one another must be considered. A comprehensive Darcy-scale model has been developed by Ebigbo et al. (Water Resour. Res. 48(7), W07519, 2012) and Hommel et al. (Water Resour. Res. 51, 3695–3715, 2015) and validated at different scales of observation using laboratory experimental systems at the Center for Biofilm Engineering (CBE), Montana State University (MSU). This investigation clearly demonstrates that a close synergy between laboratory experimentation at different scales and corresponding simulation model development is necessary to advance MICP application to the field scale. Ultimately, model predictions of MICP sealing of a fractured sandstone formation, located 340.8 m below ground surface, were made and compared with corresponding field observations. Modeling MICP at the field scale poses special challenges, including choosing a reasonable model-domain size, initial and boundary conditions, and determining the initial distribution of porosity and permeability. In the presented study, model predictions of deposited calcite volume agree favorably with corresponding field observations of increased injection pressure during the MICP fracture sealing test in the field. Results indicate that the current status of our MICP model now allows its use for further subsurface engineering applications, including well-bore cement sealing and certain fracture-related applications in unconventional oil and gas production.